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CHAPTER 2
ORIGINS OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
CHAPTER OUTLINE
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
THE EARLY THINKERS
The Roots of Modern Science
Linnaeus and the Natural Scheme of Life
THE ROAD TO THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
The Uniformitarianists: Hutton and Lyell
THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
The Galápagos
Refining the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Box 2.1: Darwin versus Wallace?
THE SCIENCE AND CREATIONISM QUESTION
Box 2.2: What is Intelligent Design?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Based on thorough reading and careful consideration of Chapter 2, students should be able to:
1.
Discuss the process of science, including observation, hypothesis formulation, and experimentation.
2.
Explain how the scientific method is an empirical process and self-correcting.
3.
Explain the roots of modern science and the concept of evolution; explain catastrophism versus
uniformitarianism. Discuss the conflicting viewpoints of Bishop Ussher, Georges Cuvier, Georges Buffon,
James Hutton, and Charles Lyell.
4.
Compare and contrast Jean Baptiste de Lamarck's view of evolution and heredity with those of Charles
Darwin and Alfred Wallace. Understand why Lamarck's views may have been more popular in his time.
5.
Identify the contributions of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace to evolutionary theory.
6.
Describe the process and provide examples of natural selection including those from the Galápagos Islands.
7.
Debate the tenets of creation science and how they differ from the process of modern science.
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LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS
Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the
classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely
on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so
that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions
about the topics.
1.
Lecture on evolution. Be sure to talk about both the special theory of evolution (individual variation and
microevolution) and the general theory of evolution (macroevolution). You could comment on both the
monophyletic and polyphyletic schools of thought in macroevolution.
You may be able to incorporate a discussion of some of the recent findings about cloning and what
this contributes to our understanding of evolutionary processes. Students will likely be interested in the ethical
issues involved in manipulating evolutionary processes.
You might also include a discussion of the scientific method in this chapter, including its
procedures and limitations. It can only deal with questions that are potentially or actually repeatable. Its
steps are: (1) observation; (2) question or problem; (3) hypothesis/null hypothesis; (4) gathering
data/methodology; and (5) formation of a conclusion. Stress the equal importance of honest and effective
methodology and conclusion formation. Describe the process of theory formation, a hypothesis supported
by a large body of observations confirmed by many independent investigators.
As part of this lecture, describe how good theory formation (1) explains or shows relationships
among facts; (2) simplifies; (3) clarifies; (4) grows to relate additional facts which means it is always
tentative in scope; (5) predicts new facts and relationships; and (6) does not explain too much. Theory
becomes a scientific law if it possesses a high degree of certainty and is widely accepted within the
scientific community. Stress to students that science is never finished; scientific fact is an accurate
description of an object or event based on what we know and what we know how to do. It is not an absolute
finality.
You may also take the opportunity to discuss patterns of deductive and inductive logic. Talk about
proof and rigor of proof in science. Be sure to emphasize that when we extrapolate from proven scientific
theory, it is only supposition, not scientific fact. An interesting book on the uses of science and
pseudoscience within the context of archaeology is Kenneth L. Feder's Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries:
Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology.
2.
A lecture on problem solving would follow naturally from one on the scientific method. Present it as a
methodology we can use when the scientific method is not appropriate. One problem-solving strategy is to:
(1) identify the problem; (2) state the goal; (3) list the constraints and assumptions; (4) suggest possible
solutions; (5) judge suggested solutions and decide which one to test; and (6) test and implement your best
solution. Use this model to analyze some current local, state, or national problem.
3.
Natural selection provides direction to evolutionary change, yet students often have trouble grasping the
concept. Discuss examples of natural selection in detail and explore what "fitness" means in evolutionary
terms.
4.
Most anthropologists use the terms scientific creationism and creationism interchangeably. However, in the
Religious Studies discipline those two terms mean different things. Creation science can refer to the school of
thought known as theistic evolutionism. Scientists in this school believe in both God and evolution. God is accepted
as the ultimate origin of all life, and evolution is seen as the "footprints" of the creative process. Theistic
evolutionists would say that God provides the "why" and evolution the "how" of life. The author provides a
thorough explanation of the shortcomings of creation science. The American Scientific Affiliation has material on
this topic. Some books that show a variety of viewpoints are listed in the resources for this chapter. The debate is
not between scientific facts and the Bible but between certain biblical interpretations and certain scientific
extrapolations.
-8Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Full file at http://testbank360.eu/test-bank-exploring-biological-anthropology-2nd-edition-stanfor
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
1.
Have students share their cosmologies and origin myths. Talk about similarities and differences in the ones
expressed. As always with such discussions, it is necessary to establish a neutral atmosphere, with
acceptance and patience for hearing others' ideas.
2.
Invite a biologist into class to lecture about a biological understanding of evolution. Check your library or
rental catalogs for films on evolution and natural selection, DNA, molecular genetics, population genetics,
and punctuated equilibrium versus the gradualistic theory of speciation. Such films can often provide visual
explanations that are clearer and more complete than simple lecture or text information.
3.
Arrange students into groups of four or five and have them use the problem-solving method (outlined in
Lecture and Discussion topic #2) to analyze a problem or issue facing their community. Then have the
groups come together and share their results.
4.
Have your students read the 1858 paper titled “On The Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from
the Original Type” by Alfred Wallace. You may find this paper at the following website:
http://www.zoo.uib.no/classics/varieties.html. Students should then compare Wallace’s conclusions to those
of Darwin’s natural selection. Have them report their findings.
5.
Discuss the students' various religious and nonreligious beliefs about the origins of life. Emphasize again
the importance of tolerance in listening to other students' points of view. Further discuss the concept of
intelligent design and how it is an intellectual, if not scientific, approach to evolutionary change.
RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS (http://www.researchnavigator.com/index.asp)
Encourage your students to utilize the free tool OneSearch with Research Navigator™, included with this
textbook as a supplement. They will have to register to use this service. Once registered, students can use
this tool to research the Internet to find valid sources for research papers, saving them much time in their
efforts to identify relevant sources.
1.
Have students research an origin myth that is not their own using library sources and/or interviewing. Have
them compare and contrast this myth with their own and explain how they reconcile competing claims of
truth. May be presented in written or oral form.
2.
Have students complete written or oral biographical reports on one of the following men and how their
scientific ideas contributed to Western thought: Georges Cuvier, Georges Buffon, James Hutton, Charles
Lyell, Charles Darwin, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, Gregor Mendel, or Alfred Wallace.
3.
Assign each student to devise an experiment using the scientific method. The experiment should be left to
the student to decide. Ask them to go into some detail at each stage of the scientific method.
4.
Divide the class into two parts and have half of the students research punctuated equilibrium while the other
half researches gradualistic theories of speciation. Have each group present its theoretical model and then
debate the issue with the other group.
5.
Have your students research scientific creation science, evolutionism, theistic evolutionism, and
creationism. In written or oral reports, or in a debate, have students defend a position they do not hold.
Monitor, in a brief essay or opinion poll, how the students' opinions may have changed based on what they
have learned in the chapter.
6.
Invite a geographer or geologist to guest lecture about plate tectonics and continental drift. Use one of the
films listed under Resources below to illustrate these points.
-9Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Full file at http://testbank360.eu/test-bank-exploring-biological-anthropology-2nd-edition-stanfor
7.
Invite proponents of biological evolutionism, scientific creationism, and theistic evolutionism/creationism
into your class. After each gives a short presentation of their views, they could engage in a debate in which
students could participate. Discuss the Scopes trial and the controversy that marks the publication of
biology textbooks in certain states.
PRINT RESOURCES
BROOKS, J.L. 1999. Just Before the Origin: Alfred Wallace’s Theory of Evolution. iUniverse.
BROWNE, JANET. 1996. Charles Darwin: Voyaging. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
2003. Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
DARWIN, C.R. [1859] 1975. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection; or, The Preservation of the
Favored Races in the Struggle for Life. New York: Cambridge University Press.
DARWIN, C.R. and WILSON, EDWARD O. 2005. From So Simple a Beginning: Darwin's Four Great Books
(Voyage of the Beagle, The Origin of Species, The Descent of Man, The Expression of Emotions in Man
and Animals). W. W. Norton.
FUTUYMA, DOUGLAS J. 1995. Science on Trial: The Case for Evolution. Sinauer Associates, Reprint Edition.
GOULD, STEPHEN JAY. 2002. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Belknap Press.
1997. Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin. Three Rivers Press; Reprint Edition.
1990. Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History. New York: Norton.
1996. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton.
SPROUL, BARBARA. 1979. Primal Myths: Creating the World. New York: Harper & Row.
WEINER, J. 1995. The Beak of the Finch. New York: Vintage Books; Reprint Edition.
FILMS, VIDEOS, AND OTHER NONPRINT RESOURCES
Films from Penn State Audio-Visual Services, (Phone: 800/826-0132) unless otherwise noted:
Continental Drift: The Theory of Plate Tectonics (21 minutes)
Drifting of the Continents (51 minutes)
The Living Machine (60 minutes) University of Minnesota
The Living Planet: A Portrait of the Earth: 1--Building of the Earth Parts 1 and 2 (57 minutes)
The Not-So-Solid Earth (30 minutes)
Quest for Fire, feature film.
Charles Darwin (24 minutes) University of Minnesota, 800/847-8251
Darwin's Finches (11 minutes)
The Day the Universe Changed: 8--Darwin's Revolution (53 minutes)
Evolution and the Origin of Life (36 minutes)
Evolution: Origins of Change, 1-Heredity and Mutation (21 minutes)
- 10 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
Full file at http://testbank360.eu/test-bank-exploring-biological-anthropology-2nd-edition-stanfor
RESEARCH NAVIGATOR™ EXERCISES (http://www.researchnavigator.com/index.asp)
1.
Please review the following website dedicated to the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador: http://www.galapagosislands-tourguide.com/. What features of this island chain made it the “perfect” biological study area for
Charles Darwin? What if Darwin had not “run across” this island chain? Would Alfred Wallace now be
known as the author of natural selection?
2.
Plate tectonics and the concept of continental drift have explained much geological phenomenon. Look at
the map of the plates on the following website: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tectonics.html. How
can an understanding of the movement of the various plates lead to an understanding of geological
processes affecting biological evolution?
3. Look at the website on embryonic development at the following site:
http://www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html#EmbryonicDevelopment. What is the
meaning of the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”? Why is this statement an oversimplification of
the process of embryonic development? How does the presentation of this website refute “creationism”?
- 11 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.