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Discourse Analysis Although the origins of the word discourse are not entirely clear, applied linguists usually agree that the term discourse analysis was first used in the 1950s by an American academic called Zellig Harris (Martins, 2000). The purpose of discourse analysis is to demonstrate the way that the communicative forces of discourse collectively result in meaning (Quine, 2005). The discourse analyst uses a spoken or written text as his or her source of data and aims to identify features of language use which shed light on the communication of meaning, intention and inference. These features can include not only lexis and grammar but also inferred meanings and body language. Researchers analysing discourse also often use terms such as cohesion and coherence. In general terms, according to Quine (ibid), 'Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical relationship within a text, whereas coherence refers to the arrangement of ideas and operates at the level of semantic logic.' (p.77). The linguistic approach to discourse analysis can be described as the examination of how humans use language to communicate and how linguistic messages are constructed and interpreted. In discourse analysis, researchers recognize the central position of people as speakers, writers, readers and hearers. As Weinhof (2007) describes it, 'It is speakers and writers who choose a topic, convey meaning, use pragmatic strategies and structure language production, while hearers and readers interpret and draw inferences.' (p.14). Classroom discourse analysts might be interested in whether students are using a more 'top-down' or 'bottom-up' form of processing to understand a text. Evidence suggests that some learners process a text by starting with the smallest units of language before building up to the full meaning, while others start with a more global view and then go back to the smaller details. Other classroom researchers, using the schema theory (Carol, 1983), consider the way learners employ existing knowledge to help them process new information. As far as output is concerned, it is obvious that spoken and written language require quite different skills. Speaking benefits from a wide range of effects including voice quality, facial expression and body language. These areas are also known paralinguistic clues (Davies, 2001). By using these tools, speakers are able to modify the power of the words that they use. For example, a speaker who says 'I'd love to' whilst making a distressed face is likely to mean the opposite of the actual words he or she uses. Many experts concur that communication through speech is extremely challenging (Davies, ibid.). Speakers need to monitor what they have just said while simultaneously continuing the conversation with their interlocutor and planning their next response or utterance. Unlike writing, there is usually no enduring record of a speech act. Although the writer is not able to benefit from paralinguistic clues in the same way as the speaker, he or she is often able to review existing writing and make pauses when necessary without worrying about being interrupted. In other words, time can be taken to reword or reorganize what has been written and to consult reference materials for additional assistance. 1 Some researchers claim that communication through texting, chatrooms and other online forums 'blends the features of writing and speaking in some astonishing new ways' (Glass, 2003). Although the 'old school' may grumble about floods of newfangled features and plummeting standards in English, the innovation can also be considered quite groundbreaking. For example, recent research into the use of emoticons and smileys in e-mail communications shows that they actually add crucial paralinguistic features. In brief, in discourse analysis researchers are concerned with how language is actually being used and how the different features of discourse can help us understand the ways in which real communication is achieved. And because language is organic, it is likely that new features will become apparent as new research is conducted. Text taken from: Manning, A. (2008). English for language and linguistics. Reading: Garnet Education. 2