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Formal vs. Informal Logic Logic • The Art and Science of Reasoning Formal Logic • Formal Logic is about pure reasoning, it focuses on deductive reasoning – Whole to Part • Leads you from your conclusion to your argument • Deals with certainty, valid or invalid • Types of arguments where the premise implies a conclusion – All Birds have wings – A cardinal is a bird – A cardinal has wings Informal Logic • Inductive Reasoning – Part to Whole • • • • • Probability Focuses on arguing to a conclusion Deals with shades of gray Either strong or weak Ordinary language argumentss Fallacies • A bad argument that fails to meet one of these categories – Relevance – Clarity – Presumption Fallacies of Relevance • Ad Fontem (to the source) – Ad Hominem Abusive: Personal Attacks to the speaker – Ad Hominem Circumstantial: Implies that the speaker should not be trusted because of personal circumstances – Tu Quoque: The speakers advice should not be followed because the speaker does not follow it themselves – Genetic Fallacy: an argument should be discounted because of its source Appeals to Emotion • Appeal to fear (ad baculum): If you don’t agree with me, bad things will happen • Appeal to Pity (ad misericordium):Convince other of a point by making them feel sorry for someone • Mob Appeal (ad populum): Appeals to the common man, to make up for lack of evidence • Snob Appeal: To appeal to the rich or “cultured” • Appeal to Illegitimate Authority (ad verecundium): an attempt to shame the listener into agreement by citing an illegitimate authority • Chronological snobbbery: appeal to somethings age to justify why it should be accepted Red Herrings • Appeal to Ignorance: because it can’t be disproved, it is real • Irrelevant Goals or Functions: because you have unrealistic goals, you are unacceptable • Irrelevant Thesis: Tying to prove something that is irrelevant to the task at hand • Straw Man Fallacy: an attempt to disprove your opponent by presenting their arguments in an inaccurate light Questions to Ask • Is it relevant and on topic? • Is the argument leading to a conclusion that is illegitimate? • Is the Argument Clear? • If not, it is a fallacy Fallacies of Assumption • Begging the Question- Assuming the conclusion is true because the question is true • False Dilemma- Assuming that the argument has only 2 sides (Black and White) • Fallacy of Moderation- Assuming that the correct answer is always the middle of extremes • Is-Ought- Assuming that something IS a certain way it SHOULD always be that way Fallacies of Proof (Over Generalization) • Sweeping Generalization- Making a Generalization (that may be true) and applying it to all cases • Hasty Generalization- Making a generalization about a class of things on the basis of too few examples • False Analogy: Making an analogy that is false or inaccurate • False Cause: Assuming that just because 2 things are related, one caused the other • Fake Precision: Uses numbers in a way that are far too precise to be justified by the situation