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CHAPTER 26
THE FUTILE SEARCH FOR A NEW STABILITY:
EUROPE BETWEEN THE WARS, 1919-1939
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. An Uncertain Peace: The Search for Security
a. The French Policy of Coercion (1919-1924)
b. The Hopeful Years (1924-1929)
i. The Spirit of Locarno
ii. Coexistence with Soviet Russia
c. The Great Depression
i. Causes
ii. Unemployment
iii. Social and Political Repercussions
2. The Democratic States
a. Great Britain
b. France
c. The Scandinavian Example
d. The United States
e. European States and the World: The Colonial Empire
i. The Middle East
ii. India
iii. Africa
3. Retreat from Democracy: The Authoritarian and Totalitarian States
a. Fascist Italy
i. Impact of World War I
ii. The Birth of Fascism
iii. Mussolini and the Italian Fascist State
b. Hitler and Nazi Germany
i. Weimar Germany
ii. The Emergence of Adolph Hitler
iii. The Rise of the Nazis
iv. The Nazi Seizure of Power
v. The Nazi State (1933-1939)
c. The Soviet Union
i. The New Economic Policy
ii. The Struggle for Power
iii. The Stalinist Era (1929-1939)
d. Authoritarianism in Eastern Europe
e. Dictatorship in the Iberian Peninsula
i. The Spanish Civil War
ii. The Franco Regime
iii. Portugal
4. The Expansion of Mass Culture and Mass Leisure
a. Radio and Movies
b. Mass Leisure
i. Sports
ii. Tourism
iii. Organized Mass Leisure in Italy and Germany
5. Cultural and Intellectual Trends in the Interwar Years
a. Nightmares and New Visions: Art and Music
i. The Dada Movement
ii. Surrealism
iii. Functionalism in Modern Architecture
iv. A Popular Audience
v. Art in Totalitarian Regimes
vi. A New Style in Music
b. The Search for the Unconscious in Literature
c. The Unconscious in Psychology: Carl Jung
d. The “Heroic Age of Physics”
6. Conclusion
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The treaties ending World War I did not assure peace as the League of Nations had little power.
France, fearing Germany, formed the Little Entente with the militarily weak states of Eastern
Europe. Occupying the Ruhr when Germany failed to pay reparations, France gained little other
than a disastrous fall in the German mark. By 1924, the Dawes Plan established a realistic
reparations schedule. The Treaty of Locarno made permanent Germany’s western borders, but not
the east. Germany joined the League, and in 1928, sixty-three nations signed the Kellogg-Briand
pact, renouncing war, but it lacked any enforcement provisions. European prosperity, largely the
result of American loans and investments, ended with the Great Depression. The economist John
Maynard Keynes favored increased government spending and deficit financing rather than
deflation and balanced budgets, but had little support. Britain’s unemployment remained at 10
percent during the 1920s and rose rapidly in the depression. France was governed, or ungoverned,
by frequent coalition governments; its far-right was attracted to fascism and many on the left
by Soviet Marxism. The United States’ New Deal was more successful in providing relief than in
recovery, and unemployment remained high until World War II. Totalitarian governments, which
required the active commitment of their citizens, came power in Germany, Italy and the Soviet
Union. Italian fascism resulted from Italy’s losses in the Great War, economic failure, and
incompetent politicians. In 1919, Benito Mussolini organized the Fascio di Combattimento.
Threatening “to march on Rome,” he was chosen prime minister in 1922. Legal due process was
abandoned and rival parties were outlawed, but totalitarianism in Italy was never as effective
as in Nazi Germany or Soviet Russia. In Germany, the depression brought the political extremes
to the forefront. Adolph Hitler headed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis). A
powerful orator, Hitler published his beliefs in Mein Kampf, and created a private army of storm
troopers (SA), but it was not until the depression that the Nazis received wide support. Hitler
became chancellor in 1933, and a compliant Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, giving him
dictatorial power. In his quest to dominate Europe, Hitler rearmed Germany, abolished labor
unions, and created a new terrorist police force, the SS. The Nuremberg laws excluded
Jews from citizenship, and in the 1938 Kristallnacht, Jewish businesses and synagogues were
burned and Jews beaten and killed. After Lenin’s death in 1924, Joseph Stalin assumed leadership
in the Soviet Union. In 1928, he announced his first five-year plan to turn the Soviet Union into
an industrial society by emphasizing oil and coal production and steel manufacturing. Giant
collective farms were created, and in the process 10 million lives were lost. Stalin’s opponents
were sent to Siberia, sentenced to labor camps, or liquidated. With the exception of
Czechoslovakia, authoritarian governments appeared in eastern Europe as well as in Portugal and
Spain. In the Spanish Civil War, the fascist states aided Francisco Franco and the Soviet Union
backed the Popular Front. Radio and movies become widely popular, as did professional sports.
Automobiles and trains made travel accessible to all. Issues of sexuality became more public and
psychology became more popular. In art, Dada focused upon the absurd and Surrealism upon the
unconscious. The unconscious “stream of consciousness” technique was used in the novels of
James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. The Bauhaus movement emphasized the functional in
architecture. It was also the “the heroic age of physics.” The discovery of subatomic particles
indicated that splitting the atom could release massive energies, and Werner Heisenberg’s
“uncertainty principle” had implications far beyond the study of physics.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR THE PRIMARY SOURCES (BOXED
DOCUMENTS)
1. “The Great Depression: Unemployed and Homeless in Germany”: Discuss the plight of the
homeless in Germany in 1932. To what does the writer compare to the impact and effects of the
depression? How did the growing misery of many ordinary Germans promote the rise of
extremist political parties like the Nazis and facilitate seizure of political power in Germany by
racist and anti-democratic forces? Would Hitler have come to power if prosperity had continued
in Weimar Germany? (page 754)
2. “The Struggles of a Democracy: Unemployment and Slums in Great Britain”: What economic
and social problems are described in these documents? What might be the psychological or
emotional impact on someone who has held a job for decades and now is out of work with no
prospect of gaining employment again? What do these pieces tell you about the quality of life and
politics in Great Britain during the inter-war years? (page 755)
3. “The Voice of Italian Fascism”: Based on this article, for Mussolini, what were the basic
principles of Italian Fascism? What movements and ideologies does Mussolini vehemently
oppose, and why? Why might such principles and claims that he espouses in this document
appeal to a broad public in the aftermath of World War One? (page 761)
4. “Adolf Hitler’s Hatred of the Jews”: What was Hitler's attitude toward the Jews? What fueled
his irrational hatred of Jews? What role might nineteenth century German nationalism have
played in fueling anti-Semitism? Why do you think that such crazed views became acceptable (or
at least tolerable) to large numbers of ordinary Germans in the aftermath of World War One?
(page 763)
5. “The Formation of Collective Farms”: What is a collective farm and how was it created? What
was the reason that Stalin ordered the collectivization of agriculture? What traditions of Russian
life and character did this novel unit of agricultural production attack? What social and economic
costs were involved in the formation of the collectives? Were the collective farms successful?
Why or why not? (page 772)