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Roman Gladiators
Gladiators (from Latin gladiatores) were both professional and amateur fighters in ancient Rome who fought
for the entertainment of its “civilized” spectators. These matches took place in arenas in throughout the empire
and for the bulk of its history. Man vs. man and man against animal engagements, in combat that was at times
to the death, was the ancient world sport that rivaled all of modern society spectacles rolled into one.
It’s possible that the origin of the “games” was rooted in the Estruscan custom of ritual human sacrifices to
honor the dead. The first gladiatorial contest in Rome took place in 264 BC as part of one of these funeral rituals
called a munus. Marcus and Decimus Junius Brutus staged a gladiatorial combat in honor of their deceased
father with three pairs of slaves serving as gladiators in the Forum Boarium (a commercial area that was named
after the Roman cattle market). The concept of the munus was that it kept alive the memory of an important
individual after death. They were held some time after the funeral and were often repeated at annual or fiveyear intervals. Gladiatorial games, or munera were not made a regular part of public games until the late first
century.
A contemporary second century AD scholar, Festus, (who abridged the work of the Augustan era writer
Verrius Flaccus) suggests that gladiatorial combat was a substitution for an original sacrifice of prisoners on
the tombs of great warriors. Tertullian, a Christian writer also of the second century, claimed that gladiatorial
combat was a human sacrifice to the manes or spirits of the dead.
Gladiator matches took place in amphitheatres (like the Flavian Amphitheatre or Colosseum) and were staged
after the venationes (animal fights) and public executions (noxii). In its earliest forms, individuals of patrician
or equestrian status organized these, often to gain political favor with the public. The organizer of any of these
games was called the editor, munerator, or dominus and he was honored with the official signs of a magistrate.
In the Imperial period, the Emperors were nearly solely responsible, excepting cases with special permission,
for these all inclusive public ludi circenses, or "games".
Gladiators were typically recruited from criminals, slaves, and prisoners of war. If selected for such duty,
having lost, or never had, the rights of a citizen, there was no choice but to comply for these “recruits”.
Provided that one had desirable physical appearance and abilities, the arena could be a likely destination. Some
free-born men as well, although they had not lost their citizen rights, voluntarily chose the profession and
pledged themselves to the owner (lanists) of a gladiatorial troupe (familia) by (according to Petronius) swearing
an oath "to endure branding, chains, flogging or death by the sword". It has been estimated that by the end of
the Republic, about half of the gladiators were volunteers (auctorati), who took on the status of a slave for an
agreed-upon period of time, similar to indentured servitude that was common in the late second millennium.
These auctorati, by taking the gladiator’s oath, agreed to be treated as a slave and suffered the ultimate social
disgrace (infamia). Seneca described this oath as "most shameful". The potential advantages for this new career
could outweigh the alternatives, however. Aside from the potential for public fame and fortune, including
liaisons with Roman women of even aristocratic status, the gladiator recruit became a member of a cohesive
group that was known for its courage, good morale, and absolute fidelity to its master to the point of death.
Life became a model of military discipline and through courageous behavior he was also now capable of
achieving honor similar to that enjoyed by Roman soldiers on the battlefield.
Gladiators were trained in special schools called ludi, which could be found as commonly as amphitheatres
throughout the empire. There were four schools in Rome itself, the largest of which was called the Ludus
Magnus, which was connected to the Colosseum by an underground tunnel. Among the most famous is the
school at Capua where the slave rebellion of Spartacus was sparked in 73 BC.
Typically, like modern boxers, most gladiators would not fight more than 2 or 3 times a year and with enough
fame and fortune they could purchase their freedom. Some, however, such as criminals, were either expected to
die within a year (ad gladium), or might earn their release after three years (ad ludum), if they survived.
Unlike the movie “Gladiator” with Russell Crowe, gladiators usually fought in single pairs (Ordinarii), in one
on one combat. Sponsors of the games or special audiences could, however, request other combinations like
several gladiators fighting together (Catervarii), or specific gladiators against each other even from outside the
established troupe (Postulaticii). Occasionally, lanista used substitutes (supposititii) if a scheduled or requested
gladiator was killed or wounded. In the imperial era, Emperors could have their own team called Fiscales.
Mr. Noble
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Roman Gladiators
Again, contrary to what is seen in most movies, gladiatoral combat was less likely to result in death than is
depicted. Gladiators were expensive to maintain, train and replace in the event of death, and keeping the most
popular of crowd pleasers alive was far more practical than the alternative. That’s not to say, however, that
death wasn’t common among the non-elite. In these cases, when a gladiator had overpowered his opponent, he
would turn to the spectators for a reaction from the crowd.
The defeated gladiator would possibly raise his left hand asking for his life to be spared. If the spectators turned
their thumbs up yelling 'missum', they wished to spare his life, but if they turned their thumbs down yelling
'iugula', they wished the victor to finish him. The final decision in this was usually left to a single judge. In the
presence of the Emperor, the judgment belonged to him, but otherwise it may rest with the games munerator or
sponsor.
There are many such events depicted on frescoes or mosaics. In one specific example, the result of a fight is
shown in an inscription (Astyanax defeated Kalendio) with the symbol of death (a circle with a diagonal line
through it) marked over the loser. Another possibility related to the thumbs up/down debate is that the crowd
raised their fists but kept their thumb inside it if they wanted the loser to live, and pointed down to indicate
death. If the audience felt both men fought admirably, or witnessed a bout between two popular gladiators,
they would likely want both to live and fight another day. A gladiator who won several fights, or served an
indefinite period of time was allowed to retire, in many cases to continue as a gladiator trainer. Those who did
win or buy their freedom, or at times at the request of the crowd or Emperor, were given a wooden sword
(rudis) as a memento.
Gladiatoral contests were first known to be outlawed by Constantine I in 325 AD, but they did continue
through the mid 5th century. The Emperor Honorius is credited with putting a stop to it as the western empire
was nearing its fall. The last known gladiator competition in the city of Rome occurred on January 1, 404.
Some interesting gladiator facts:
The Emperor Commodus liked to stage fights between dwarfs and women. He also appeared no less than 735 times on the
stage in the character of Hercules, with club and lion’s skin, and in a position of little risk of harm to himself, he killed
countless beasts and men.
Tacitus in his Annals writes about Roman emperor Nero staging "a number of gladiatorial shows, equal in magnificence to
their predecessors, though more women of rank and senators disgraced themselves in the arena". in 63 AD
Petronius' Satyricon mentions a Roman circus, which featured a female chariot fighter competing against men.
According to Suetonius, the Emperor Domitian (reigned AD 81-96) made women gladiators fight by torchlight at night.
Women were members of the venatores, according to the writings of Martial and Cassius Dio.
Emperor Septimius Severus issued an edict prohibiting women combatants in the arena in 200 AD.
Caesar's large-scale exhibitions prompted the Roman Senate to limit the number of contestants. For his daughter Julia’s
funeral games, he pitted 300 pairs of gladiators.
The largest contest of gladiators was given by the emperor Trajan as part of a victory celebration in 107 AD in Dacia and
included 5000 pairs of fighters.
Mr. Noble
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Roman Gladiators
Roman Gladiator Types
Different gladiators specialized in different weapons and tactics. The following illustrates these various styles
and equipment. Of these, Thracians, Mirmillones, Retiarii, and Secutores were four of the most common.
Andabatae: (1st cent. BC) Clad in chainmail like eastern cavalry (cataphracti), wore visored helmets without
eyeholes. They charged blindly at one another on horseback as an ancient precursor to the medieval joust.
Bestiarii: (beast fighters) originally armed with a spear or knife, these gladiators were condemned to fight
beasts with a high probability of death. In later times, the Bestiarii were highly trained, specializing in various
types of exotic, imported beasts.
Dimachaeri: Used two-swords, one in each hand.
Equites: Fought on horseback with a spear and gladius, dressed in a full tunic, with a manica (arm-guard).
Generally, the Eques only fought gladiators of his own type.
Essedari: Celtic style charioteers, likely first brought to Rome from Britain by Caesar.
Hoplomachi (heavily armed) or Samnite: Fully armored, and based on Greek hoplites. They wore a helmet
with a stylized griffin on the crest, woolen quilted leg wrappings, and shin-guards. They carried a spear in the
Hoplite style with a small round shield. They were paired against Mirmillones or Thraces.
Laquerii: Laqueatores used a rope and noose.
Mirmillones (or murmillones): Wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest (the mormylos or sea fish), as
well as an arm guard (manica). They carried a gladius and an oblong shield in the Gallic style. They were
paired with Hoplomachi or Thraces.
Provocatores (challengers): Paired against the Samnites but their armament is unknown and may have been
variable depending on the games.
Retiarii: Carried a trident, a dagger, and a net, a larger manica extending to the shoulder and left side of the
chest. They commonly fought secutores or mirmillones. Occasionally a metal shoulder shield, or galerus, was
added to protect the neck and lower face.
Saggitarii: Mounted bowman armed with reflex bows capable of propelling an arrow a great distance.
Samnites: see Hoplomachi.
Secutores: Had the same armour as a murmillo, including oblong shield and a gladius. They were the usual
opponents of retiarii.
Scissores (carvers): Little is known about this ominous sounding gladiator.
Thraces: The Thracian was equipped with a broad-rimmed helmet that enclosed the entire head, a small round
or square-shaped shield, and two thigh-length greaves. His weapon was the Thracian curved sword, or the sica.
They commonly fought mirmillones or hoplomachi.
Velites: Fought on foot, each holding a spear with attached thong in strap for throwing. Named for the early
Republican army units of the same name.
Venatores: Specialized in wild animal hunts. Technically not gladiators, but still a part of the games.
One more type deserving mention is the Praegenarii who were used as an ancient opening act to get the crowd
in the mood. They used a rudis (wooden sword) and wore wrappings around body. As they fought, they were
accompanied by music (cymbals, trumpets, and hydraulis water organ).
Mr. Noble
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