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TEXTBOOK
VOCATIONAL ENGLISH
АНГЛИЙСКИ ЕЗИК КАТО ЧУЖД
ЕЗИК В ПРОФЕСИЯТА
Георги Илиев
TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a building.
The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work
of the various trades required for construction. For example, a plumbing contractor
installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, a steel
erector structural steel, and an elevator contractor installs elevators. Their contracts
are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general contractor.
Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owners contracts separately
with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform
a substantial amount of the work required for a building. Such contractors are
called prime contractors. Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general
contractor, but they are paid directly by the owner.
Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract
to an organization for both the design and construction of a building. Such
organizations are called design-build contractors. One variation of this type of
contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise
apartment buildings. The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but
the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the homes.
Administration of the construction procedure often is difficult. Consequently,
some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction
manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a fee. The construction
manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct
the building. Managers usually also supervise selection of subcontractors. During
construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries,
and keep the work on schedule (see Art. 17.9). In some cases, instead, the owner
may prefer to engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating
both design and construction.
Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be unionized. Unionized
craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction
trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions. Union members will
perform only the work assigned to their trade. On the job, groups of workers are
supervised by crew supervisors, all of whom report to a superintendent.
During construction, all work should be inspected. For this purpose, the owner,
often through the architect and consultants, engages inspectors. The field inspectors
may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled
clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident
engineer. The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets
the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe conditions.
Such inspections may be made at frequent intervals.
In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental
agencies. They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets
legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with
the contract documents. Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end
of certain stages of construction. One agency that will make frequent inspections
is the local or state building department, whichever has jurisdiction. The purpose
of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building code.
BUILDING COSTS
Construction cost of a building usually is a dominant design concern. One reason
is that if construction cost exceeds the owner’s budget, the owner may cancel the
project. Another reason is that costs, such as property taxes and insurance, that
occur after completion of the building often are proportional to the initial cost.
Hence, owners usually try to keep that cost low. Designing a building to minimize
construction cost, however, may not be in the owner’s best interests. There are
many other costs that the owner incurs during the anticipated life of the building
that should be taken into account.
Before construction of a building starts, the owner generally has to make a
sizable investment in the project. The major portion of this expenditure usually
goes for purchase of the site and building design. Remaining preconstruction costs
include those for feasibility studies, site selection and evaluation, surveys, and program
definition.
The major portion of the construction cost is the sum of the payments to the
general contractor and prime contractors. Remaining construction costs usually consist
of interest on the construction loan, permit fees, and costs of materials, equipment,
and labor not covered by the construction contracts.
The initial cost to the owner is the sum of preconstruction, construction, and
occupancy costs. The latter covers costs of moving possessions into the building
and start-up of utility services, such as water, gas, electricity, and telephone.
Life-cycle cost is the sum of initial, operating, and maintenance costs. Generally,
it is life-cycle cost that should be minimized in building design rather than construction
cost. This would enable the owner to receive the greatest return on the
investment in the building
MAJOR BUILDING SYSTEMS
The simplest building system consists of only two components. One component is
a floor, a flat, horizontal surface on which human activities can take place. The
other component is an enclosure that extends over the floor and generally also
around it to provide shelter from the weather for human activities.
The ground may serve as the floor in primitive buildings. In better buildings,
however, the floor may be a structural deck laid on the ground or supported above
ground on structural members, such as the joist and walls. Use of a
deck and structural members adds at least two different types of components, or
two subsystems, to the simplest building system. Also, often, the enclosure over
the floor requires supports, such as the rafter and walls , and the walls,
in turn, are seated on foundations in the ground. Additionally, footings are required
at the base of the foundations to spread the load over a large area of the ground,
to prevent the building from sinking
More advanced buildings consist of numerous subsystems, which are referred to
as systems in this book when they are major components. Major subsystems generally
include structural framing and foundations, enclosure systems, plumbing,
lighting, acoustics, safety systems, vertical-circulation elements, electric power and
signal systems, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).
Structural System. The portion of a building that extends above the ground level
outside it is called the superstructure. The portion below the outside ground level
is called the substructure. The parts of the substructure that distribute building
loads to the ground are known as foundations.
Foundations may take the form of walls. When the ground under the building
is excavated for a cellar, or basement, the foundation walls have the additional task
of retaining the earth along the outside of the building
In most buildings, the superstructure structural system consists of floor and roof
decks, horizontal members that support them, and vertical members that support
the other components.
The horizontal members are generally known as beams, but they also are called
by different names in specific applications. For example:
Joists are closely spaced to carry light loads.
Stringers support stairs.
Headers support structural members around openings in floors, roofs, and walls.
Purlins are placed horizontally to carry level roof decks.
Rafters are placed on an incline to carry sloping roof decks.
Girts are light horizontal members that span between columns to support walls.
Lintels are light horizontal beams that support walls at floor levels in multistory
buildings or that carry the part of walls above openings for doors and windows.
Girders may be heavily loaded beams or horizontal members that support other
beams .
Spandrels carry exterior walls and support edges of floors and roofs in multistory
buildings.
Trusses serve the same purposes as girders but consists of slender horizontal,
vertical, and inclined components with large open spaces between them. The
spaces are triangular in shape. Light beams similarly formed are called openweb
joists
Systems for Enclosing Buildings. Buildings are enclosed for privacy, to exclude
wind, rain, and snow from the interior, and to control interior temperature and
humidity. A single-enclosure type of system is one that extends continuously from
the ground to enclose the floor. Simple examples are cone-like tepees and dome
igloos. A multiple-enclosure type of system consists of a horizontal or inclined top
covering, called a roof , and vertical or inclined side enclosures called
walls.
Roofs may have any of a wide variety of shapes. A specific shape may be
selected because of appearance, need for attic space under the roof, requirements
for height between roof and floor below, desire for minimum enclosed volume,
structural economy, or requirements for drainage of rainwater and shedding of snow.
While roofs are sometimes given curved surfaces, more often roofs are composed
of one or more plane surfaces.
Exterior walls enclose a building below the roof. The basis element in the walls
is a strong, durable, water-resistant facing. For added strength or lateral stability,
this facing may be supplemented on the inner side by a backing or sheathing. For esthetic
purposes, an interior facing usually is placed on the inner side
of the backing. A layer of insulation should be incorporated in walls to resist
passage of heat.
Generally, walls may be built of unit masonry, panels, framing, or a combination
of these materials.
Unit masonry consists of small units, such as clay brick, concrete block, glass
block, or clay tile, held together by a cement such as mortar. Figure 1.5a shows a
wall built of concrete blocks.
Panel walls consist of units much larger than unit masonry. Made of metal,
concrete, glass, plastics, or preassembled bricks, a panel may extend from foundation to roof in single-story buildings, or from floor to floor or from window
header in one story to window sill of floor above in multistory buildings. Large
panels may incorporate one or more windows. Figure 1.5c shows a concrete panel
with a window.
Framed walls consist of slender, vertical, closely spaced structural members,
tied together with horizontal members at top and bottom, and interior and exterior
facings. Thermal insulation may be placed between the components. Figure 1.5b
shows a wood-framed exterior wall.
Combination walls are constructed of several different materials. Metal, brick,
concrete, or clay tile may be used as the exterior facing because of strength, durability,
and water and fire resistance. These materials, however, are relatively expensive.
Consequently, the exterior facing is made thin and backed up with a less
expensive material. For example, brick may be used as an exterior facing with wood
framing or concrete block as the backup.
Exterior walls may be classified as curtain walls or bearing walls. Curtain walls
serve primarily as an enclosure. Supported by the structural system, such walls
need to be strong enough to carry only their own weight and wind pressure on the
exterior face. Bearing walls, in contrast, serve not only as an enclosure but also to
transmit to the foundation loads from other building components, such as beams,
floors, roofs, and other walls
Master List of Section Titles and Numbers
1. General Requirements
2. Site Work
3. Concrete
4. Masonry
5. Metals
6. Woods and Plastics
7. Thermal and Moisture Protection
8. Doors and Windows
9. Finishes
10. Specialties
11. Equipment
12. Furnishings
13. Special Construction
14. Conveying Systems
15. Mechanical
16. Electrical
WOOD
Wood is a building material made from trees. It is a natural polymer composed of
cells in the shape of long, thin tubes with tapered ends. The cell wall consists of
cellulose crystals, which are bonded together by a complex amorphous lignin composed
of carbohydrates. Most of the cells in a tree trunk are oriented vertically.
Consequently, properties of wood in the direction of cell axes, usually referred to
as longitudinal, or parallel to grain, differ from those in the other (radial or
circumferential) directions, or across the grain.
1.MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
Because of its structure, wood has different strength properties parallel and perpendicular
to the grain. Tensile, bending, and compressive strengths are greatest
parallel to the grain and least across the grain, whereas shear strength is least
parallel to the grain and greatest across the grain. Except in plywood, the shearing
strength of wood is usually governed by the parallel-to-grain direction.
2. EFFECTS OF HYGROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF WOOD
Because of its nature, wood tends to absorb moisture from the air when the relative
humidity is high, and to lose it when the relative humidity is low. Moisture imbibed
into the cell walls causes the wood to shrink and swell as the moisture content
changes with the relative humidity of the surrounding air. The maximum amount
of imbibed moisture the cell walls can hold is known as the fiber-saturation point,
and for most species is in the vicinity of 25 to 30% of the oven-dry weight of the
wood. Free water held in the cell cavities above the fiber-saturation point has no
effect upon shrinkage or other properties of the wood
3.COMMERCIAL GRADES OF WOOD
Lumber is graded by the various associations of lumber manufacturers having jurisdiction
over various species. Two principal sets of grading rules are employed:
(1) for softwoods, and (2) for hardwoods.
Softwoods. Softwood lumber is classified as dry, moisture content 19% or less;
and green, moisture content above 19%.
According to the American Softwood Lumber Standard, softwoods are classified
according to use as:
Yard Lumber. Lumber of grades, sizes, and patterns generally intended for ordinary
construction and general building purposes.
Structural Lumber. Lumber 2 in or more nominal thickness and width for use
where working stresses are required.
Factory and Shop Lumber. Lumber produced or selected primarily for manufacturing
purposes.
Softwoods are classified according to extent of manufacture as:
Rough Lumber. Lumber that has not been dressed (surfaced) but has been
sawed, edged, and trimmed.
Dressed (Surfaced) Lumber. Lumber that has been dressed by a planning machine
(for the purpose of attaining smoothness of surface and uniformity of size)
on one side (S1S), two sides (S2S), one edge (S1E), two edges (S2E), or a combination
of sides and edges (S1S1E, S1S2, S2S1E, S4S).
Worked Lumber. Lumber that, in addition to being dressed, has been matched,
shiplapped or patterned:
Matched Lumber. Lumber that has been worked with a tongue on one edge of
each piece and a groove on the opposite edge.
Shiplapped Lumber. Lumber that has been worked or rabbeted on both edges,
to permit formation of a close-lapped joint.
Patterned Lumber. Lumber that is shaped to a pattern or to a molded form.
Softwoods are also classified according to nominal size:
Boards. Lumber less than 2 in in nominal thickness and 2 in or more in nominal
width. Boards less than 6 in in nominal width may be classified as strips.
Dimension. Lumber from 2 in to, but not including, 5 in in nominal thickness,
and 2 in or more in nominal width. Dimension may be classified as framing, joists,
planks, rafters, studs, small timbers, etc.
Timbers. Lumber 5 in or more nominally in least dimension. Timber may be
classified as beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, purlins, etc.
Actual sizes of lumber are less than the nominal sizes, because of shrinkage and
dressing. In general, dimensions of dry boards, dimension lumber, and timber less
than 2 in wide or thick are 1⁄4 in less than nominal; from 2 to 7 in wide or thick,
1⁄2 in less, and above 6 in wide or thick, 3⁄4 in less. Green-lumber less than 2 in
wide or thick is 1⁄32 in more than dry; from 2 to 4 in wide or thick, 1⁄16 in more, 5
and 6 in wide or thick, 1⁄8 in more, and 8 in or above in width and thickness, 1⁄4
in more than dry lumber. There are exceptions, however.
Yard lumber is classified on the basis of quality as:
Appearance. Lumber is good appearance and finishing qualities, often called
select.
Suitable for natural finishes
Practically clear
Generally clear and of high quality
Suitable for paint finishes
Adapted to high-quality paint finishes
Intermediate between high-finishing grades and common grades, and partaking
somewhat of the nature of both
Common. Lumber suitable for general construction and utility purposes, often
given various commercial designations.
For standard construction use
Suitable for better-type construction purposes
Well adapted for good standard construction
Designed for low-cost temporary construction
For less exacting purposes
Low quality, but usable
Hardwoods. Because of the great diversity of applications for hardwood both in
and outside the construction industry, hardwood grading rules are based on the
proportion of a given piece that can be cut into smaller pieces of material clear on
one or both sides and not less than a specified size. Grade classifications are therefore
based on the amount of clear usable lumber in a piece.
Special grading rules of interest in the construction industry cover hardwood
interior trim and moldings, in which one face must be practically free of imperfections
and in which Grade A may further limit the amount of sapwood as well as
stain. Hardwood dimension rules, in addition, cover clears, which must be clear
both faces; clear one face; paint quality, which can be covered with pain; core,
which must be sound on both faces and suitable for cores of glued-up panels; and
sound, which is a general-utility grade.
Hardwood flooring is graded under two separate sets of rules: (1) for maple,
birch, and beech; and (2) for red and white oak and pecan. In both sets of rules,
color and quality classifications range from top-quality to the lower utility grades.
Oak may be further subclassified as quarter-sawed and plain-sawed. In all grades,
top-quality material must be uniformed in color, whereas other grades place no
limitation on color.
Shingles are graded under special rules, usually into three classes: Number 1,
2, and 3. Number 1 must be all edge grain and strictly clear, containing no sapwood.
Numbers 2 and 3 must be clear to a distance far enough away from the butt to be
well covered by the next course of shingles.
PLYWOOD AND OTHER FABRICATED WOOD BOARDS
As ordinarily made, plywood consists of thin sheets, or veneers, of wood glued
together. The grain is oriented at right angles in adjacent plies. To obtain plywood
with balance—that is, which will not warp, shrink, or twist unduly—the plies must
be carefully selected and arranged to be mirror images of each other with respect
to the central plane. The outside plies or faces are parallel to each other and are of
species that have the same shrinkage characteristics. The same holds true of the
cross bands. As a consequence, plywood has an odd number of plies, the minimum
being three.
Principal advantages of plywood over lumber are its more nearly equal strength
properties in length and width, greater resistance to checking, greatly reduced
shrinkage and swelling, and resistance to splitting.
STEEL AND STEEL ALLOYS
Iron and its alloys are generally referred to as ferrous metals. Even small amounts
of alloy change the properties of ferrous metals significantly. Also, the properties
can be changed considerably by changing the atomic structure of these metals by
heating and cooling.
TYPES OF IRONS AND STEELS
Steel is a solution of carbon in iron. Various types of steel are produced by varying
the percentage of carbon added to molten iron and controlling the cooling, which
affects the atomic structure of the product, and hence its properties
Metals containing substantially no carbon (several hundredths of 1%) are called
irons, of which wrought iron, electrolytic iron, and ‘‘ingot’’ iron are examples.
Wrought iron, whether made by the traditional puddling method or by mixing
very low carbon iron and slag, contains a substantial amount of slag. Because it
contains very little carbon, it is soft, ductile, and tough and, like low-carbon ferrous
metals generally, is relatively resistant to corrosion. It is easily worked. When broken,
it shows a fibrous fracture because of the slag inclusions. ‘‘Ingot’’ iron is a
very low carbon iron containing no slag, which is also soft, ductile, and tough.
PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEELS
Ductility is measured in tension tests by percent elongation over a given gage
length—usually 2 or 8 in—or percent reduction of cross-sectional area. Ductility
is an important property because it permits redistribution of stresses in continuous
members and at points of high local stresses.
Poisson’s ratio, the ratio of transverse to axial strain, also is measured in tension
tests. It may be taken as 0.30 in the elastic range and 0.50 in the plastic range for
structural steels.
Cold working of structural steels, that is, forming plates or structural shapes
into other shapes at room temperature, changes several properties of the steels. The
resulting strains are in the strain-hardening range. Yield strength increases but ductility
decreases. (Some steels are cold rolled to obtain higher strengths.) If a steel
element is strained into the strain-hardening range, then unloaded and allowed to
age at room or moderately elevated temperatures (a process called strain aging),
yield and tensile strengths are increased, whereas ductility is decreased. Heat treatment
can be used to modify the effects of cold working and strain aging.
Residual stresses remain in structural elements after they are rolled or fabricated.
They also result from uneven cooling after rolling. In a welded member,
tensile residual stresses develop near the weld and compressive stresses elsewhere.
Plates with rolled edges have compressive residual stresses at the edges, whereas
flame-cut edges have tensile residual stresses. When loads are applied to such members,
some yielding may take place where the residual stresses occur. Because of
the ductility of steel, however, the effect on tensile strength is not significant but
the buckling strength of columns may be lowered.
Strain rate also changes the tensile properties of structural steels. In the ordinary
tensile test, load is applied slowly. The resulting data are appropriate for design of
structures for static loads. For design for rapid application of loads, such as impact
loads, data from rapid tension tests are needed. Such tests indicate that yield and
tensile strengths increase but ductility and the ratio of tensile strength to yield
strength decrease.
High temperatures too affect properties of structural steels. As temperatures
increase, the stress-strain curve typically becomes more rounded and tensile and
yield strengths, under the action of strain aging, decrease. Poisson’s ratio is not
significantly affected but the modulus of elasticity decreases. Ductility is lowered
until a minimum value is reached. Then, it rises with increase in temperature and
becomes larger than the ductility at room temperature.
Low temperatures in combination with tensile stress and especially with geometric
discontinuities, such as notches, bolt holes, and welds, may cause a brittle
failure. This is a failure that occurs by cleavage, with little indication of plastic
deformation. A ductile failure, in contrast, occurs mainly by shear, usually preceded
by large plastic deformation. One of the most commonly used tests for rating steels
on their resistance to brittle fracture is the Charpy V-notch test. It evaluates notch
toughness at specific temperatures.
Toughness is defined as the capacity of a steel to absorb energy; the greater the
capacity, the greater the toughness. Determined by the area under the stress-strain
curve, toughness depends on both strength and ductility of the metal. Notch toughness
is the toughness in the region of notches or other stress concentrations. A
quantitative measure of notch toughness is fracture toughness, which is determined
by fracture mechanics from relationships between stress and flaw size.
STEEL ALLOYS
Plain carbon steels can be given a great range of properties by heat treatment and
by working; but addition of alloying elements greatly extends those properties or
makes the heat-treating operations easier and simpler. For example, combined high
tensile strength and toughness, corrosion resistance, high-speed cutting, and many
other specialized purposes require alloy steels. However, the most important effect
of alloying is the influence on hardenability.
Effects of Alloying Elements
Important alloying elements from the standpoint of building, and their principal
effects, are summarized below:
Aluminum restricts grain growth during heat treatment and promotes surface
hardening by nitriding.
Chromium is a hardener, promotes corrosion resistance (see Art. 4.44.2), and
promotes wear resistance.
Copper promotes resistance to atmospheric corrosion and is sometimes combined
with molybdenum for this purpose in low-carbon steels and irons. It strengthens
steel and increases the yield point without unduly changing elongation or reduction
of area.
Manganese in low concentrations promotes hardenability and nondeforming,
nonshrinking characteristics for tool steels. In high concentrations, the steel is austenitic
under ordinary conditions, is extremely tough, and work-hardens readily. It
is therefore used for teeth of power-shovel dippers, railroad frogs, rock crushers,
and similar applications.
Molybdenum is usually associated with other elements, especially chromium
and nickel. It increases corrosion resistance, raises tensile strength and elastic limit
without reducing ductility, promotes casehardening, and improves impact resistance.
Nickel boosts tensile strength and yield point without reducing ductility; increases
low-temperature toughness, whereas ordinary carbon steels become brittle;
promotes casehardening; and in high concentrations improves corrosion resistance
under severe conditions. It is often used with chromium (see Art. 4.44.2). Invar
contains 36% nickel.
Silicon strengthens low-alloy steels; improves oxidation resistance; with low
carbon yields transformer steel, because of low hysteresis loss and high permeability;
in high concentrations provides hard, brittle castings, resistant to corrosive
chemicals, useful in plumbing lines for chemical laboratories.
Sulfur promotes free machining, especially in mild steels.
Titanium prevents intergranular corrosion of stainless steels by preventing
grainboundary
depletion of chromium during such operations as welding and heat treatment.
Tungsten, vanadium, and cobalt are all used in high-speed tool steels, because
they promote hardness and abrasion resistance. Tungsten and cobalt also increase
high-temperature hardness.
ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM-BASED ALLOYS
Pure aluminum and aluminum alloys are used in buildings in various forms. Highpurity
aluminum (at least 99% pure) is soft and ductile but weak. It has excellent
corrosion resistance and is used in buildings for such applications as bright foil for
heat insulation, roofing, flashing, gutters and downspouts, exterior and interior
architectural
trim, and as pigment in aluminum-based paints. Its high heat conductivity
recommends it for cooking utensils. The electrical conductivity of the electrical
grade is 61% of that of pure copper on an equal-volume basis and 201% on an
equal-weight basis.
Aluminum alloys are generally harder and stronger than the pure metal. Furthermore,
pure aluminum is difficult to cast satisfactorily, whereas many of the
alloys are readily cast.
Pure aluminum is generally more corrosion resistant than its alloys. Furthermore,
its various forms—pure and alloy—have different solution potentials; that is, they
are anodic or cathodic to each other, depending on their relative solution potentials.
A number of alloys are therefore made with centers or ‘‘cores’’ of aluminum alloys,
overlaid with layers of metal, either pure aluminum or alloys, which are anodic to
the core. If galvanic corrosion conditions are encountered, the cladding metal protects
the core sacrifically.
PLASTICS
The synonymous terms plastics and synthetic resins denote synthetic organic high
polymers, all of which are plastic at some stage in their manufacture. Plastics fall
into two large categories—thermoplastic and thermosetting materials.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
Thermoplastics may be softened by heating and hardened by cooling any number
of times. Thermosetting materials are either originally soft or liquid, or they soften
once upon heating; but upon further heating, they harden permanently. Some
thermosetting materials harden by an interlinking mechanism in which water or
other by-product is given off, by a process called condensation; but others,
like the unsaturated polyesters, harden by a direct interlinking of the basic molecules
without release of a by-product. Most plastics are modified with plasticizers,
fillers, or other ingredients. Consequently, each base material forms
the nucleus for a large number of products having a wide variety of properties.
This section can only indicate generally the range of properties to be expected.
Because plastics are quite different in their composition and structure from
other materials, such as metals, their behavior under stress and under other conditions
is likely to be different from other materials. Just as steel and lead are
markedly different and are used for different applications, so the various plastics
materials—some hard and brittle, others soft and extensible—must be designed
on different bases and used in different ways. Some plastics show no yield point,
because they fail before a yield point can be reached. Others have a moderately
high elastic range, followed by a highly plastic range.
PAINTS AND OTHER COATINGS
Protective and decorative coatings generally employed in building are the following:
Oil Paint. Drying-oil vehicles or binders plus opaque and extender pigments.
Water Paint. Pigments plus vehicles based on water, casein, protein, oil emulsions,
and rubber or resin latexes, separately or in combination.
Calcimine. Water and glue, with or without casein, plus powdered calcium carbonate
and any desired colored pigments.
Varnish. Transparent combination of drying oil and natural or synthetic resins.
Enamel. Varnish vehicle plus pigments.
Lacquer. Synthetic-resin film former, usually nitrocellulose, plus plasticizers, volatile
solvents, and other resins.
Shellac. Exudations of the lac insect, dissolved in alcohol.
Japan. Solutions of metallic salts in drying oils, or varnishes containing asphalt
and opaque pigments.
Aluminum Paint. Fine metallic aluminum flakes suspended in drying oil plus
resin, or in nitrocellulose.
VEHICLES OR BINDERS
Following are descriptions of the most commonly used vehicles and binders for
paint:
Natural Drying Oils. Drying oils harden by absorbing oxygen. The most important
natural oils are linseed from flax seed (for many years the standard paint
vehicle), tung oil (faster drying, good compatibility with varnish), oiticica oil (similar
to tung), safflower (best nonyellowing oil), soybean (flexible films), dehydrated
caster (good adhesion, fast drying), and fish oil (considered inferior but cheap).
Alkyds. These, the most widely used paint vehicles, are synthetic resins that are
modified with various vegetable oils to produce clear resins that are harder than
natural oils. Properties of the film depend on relative proportions of oil and resin.
The film is both air drying and heat hardening.
Latexes. Latex paints are based on emulsions of various polymers including acrylics,
polyvinyl acetate, styrene-butadiene, polyvinyl chloride, and rubber. They are
easy to apply, dry quickly, have no solvent odor, and application tools are easily
cleaned with soap and water. The films adhere well to various surfaces, have good
color retention, and have varying degrees of flexibility.
Epoxy and Epoxy-Polyester. Catalyzed two-part, all-epoxy coatings are formed
by addition of a catalyst to the liquid epoxy just before application (pot life a few
minutes to a day). Films are as hard as many baked-on coatings and are resistant
to solvents and traffic. Oil-modified epoxy esters, in contrast, harden on oxidation
without a catalyst. They are less hard and chemically resistant than catalyzed epoxies,
but dry fast and are easily applied. Epoxy-polyesters mixed just before use
produce smooth finishes suitable for many interior surfaces and are chemically
resistant.
Polyurethanes. These produce especially abrasion-treatment, fast-hardening coatings.
Two-component formulations, of variable pot life, are mixed just before use.
One-component formulations cure by evaporation and reaction with moisture in air
(30 to 90% relative humidity). Oils and alkyds may be added.
Vinyl Solutions. Solutions of polyvinyl chloride and vinyl esters dry rapidly and
are built up by successive, sprayed thin coatings. They characteristically have low
gloss, high flexibility, and inertness to water but are sensitive to some solvents.
Adhesion may be a problem. Weather resistance is excellent.
Dryers. These are catalysts that hasten the hardening of drying oils. Most dryers
are salts of heavy metals, especially cobalt, manganese, and lead, to which salts of
zinc and calcium may be added. Iron salts, usable only in dark coatings, accelerate
hardening at high temperatures. Dryers are normally added to paints to hasten
hardening, but they must not be used too liberally or they cause rapid deterioration
of the oil by overoxidation.
Thinners. These are volatile constituents added to coatings to promote their
spreading qualities by reducing viscosity. They should not react with the other
constituents and should evaporate completely. Commonly used thinners are turpentine
and mineral spirits, i.e., derivatives of petroleum and coal tar.
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS
Soil mechanics is defined as the application of the laws and principles of mechanics
and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with soil as an engineering material.
Soil has many different meanings, depending on the field of study. For example,
in agronomy (application of science to farming), soil is defined as a surface deposit
that contains mineral matter that originated from the original weathering of rock
and also contains organic matter that has accumulated through the decomposition
of plants and animals. To an agronomist, soil is that material that has been sufficiently
altered and supplied with nutrients that it can support the growth of plant
roots. But to a geotechnical engineer, soil has a much broader meaning and can
include not only agronomic material, but also broken-up fragments of rock, volcanic
ash, alluvium, aeolian sand, glacial material, and any other residual or transported
product of rock weathering. Difficulties naturally arise because there is not a distinct
dividing line between rock and soil. For example, to a geologist a given material
may be classified as a formational rock because it belongs to a definite geologic
environment, but to a geotechnical engineer it may be sufficiently weathered or
friable that it should be classified as a soil.
Rock mechanics is defined as the application of the knowledge of the mechanical
behavior of rock to engineering problems dealing with rock. To the geotechnical
engineer, rock is a relatively solid mass that has permanent and strong bonds between
the minerals. Rocks can be classified as being either sedimentary, igneous,
or metamorphic. There are significant differences in the behavior of soil versus
rock, and there is not much overlap between soil mechanics and rock mechanics.
FIELD EXPLORATION
The purpose of the field exploration is to obtain the following
1. Knowledge of the general topography of the site as it affects foundation design
and construction, e.g., surface configuration, adjacent property, the presence of
watercourses, ponds, hedges, trees, rock outcrops, etc., and the available access
for construction vehicles and materials.
2. The location of buried utilities such as electric power and telephone cables,
water mains, and sewers.
3. The general geology of the area, with particular reference to the main geologic
formations underlying the site and the possibility of subsidence from mineral
extraction or other causes.
4. The previous history and use of the site, including information on any defects
or failures of existing or former buildings attributable to foundation conditions.
5. Any special features such as the possibility of earthquakes or climate factors
such as flooding, seasonal swelling and shrinkage, permafrost, and soil erosion.
6. The availability and quality of local construction materials such as concrete
aggregates, building and road stone, and water for construction purposes.
7. For maritime or river structures, information on tidal ranges and river levels,
velocity of tidal and river currents, and other hydrographic and meteorological
data.
8. A detailed record of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditions within
the zones affected by foundation bearing pressures and construction operations,
or of any deeper strata affecting the site conditions in any way.
9. Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the particular
foundation design or construction problems.
10. Results of chemical analyses on soil or groundwater to determine possible
deleterious effects of foundation structures.
Subsurface Exploration
In order for a detailed record of the soil and rock strata and groundwater conditions
at the site to be determined, subsurface exploration is usually required. There are
different types of subsurface exploration, such as borings, test pits, and trenches.
investigating subsurface conditions, performing field tests, and obtaining soil,
rock, or groundwater specimens for testing. Borings can be excavated by hand (e.g.,
with a hand auger), although the usual procedure is to use mechanical equipment
to excavate the borings.
Many different types of equipment are used to excavate borings. Typical types
of borings are listed in Table 6.3 and include:
Auger Boring. A mechanical auger is a very fast method of excavating a boring.
The hole is excavated by rotating the auger while at the same time applying a
downward pressure on the auger to help obtain penetration of the soil or rock.
There are basically two types of augers: flight augers and bucket augers. Common
available diameters of flight augers are 5 cm to 1.2 m (2 in to 4 ft) and of
bucket augers are 0.3 m to 2.4 m (1 ft to 8 ft). The auger is periodically removed
from the hole, and the soil lodged in the groves of the flight auger or contained
in the bucket of the bucket auger is removed. A casing is generally not used for
auger borings, and the hole may cave-in during the excavation of loose or soft
soils or when the excavation is below the groundwater table. Augers are probably
the most common type of equipment used to excavate borings.
Hollow-Stem Flight Auger. A hollow-stem flight auger has a circular hollow
core which allows for sampling down the center of the auger. The hollow-stem
auger acts like a casing and allows for sampling in loose or soft soils or when
the excavation is below the groundwater table.
Wash-Type Borings. Wash-type borings use circulating drilling fluid, which
removes cuttings from the borehole. The cuttings are created by the chopping,
twisting, and jetting action of the drill bit, which breaks the soil or rock into
small fragments. Casings are often used to prevent cave-in of the hole. Because
drilling fluid is used during the excavation, it can be difficult to classify the soil
and obtain uncontaminated soil samples.
Rotary Coring. This type of boring equipment uses power rotation of the drilling
bit as circulating fluid removes cuttings from the hole. Table 6.3 lists various
types of rotary coring for soil and rock.
Percussion Drilling. This type of drilling equipment is often used to penetrate
hard rock, for subsurface exploration or for the purpose of drilling wells. The
drill bit works much like a jackhammer, rising and falling to break up and crush
the rock material.
In addition to borings, other methods for performing subsurface exploration include
test pits and trenches. Test pits are often square in plan view, with a typical
dimension of 1.2 m by 1.2 m (4 ft by 4 ft). Trenches are long and narrow excavations
usually made by a backhoe or bulldozer. Table 6.4 presents the uses, capabilities,
and limitations of test pits and trenches.
Test pits and trenches provide for a visual observation of subsurface conditions.
They can also be used to obtain undisturbed block samples of soil. The process
consists of carving a block of soil from the side or bottom of the test pit or trench.
Soil samples can also be obtained from the test pits or trenches by manually driving
Shelby tubes, drive cylinders, or other types of sampling tubes into the ground.
(See Art. 6.2.3.)
Backhoe trenches are an economical means of performing subsurface exploration.
The backhoe can quickly excavate the trench, which can then be used to
observe and test the in-situ soil. In many subsurface explorations, backhoe trenches
are used to evaluate near-surface and geologic conditions (i.e., up to 15 ft deep),
with borings being used to investigate deeper subsurface conditions.
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
Economical, durable construction with concrete requires a thorough knowledge of
its properties and behavior in service, of approved design procedures, and of
recommended
field practices. Not only is such knowledge necessary to avoid disappointing
results, especially when concrete is manufactured and formed on the building
site, but also to obtain maximum benefits from its unique properties.
To provide the needed information, several organizations promulgate standards,
specifications, recommended practices, guides, and reports. Reference is made to
these where appropriate throughout this section. Information provided herein is
based on the latest available editions of the documents. In as much as they are revised
frequently, the latest editions should be used for current design and construction.
aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water, with or without admixtures.
Admixture is a material other than hydraulic cement, aggregate, or water, used
as an ingredient of concrete and added to concrete before or during its mixing to
modify its properties.
In this section, unless indicated otherwise, these definitions apply to the terms
concrete and admixture.
Addition to a concrete mix of fly ash, silica fume, or slag decreases permeability,
protects reinforcement, and increases strength. Concrete made with polymers,
plastics with long-chain molecules, can have many qualities much superior
to those of ordinary concrete.
CEMENTS
Although all the preceding cements can be used for concrete, they are not
interchangeable.
Note that both tensile and compressive strengths vary considerably,
at early ages in particular, even for the five types of basic portland cement.
PROPORTIONING CONCRETE MIXES
Principles for proportioning concrete to achieve a prescribed compressive strength
after a given age under standard curing are simple.
1. The strength of a hardened concrete mix depends on the water-cementitious
materials ratio (ratio of water to cementitious materials, by weight). The water and
cementitious materials form a paste. If the paste is made with more water, it becomes
weaker
2. The ideal minimum amount of paste is that which will coat all aggregate
particles and fill all voids.
3. For practical purposes, fresh concrete must possess workability sufficient for
the placement conditions. For a given strength and with given materials, the cost
of the mix increases as the workability increases. Additional workability is provided
by more fine aggregate and more water, but more cementitious materials must also
be added to keep the same water-cementitious materials ratio.
Questions often arise between concrete suppliers and buyers regarding ‘‘yield,’’ or
volume of concrete supplied. A major reason for this is that often the actual yield
may be less than the yield calculated from the volumes of ingredients. For example,
if the mix temperature varies, less air may be entrained; or if the sand becomes
drier and no corrections in batch weights are made, the yield will be under that
calculated.
If the specific gravity (sp. gr.) and absorption (abs.) of the aggregates have been
determined in advance, accurate, yield calculations can be performed as often as
necessary to adjust the yield for control of the concrete.
PROPERTIES AND TESTS OF FRESH (PLASTIC)
CONCRETE
Workability. Although concrete technologists define and measure workability and
consistency separately and in various ways, the practical user specifies only one—
slump (technically a measure of consistency). The practical user regards workability
requirements simply as provision of sufficient water to permit concrete to be placed
and consolidated without honeycomb or excessive water rise; to make concrete
‘‘pumpable’’ if it is to be placed by pumps; and for slabs, to provide a surface that
can be finished properly. These workability requirements vary with the project and
the placing, vibration, and finishing equipment used.
Slump is tested in the field very quickly. An open-ended, 12-in-high, truncated
metal cone is filled in three equal-volume increments and each increment is consolidated
separately, all according to a strict standard procedure (ASTM C143,
‘‘Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete’’). Slump is the sag of the concrete, in,
after the cone is removed. The slump should be measured to the nearest 1⁄4 in which
is about the limit of accuracy reproducible by expert inspectors.
Unless the test is performed exactly in accordance with the standard procedure,
the results are not comparable and therefore are useless.
The slump test is invalidated if: the operator fails to anchor the cone down by
standing on the base wings; the test is performed on a wobbly base, such as formwork
carrying traffic or a piece of metal on loose pebbles; the cone is not filled by
inserting material in small amounts all around the perimeter, or filled and tamped
in three equal increments; the top two layers are tamped deeper than their depth
plus about 1 in; the top is pressed down to level it; the sample has been transported
and permitted to segregate without remixing; unspecified operations, such as tap=
ping the cone, occur; the cone is not lifted up smoothly in one movement; the cone
tips over because of filling from one side or pulling the cone to one side; or if the
measurement of slump is not made to the center vertical axis of the cone.
Various penetration tests are quicker and more suitable for untrained personnel
than the standard slump test. In each case, the penetration of an object into a flat
surface of fresh concrete is measured and related to slump. These tests include use
of the patented ‘‘Kelley ball’’ (ASTM C360, ‘‘Ball Penetration in Freshly Mixed
Hydraulic Cement Concrete’’) and a simple, standard tamping rod with a bullet
nose marked with equivalent inches of slump.
Air Content. A field test frequently required measures the air entrapped and entrained
in fresh concrete. Various devices (air meters) that are available give quick,
convenient results. In the basic methods, the volume of a sample is measured, then
the air content is removed or reduced under pressure, and finally the remaining
volume is measured. The difference between initial and final volume is the air
content.
Cement Content. Tests on fresh concrete sometimes are employed to determine
the amount of cement present in a batch. Although performed more easily than
tests on hardened concrete, tests on fresh concrete nevertheless are too difficult for
routine use and usually require mobile laboratory equipment.
MEASURING AND MIXING CONCRETE INGREDIENTS
Methods of measuring the quantities and mixing the ingredients for concrete, and
the equipment available, vary greatly. For very small projects where mixing is
performed on the site, the materials are usually batched by volume. Under these
conditions, accurate proportioning is very difficult. To achieve a reasonable minimum
quality of concrete, it is usually less expensive to prescribe an excess of
cement than to employ quality control. The same conditions make use of air
entraining cement preferable to separate admixtures. This practical approach is preferable
also for very small projects to be supplied with ready-mixed concrete. Economy
with excess cement will be achieved whenever volume is so small that the
cost of an additional sack of cement per cubic yard is less than the cost of a single
compression test.
For engineered construction, some measure of quality control is always employed.
In general, all measurements of materials including the cement and water
should be by weight.
Mixing and delivery of structural concrete may be performed by a wide variety
of equipment and procedures:
Site mixed, for delivery by chute, pump, truck, conveyor, or rail dump cars.
(Mixing procedure for normal-aggregate concretes and lightweight-aggregate
concretes to be pumped are usually different, because the greater absorption of
some lightweight aggregates must be satisfied before pumping.)
Central-plant mixed, for delivery in either open dump trucks or mixer trucks.
Central-plant batching (weighing and measuring), for mixing and delivery by
truck (‘‘dry-batched’’ ready mix).
Complete portable mixing plants are available and are commonly used for large
building or paving projects distant from established sources of supply.
Generally, drum mixers are used. For special purposes, various other types of
mixers are required. These special types include countercurrent mixers, in which
the blades revolve opposite to the turning of the drum, usually about a vertical axis,
for mixing very dry, harsh, nonplastic mixes. Such mixes are required for concrete
masonry or heavy-duty floor toppings. Dry-batch mixers are used for dry shotcrete
(sprayed concrete), where water and the dry-mixed cement and aggregate are
blended between the nozzle of the gun and impact at the point of placing.
ADMIXTURES
Air Entrainment. Air-entraining admixtures may be interground
as additives with the cement at the mill or added separately at the concrete mixing
plant, or both. Where quality control is provided, it is preferable to add such admixtures
at the concrete plant so that the resulting air content can be controlled for
changes in temperature, sand, or project requirements
One common misconception relative to air entrainment is the fear that it has a
deleterious effect on concrete strength. Air entrainment, however, improves workability.
This will usually permit some reduction in water content. For lean, lowstrength
mixes, the improved workability permits a relatively large reduction in
water content, sand content, and water-cementitious materials ratio, which tends to
increase concrete strength. The resulting strength gain offsets the strength-reducing
effect of the air itself, and a net increase in concrete strength is achieved. For rich,
high-strength mixes, the relative reduction in the ratio of water to cementitious
materials, water-cementitious materials ratio, is lower and a small net decrease in
strength results, about on the same order of the air content (4 to 7%). The improved
durability and reduction of segregation in handling, because of the entrained air,
usually make air entrainment desirable, however, in all concrete except extremely
high-strength mixtures, such as for lower-story interior columns or heavy-duty interior
floor toppings for industrial wear.
Accelerators. Calcium chloride for accelerating the rate of strength gain in concrete
is perhaps the oldest application of admixtures. Old specifications
for winter concreting or masonry work commonly required use of a maximum
of 1 to 3% CaCl2 by weight of cement for all concrete. Proprietary admixtures now
available may include accelerators, but not necessarily CaCl2. The usual objective
for use of an accelerator is to reduce curing time by developing 28-day strengths
in about 7 days .
In spite of users’ familiarity with CaCl2, a number of misconceptions about its
effect persist. It has been sold (sometimes under proprietary names) as an accelerator,
a cement replacement, an ‘‘antifreeze,’’ a ‘‘waterproofer,’’ and a ‘‘hardener.’’
It is simply an accelerator; any improvement in other respects is pure serendipity.
Experience, however, indicates corrosion damage from indiscriminate use of chloridecontaining material in concrete exposed to stray currents, containing dissimilar
metals, containing prestressing steel subject to stress corrosion, or exposed to severe
wet freezing or salt water. The Building Code prohibits the use of calcium
chloride or admixtures containing chloride from other than impurities from admixture
ingredients in prestressed concrete, in concrete containing embedded aluminum,
or in concrete cast against stay-in-place galvanized forms. The Code also
prohibits the use of calcium chloride as an admixture in concrete that will be
exposed to severe or very severe sulfate-containing solutions.
Retarders. Unless proper precautions are taken, hot-weather concreting may cause
‘‘flash set,’’ plastic shrinkage, ‘‘cold joints,’’ or strength loss. Admixtures that provide
controlled delay in the set of a concrete mix without reducing the rate of
strength gain during subsequent curing offer inexpensive prevention of many hotweather
concreting problems. These (proprietary) admixtures are usually combined
with water-reducing admixtures that more than offset the loss in curing time due
to delayed set
Superplasticizers. These admixtures, which are technically known as ‘‘high-range
water reducers,’’ produce a high-slump concrete without an increase in mixing water.
Slumps of up to 10 in. for a period of up to 90 min can be obtained. This
greatly facilitates placing concrete around heavy, closely spaced reinforcing steel,
or in complicated forms, or both, and reduces the need for vibrating the concrete.
It is important that the slump of the concrete be verified at the jobsite prior to the
addition of the superplasticizer. This ensures that the specified water-cementitious
materials ratio required for watertight impermeable concrete is in fact being
achieved. The superplasticizer is then added to increase the slump to the approved
level.
Waterproofing. A number of substances, such as stearates and oils, have been
used as masonry-mortar and concrete admixtures for ‘‘waterproofing.’’ Indiscriminate
use of such materials in concrete without extremely good quality control usually
results in disappointment. The various water-repellent admixtures are intended
to prevent capillarity, but most severe leakage in concrete occurs at honeycombs,
cold joints, cracks, and other noncapillary defects. Concrete containing waterrepellent
admixtures also requires extremely careful continuous curing, since it will
be difficult to rewet after initial drying.
Waterproof concrete can be achieved by use of high-strength concrete with a
low water-cementitious materials ratio to reduce segregation and an air-entraining
agent to minimize crack width. Also, good quality control and inspection is essential
during the mixing, placing, and curing operations. Surface coatings can be used to
improve resistance to water penetration of vertical or horizontal surfaces.
Cement Replacement. The term ‘‘cement replacement’’ is frequently misused in
reference to chemical admixtures intended as accelerators or water reducers.
Strictly, a cement replacement is a finely ground material, usually weakly cementitious
, which combines into a cementlike paste replacing some of the
cement paste to fill voids between the aggregates. The most common applications
of these admixtures are for low-heat, low-strength mass concrete or for concrete
masonry. In the former, they fill voids and reduce the heat of hydration; in the latter,
they fill voids and help to develop the proper consistency to be self-standing as the
machine head is lifted in the forming process. Materials commonly used are fly
ash, silica fume, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, hydraulic lime, natural cement,
and pozzolans.
Special-Purpose Admixtures. The list of materials used from earliest times as
admixtures for various purposes includes almost everything from human blood to
synthetic coloring agents.
Admixtures for coloring concrete are available in all colors. The oldest and
cheapest is perhaps carbon black.
Admixtures causing expansion for use in sealing cracks or under machine bases,
etc., include powdered aluminum and finely ground iron.
Special admixtures are available for use where the natural aggregate is alkali
reactive, to neutralize this reaction.
Proprietary admixtures are available that increase the tensile strength or bond
strength of concrete. They are useful for making repairs to concrete surfaces.
For all these special purposes, a thorough investigation of admixtures proposed
is recommended. Tests should be made on samples containing various proportions
for colored concrete. Strength and durability tests should be made on concrete to
be exposed to sunlight, freezing, salt, or any other job condition expected, and
special tests should be made for any special properties required, as a minimum
precaution.
REINFORCEMENT
The term deformed steel bars for concrete reinforcement is commonly shortened
to rebars. The short form will be used in this section.
Standard rebars are produced in 11 sizes, designated on design drawings and in
project specifications by a size number.
CONCRETE PLACEMENT
The principles governing proper placement of concrete are:
Segregation must be avoided during all operations between the mixer and the
point of placement, including final consolidation and finishing.
The concrete must be thoroughly consolidated, worked solidly around all embedded
items, and should fill all angles and corners of the forms.
Where fresh concrete is placed against or on hardened concrete, a good bond
must be developed.
Unconfined concrete must not be placed under water.
The temperature of fresh concrete must be controlled from the time of mixing
through final placement, and protected after placement.
METHODS OF PLACING
Concrete may be conveyed from a mixer to point of placement by any of a variety
of methods and equipment, if properly transported to avoid segregation. Selection
of the most appropriate technique for economy depends on jobsite conditions, especially
project size, equipment, and the contractor’s experience. In building construction,
concrete usually is placed with hand- or power-operated buggies; dropbottom
buckets with a crane; inclined chutes; flexible and rigid pipe by pumping;
shotcrete, in which either dry materials and water are sprayed separately or mixed
concrete is shot against the forms; and for underwater placing, tremie chutes (closed
flexible tubes). For mass-concrete construction, side-dump cars on narrow-gage
track or belt conveyers may be used. For pavement, concrete may be placed by
bucket from the swinging boom of a paving mixer, directly by dump truck or mixer
truck, or indirectly by trucks into a spreader.
A special method of placing concrete suitable for a number of unusual conditions
consists of grout-filling preplaced coarse aggregate. This method is particularly
useful for underwater concreting, because grout, introduced into the aggregate
through a vertical pipe gradually lifted, displaces the water, which is lighter than
the grout. Because of bearing contact of the aggregate, less than usual overall
shrinkage is also achieved.
EXCESS WATER
Even within the specified limits on slump and water-cementitious materials ratio,
excess water must be avoided. In this context, excess water is present for the con
ditions of placing if evidence of water rise (vertical segregation) or water flow
(horizontal segregation) occurs. Excess water also tends to aggravate surface defects
by increased leakage through form openings. The result may be honeycomb, sandstreaks,
variations in color, or soft spots at the surface.
In vertical formwork, water rise causes weak planes between each layer deposited.
In addition to the deleterious structural effect, such planes, when hardened,
contain voids through which water may pass.
In horizontal elements, such as floor slabs, excess water rises and causes a weak
laitance layer at the top. This layer suffers from low strength, low abrasion resistance,
high shrinkage, and generally poor quality.
CONSOLIDATION
The purpose of consolidation is to eliminate voids of entrapped air and to ensure
intimate complete contact of the concrete with the surfaces of the forms and the
reinforcement. Intense vibration, however, may also reduce the volume of desirable
entrained air; but this reduction can be compensated by adjustment of the mix
proportions.
Powered internal vibrators are usually used to achieve consolidation. For thin
slabs, however, high-quality, low-slump concrete can be effectively consolidated,
without excess water, by mechanical surface vibrators. For precast elements in rigid,
watertight forms, external vibration (of the form itself) is highly effective. External
vibration is also effective with in-place forms, but should not be used unless the
formwork is specially designed for the temporary increase in internal pressures to
full fluid head plus the impact of the vibrator .
Except in certain paving operations, vibration of the reinforcement should be
avoided. Although it is effective, the necessary control to prevent overvibration is
difficult. Also, when concrete is placed in several lifts of layers, vibration of vertical
rebars passing into partly set concrete below may be harmful. Note, however, that
revibration of concrete before the final set, under controlled conditions, can improve
concrete strength markedly and reduce surface voids (bugholes). This technique is
too difficult to control for general use on field-cast vertical elements, but it is very
effective in finishing slabs with powered vibrating equipment.
Manual spading is most efficient for removal of entrapped air at form surfaces.
This method is particularly effective where smooth impermeable form material is
used and the surface is upward sloping.
On the usual building project, different conditions of placement are usually encountered
that make it desirable to provide for various combinations of the techniques
described. One precaution generally applicable is that the vibrators not be
used to move the concrete laterally.
CONCRETING VERTICAL ELEMENTS
The interior of columns is usually congested; it contains a large volume of reinforcing
steel compared with the volume of concrete, and has a large height compared with its cross-sectional dimensions. Therefore, though columns should be
continuously cast, the concrete should be placed in 2- to 4-ft-deep increments and
consolidated with internal vibrators. These should be lifted after each increment
has been vibrated. If delay occurs in concrete supply before a column has been
completed, every effort should be made to avoid a cold joint. When the remainder
of the column is cast, the first increment should be small, and should be vibrated
to penetrate the previous portion slightly.
In all columns and reinforced narrow walls, concrete placing should begin with
2 to 4 in of grout. Otherwise, loose stone will collect at the bottom, resulting in
the formation of honeycomb. This grout should be proportioned for about the same
slump as the concrete or slightly more, but at the same or lower water-cementitious
material ratio. (Some engineers prefer to start vertical placement with a mix having
the same proportions of water, cement, and fine aggregate, but with one-half the
quantity of coarse aggregate, as in the design mix, and to place a starting layer 6
to 12 in deep.)
When concrete is placed for walls, the only practicable means to avoid segregation
is to place no more than a 24-in layer in one pass. Each layer should be
vibrated separately and kept nearly level.
For walls deeper than 4 ft, concrete should be placed through vertical, flexible
trunks or chutes located about 8 ft apart. The trunks may be flexible or rigid, and
come in sections so that they can be lifted as the level of concrete in place rises.
The concrete should not fall free, from the end of the trunk, more than 4 ft or
segregation will occur, with the coarse aggregate ricocheting off the forms to lodge
on one side. Successive layers after the initial layer should be penetrated by internal
vibrators for a depth of about 4 to 6 in to ensure complete integration at the surface
of each layer. Deeper penetration can be beneficial (revibration), but control under
variable jobsite conditions is too uncertain for recommendation of this practice for
general use.
The results of poor placement in walls are frequently observed: sloping layer
lines; honeycombs, leaking, if water is present; and, if cores are taken at successive
heights, up to a 50% reduction in strength from bottom to top. Some precautions
necessary to avoid these ill effects are:
Place concrete in level layers through closely spaced trunks or chutes.
Do not place concrete full depth at each placing point.
Do not move concrete laterally with vibrators.
For deep, long walls, reduce the slump for upper layers 2 to 3 in below the
slump for the starting layer.
On any delay between placing of layers, vibrate the concrete thoroughly at the
interface.
If concreting must be suspended between planned horizontal construction joints,
level off the layer cast, remove any laitance and excess water, and make a
straight, level construction joint, if possible, with a small cleat attached to the
form on the exposed face
CONCRETING HORIZONTAL ELEMENTS
For concrete slabs, careless placing methods result in horizontal segregation,
with desired properties in the wrong location, the top consisting of excess water
and fines with low abrasion and weather resistance, and high shrinkage. For a good
surface in a one-course slab, low-slump concrete and a minimum of vibration and
finishing are desirable. Immediate screeding with a power-vibrated screed is helpful
in distributing low-slump, high-quality concrete. No further finishing should be
undertaken until free water, if any, disappears. A powered, rotary tamping float can
smooth very-low-slump concrete at this stage. Final troweling should be delayed,
if necessary, until the surface can support the weight of the finisher.
When concrete is placed for deep beams that are monolithic with a slab, the
beam should be filled first. Then, a short delay for settlement should ensue before
slab concrete is cast. Vibration through the top slab should penetrate the beam
concrete sufficiently to ensure thorough consolidation.
When a slab is cast, successive batches of concrete should be placed on the
edge of previous batches, to maintain progressive filling without segregation. For
slabs with sloping surfaces, concrete placing should usually begin at the lower edge.
For thin shells in steeply sloping areas, placing should proceed downslope.
Slump should be adjusted and finishing coordinated to prevent restraint by horizontal
reinforcing bars from causing plastic cracking in the fresh concrete
BONDING TO HARDENED CONCRETE
The surface of hardened concrete should be rough and clean where it is to be
bonded with fresh concrete.
Vertical surfaces of planned joints may be prepared easily by wire brushing
them, before complete curing, to expose the coarse aggregate. (The timing can be
extended, if desired, by using a surface retarder on the bulkhead form.) For surfaces
fully cured without earlier preparation, sandblasting, bush hammering, or acid
washes (thoroughly rinsed off) are effective means of preparation for bonding new
concrete.
JOINTS IN CONCRETE
Several types of joints may occur or be formed in concrete structures:
Construction joints are formed when fresh concrete is placed against hardened
concrete.
Expansion joints are provided in long components to relieve compressive
stresses that would otherwise result from a temperature rise.
Contraction joints (control joints) are provided to permit concrete to contract
during a drop in temperature and to permit drying shrinkage without resulting
uncontrolled random cracking.
DEVELOPMENT, ANCHORAGE, AND SPLICES OF
REINFORCEMENT
Steel reinforcement must be bonded to the concrete sufficiently so that the steel
will yield before it is freed from the concrete. Despite assumptions made in the
past to the contrary, bond stress between concrete and reinforcing bars is not uniform
over a given length, not directly related to the perimeter of the bars, not equal
in tension and compression, and may be affected by lateral confinement.
WALLS
Generally, any vertical member whose length and height are both much larger than
the thickness may be treated as a wall. Walls subjected to vertical loads are called
bearing walls. Walls subjected to no loads other than their own weight, such as
panel or enclosure walls, are called nonbearing walls. Walls with a primary function
of resisting lateral loads are called shear walls. They also may serve as bearing
walls.
BEARING WALLS
Reinforced concrete bearing walls may be designed as eccentrically loaded columns
or by an empirical method.
Length. The effective length of wall for concentrated loads may be taken as the
center-to-center distance between loads, but not more than the width of bearing
plus 4 times the wall thickness.
Thickness. The minimum thickness of bearing walls for which Eq. (9.82) is applicable
is one-twenty-fifth of the least distance between supports at the sides or
top, but not less than 4 in. Exterior basement walls and foundation walls should be
at least 71⁄2 in thick. Minimum thickness and reinforcement requirements may be
waived, however, if justified by structural analysis.
Reinforcement. The area of horizontal steel reinforcement should be at least
A _ 0.0025A (9.83) h wv
where Awv _ gross area of the vertical cross-section of wall.
Area of vertical reinforcement should be at least
Av _ 0.0015Awh (9.84)
where Awh _ gross area of the horizontal cross-section of wall. For Grade 60 bars,
No. 5 or smaller, or for welded-wire fabric, these steel areas may be reduced to
0.0020Awv and 0.0012Awh, respectively.
NONBEARING WALLS
Nonbearing reinforced-concrete walls, frequently classified as panels, partitions, or
cross walls, may be precast or cast in place. Panels serving merely as exterior
cladding, when precast, are usually attached to the columns or floors of a frame,
supported on grade beams, or supported by and spanning between footings, serving
as both grade beams and walls. Cast-in-place cross walls are most common in
substructures. Less often, cast-in-place panels may be supported on grade beams
and attached to the frame.
In most of these applications for nonbearing walls, stresses are low and alternative
materials, such as unreinforced masonry, when supported by beams above
grade, or panels of other materials, can be used. Consequently, unless esthetic
requirements
dictate reinforced concrete, low-stressed panels of reinforced concrete
must be designed for maximum economy. Minimum thickness, minimum reinforcement,
full benefits of standardization for mass-production techniques, and design
for double function as both wall and deep beam must be achieved.
Thickness of nonbearing walls of reinforced concrete should be at least onethirtieth
the distance between supports
FOUNDATIONS
Building foundations should distribute wall and column loads to the underlying soil
and rock within acceptable limits on resulting soil pressure and total and differential
settlement. Wall and column loads consist of live load, reduced in accordance with
the applicable general building code, and dead load, combined, when required, with
lateral loads of wind, earthquake, earth pressure, or liquid pressure. These loads
can be distributed to the soil near grade by concrete spread footings, or to the soil
at lower levels by concrete piles or drilled piers.
GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR FOUNDATIONS
The area of spread footings, the number of piles, or the number of drilled piers are
selected by a designer to support actual unfactored building loads without exceeding
settlement limitations, a safe soil pressure qa, or a safe pile or drilled-pier load. A
factor of safety from 2 to 3, based on the ultimate strength of the soil and its
settlement characteristics, is usually used to determine the safe soil pressure or safe
pile or drilled-pier load
Soil Pressures. After the area of the spread footing or the number and spacing
of piles or drilled piers has been determined, the spread footing, pile-cap footing,
or drilled pier can be designed.
Reinforcement for Bearing. The bearing stress on the interface between a column
and a spread footing, pile cap, or drilled pier should not exceed the allowable stress
Footing Thickness
Concrete Cover.
WALL PANELS
Precast-concrete wall panels include plain panels, decorative panels, natural stonefaced
panels, sandwich panels, solid panels, ribbed panels, tilt-up panels, loadbearing
and non-load-bearing panels, and thin-section panels. Prestressing, when
used with such panels, makes it possible to handle and erect large units and thin
sections without cracking.
LOSSES IN PRESTRESS
Elastic Shortening of Concrete. In pretensioned members, when the tendons are
released from fixed abutments and the steel stress is transferred to the concrete by
bond, the concrete shortens under the compressive stress. The decrease in unit stress
in the tendons equals PsEs /AcEc _ nƒc, where Es is the modulus of elasticity of
the steel, psi; Ec the modulus of elasticity of the concrete psi; n the modular ratio,
Es /Ec; ƒc the unit stress in the concrete, psi; Ps the prestressing force applied by
the tendons; and Ac the cross-sectional area of the member.
In posttensioned members, the loss due to elastic shortening can be eliminated
by using the members as a reaction in tensioning the tendons.
Frictional Losses. In posttensioned members, there may be a loss of prestress
where curved tendons rub against their enclosure. The loss may be computed in
terms of a curvature-friction coefficient _. Losses due to unintentional misalignment
may be calculated from a wobble-friction coefficient K (per lin ft). Since the coefficients
vary considerably, they should, if possible, be determined experimentally.
Slip at Anchorages. For posttensioned members, prestress loss may occur at the
anchorages during the anchoring. For example, seating of wedges may permit some
shortening of the tendons. If tests of a specific anchorage device indicate a shortening
_L, the decrease in unit stress in the prestressing steel is equal to Es_L/L,
where L is the length of the tendon. This loss can be reduced or eliminated by
overtensioning initially by an additional strain equal to the estimated shortening.
Shrinkage of Concrete. Change in length of a member caused by concrete shrinkage
results in a prestress loss over a period of time. This change can be determined
from tests or experience. Generally, the loss is greater for pretensioned members
than for posttensioned members, which are prestressed after much of the shrinkage
has occurred. Assuming a shrinkage of 0.0002 in / in of length for a pretensioned
member, the loss in tension in the tendons is 0.0002Es _ 0.0002 _ 30 _ 106 _
6000 psi.
Creep of Concrete. Change in length of concrete under sustained load induces a
prestress loss proportional to the load over a period of time depending greatly on
the aggregate used. This loss may be several times the elastic shortening. An estimate
of this loss may be made with an estimated creep coefficient Ccr equal to
the ratio of additional long-time deformation to initial elastic deformation determined
by test. The loss in tension for axial prestress in the steel is, therefore, equal
to Ccrnƒc. Values ranging from 1.5 to 2.0 have been recommended for Ccr.
Relaxation of Prestressing Steel. A decrease in stress under constant high strain
occurs with some prestressing steels. Steel tensioned to 60% of its ultimate strength
may relax and lose as much as 3% of the prestressing force. This type of loss may
be reduced by temporary overtensioning, which artificially accelerates relaxation,
reducing the loss that will occur later at lower stresses.
WOOD CONSTRUCTION
Wood is the only renewable source for building materials. It comes from forests
that are continually being replanted as they are harvested. This practice ensures a
plentiful supply of wood for construction and for a myriad of other uses.
Compared to other building materials, wood has a very high ratio of strength to
weight. This makes it very economical for use in all types of construction. Wood
also has an aesthetic quality and natural warmth unequalled by other building materials.
Wood has inherent characteristics with which construction users should be familiar.
For example, as a consequence of its biological origin, it is nonhomogeneous.
Also, properties of pieces of wood from different species of tree may be
considerably different, and even properties of pieces of wood from the same tree
may differ. In the past, determination of engineering properties depended heavily
on visual inspection, keyed to averages, of wood pieces. Research, however, has
made possible better estimates of these properties. It is no longer necessary to rely
so heavily on visual inspection. Greater accuracy in determination of engineering
properties has been made possible by mechanical grading procedures.
Improvements in adhesives for wood also have contributed to the betterment of
wood construction. These advances in adhesion technology combined with a desire
to utilize more efficiently available wood-fiber resources have led to increasing use
of such products as oriented strand board (OSB), glued-laminated timber (glulam),
wood I joists, and structural composite lumber (SCL).
Lumber
Glued-Laminated Timber
Wet Service Factor
Temperature Factor
Size Factor
Beam Stability Factor
Volume Factor
Flat-Use Factor
Form Factor
STRUCTURAL PANELS
Wood-based structural panels are thin, flat, composite materials capable of resisting
applied loads in specific applications. Structural panels fall into three basic categories
based on the manufacturing process used: plywood, mat-formed panels (oriented
strand board, or OSB), and composite panels.
Plywood—a flat panel built up of sheets of veneer, called plies. These are united
under pressure by a bonding agent. The adhesive bond between plies is as strong
as or stronger than solid wood. Plywood is constructed of an odd number of layers
with the grain of adjacent layers perpendicular. Layers may consist of a single ply
or two or more plies laminated with parallel grain direction. Outer layers and all
odd-numbered layers generally have the grain direction oriented parallel to the long
dimension of the panel. The odd number of layers with alternating grain direction
equalizes strains, reduces splitting, and minimizes dimensional change and warping
of the panel.
Mat-formed panel—any wood-based panel that does not contain veneer but is
consistent with the definition of structural-use panels, including products such as
waferboard and oriented strand board.
Oriented strand board—an engineered structural wood panel composed of
compressed wood strands arranged in layers at right angles to one another and
bonded with fully waterproof adhesive.
Composite panel—any panel containing a combination of veneer and other
wood-based materials.
Exterior—panels that are suitable for permanent exposure to weather or moisture.
Exposure 1—panels that are suitable for uses not permanently exposed to the
weather but may be used where exposure durability to resist effects of moisture
due to construction delays, high humidity, water leakage, or other conditions of
similar severity is required.
Exposure 2—panels that are suitable for interior use where exposure durability
to resist effects of high humidity and water leakage is required.
Interior—panels that are suitable for interior use where they will be subjected
to only temporary, minor amounts of moisture.
DESIGN VALUES FOR MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS
Nails, staples, spikes, wood screws, bolts, and timber connectors, such as shear
plates and split rings, are used for connections in wood construction. Because
determination of stress distribution in connections made with wood and metal is
complicated, information for design of joints has been developed from tests and
experience. The data indicate that design values and methods of design for mechanical
connections are applicable to both solid sawn lumber and laminated members
WALL, FLOOR, AND CEILING
SYSTEMS
MASONRY WALLS
Masonry comprises assemblages of nonmetallic, incombustible materials, such as
stone, brick, structural clay tile, concrete block, glass block, gypsum block, or adobe
brick. Unit masonry consists of pieces of such materials, usually between 4 and 24
in in length and height and between 4 and 12 in in thickness. The units are bonded
together with mortar or other cementitious materials.
Walls and partitions are classified as load-bearing and non-load-bearing. Different
design criteria are applied to the two types.
MASONRY DEFINITIONS
Following are some of the terms most commonly encountered in masonry construction:
Architectural Terra Cotta. (See Ceramic Veneer.)
Ashlar Masonry. Masonry composed of rectangular units usually larger in size
than brick and properly bonded, having sawed, dressed, or squared beds. It is
laid in mortar.
Bearing Walls. (See Load-Bearing Wall.)
Bonder. (See Header.)
Brick. A rectangular masonry building unit, not less than 75% solid, made from
burned clay, shale, or a mixture of these materials.
Buttress. A bonded masonry column built as an integral part of a wall and decreasing
in thickness from base to top, though never thinner than the wall. It is
used to provide lateral stability to the wall.
Ceramic Veneer. Hard-burned, non-load-bearing, clay building units, glazed or
unglazed, plain or ornamental.
Chase. A continuous recess in a wall to receive pipes, ducts, conduits.
Column. A compression member with width not exceeding 4 times the thickness,
and with height more than 3 times the least lateral dimension.
Concrete Block. A machine-formed masonry building unit composed of portland
cement, aggregates, and water.
Coping. A cap or finish on top of a wall, pier, chimney, or pilaster to prevent
penetration of water to masonry below.
Corbel. Successive course of masonry projecting from the face of a wall to increase
its thickness or to form a shelf or ledge
Course. A continuous horizontal layer of masonry units bonded together (Fig.
11.3).
Cross-Sectional Area. Net cross-sectional area of a masonry unit is the gross
cross-sectional area minus the area of cores or cellular spaces. Gross crosssectional
area of scored units is determined to the outside of the scoring, but the
cross-sectional area of the grooves is not deducted to obtain the net area.
Eccentricity. The normal distance between the centroidal axis of a member and
the component of resultant load parallel to that axis.
Effective Height. The height of a member to be assumed for calculating the
slenderness ratio.
Effective Thickness. The thickness of a member to be assumed for calculating
the slenderness ratio.
Grout. A mixture of cementitious material, fine aggregate, and sufficient water
to produce pouring consistency without segregation of the constituents.
Grouted Masonry. Masonry in which the interior joints are filled by pouring
grout into them as the work progresses.
Header (Bonder). A brick or other masonry unit laid flat across a wall with end
surface exposed, to bond two wythes (Fig. 11.1b).
Height of Wall. Vertical distance from top of wall to foundation wall or other
intermediate support.
Hollow Masonry Unit. Masonry with net cross-sectional area in any plane parallel
to the bearing surface less than 75% of its gross cross-sectional area measured
in the same plane.
Lateral Support. Members such as cross walls, columns, pilasters, buttresses,
floors, roofs, or spandrel beams that have sufficient strength and stability to resist
horizontal forces transmitted to them may be considered lateral supports.
Load-Bearing Wall. A wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own
weight.
Masonry. A built-up construction or combination of masonry units bonded together
with mortar or other cementitious material.
Mortar. A plastic mixture of cementitious materials, fine aggregates, and water.
Partition. An interior non-bearing wall one story or less in height.
Pier. An isolated column of masonry. A bearing wall not bonded at the sides into
associated masonry is considered a pier when its horizontal dimension measured
at right angles to the thickness does not exceed 4 times its thickness.
Pilaster. A bonded or keyed column of masonry built as part of a wall, but thicker
than the wall, and of uniform thickness throughout its height. It serves as a
vertical beam, column, or both.
Prism. An assemblage of brick and mortar for the purpose of laboratory testing
for design strength, quality control of materials, and workmanship. Minimum
height for prisms is 12 in, and the slenderness ratio should lie between 2 and 5.
Rubble:
Coursed Rubble. Masonry composed of roughly shaped stones fitting approximately
on level beds, well bonded, and brought at vertical intervals to continuous
level beds or courses.
Random Rubble. Masonry composed of roughly shaped stones, well bonded and
brought at irregular vertical intervals to discontinuous but approximately level
beds or courses.
Rough or Ordinary Rubble. Masonry composed of nonshaped field stones laid
without regularity of coursing, but well bonded.
Slenderness Ratio. Ratio of the effective height of a member to its effective
thickness.
Solid Masonry Unit. A masonry unit with net cross-sectional area in every plane
parallel to the bearing surface 75% or more of its gross cross-sectional area
measured in the same plane.
Solid Masonry Wall. A wall built of solid masonry units laid contiguously, with
joints between units filled with mortar or grout.
Stretcher. A masonry unit laid with length horizontal and parallel with the wall
face (Fig. 12.3).
Veneer. A wythe securely attached to a wall but not considered as sharing load
or adding strength to it
Virtual Eccentricity. The eccentricity of resultant axial loads required to produce
axial and bending stresses equivalent to those produced by applied axial and
transverse loads.
Wall. Vertical or near-vertical construction, with length exceeding three times the
thickness, for enclosing space or retaining earth or stored materials.
Bearing Wall. A wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight.
Cavity Wall. (See Hollow Wall below.)
Curtain Wall. A non-load-bearing exterior wall.
Faced Wall. A wall in which the masonry facing and the backing are of different
materials and are so bonded as to exert a common reaction under load.
Hollow Wall. A wall of masonry so arranged as to provide an air space within
the wall between the inner and outer wythes A cavity
wall is built of masonry units or plain concrete, or of a combination of these
materials, so arranged as to provide an airspace within the wall, which may be
filled with insulation, and in which inner and outer wythes are tied together with
metal ties
Nonbearing Wall. A wall that supports no vertical load other than its own weight.
Party Wall. A wall on an interior lot line used or adapted for joint service between
two buildings.
Shear Wall. A wall that resists horizontal forces applied in the plane of the wall.
Spandrel Wall. An exterior curtain wall at the level of the outside floor beams in
multistory buildings. It may extend from the head of the window below the floor
to the sill of the window above.
Veneered Wall. A wall having a facing of masonry or other material securely
attached to a backing, but not so bonded as to exert a common reaction under
load
Wythe. Each continuous vertical section of a wall one masonry unit in thickness
Materials for Masonry Construction
Strength (compressive, shearing, and transverse) of brick structures is affected by
the properties of the brick and the mortar in which they are laid. In compression,
strength of brick has the greater effect. Although mortar is also a factor in compressive
strength, its greater effect is on the transverse and shearing strengths of
masonry. For these reasons, there are specific design requirements for and limitations
on materials used in engineered brick structures.
Brick.
In addition, brick used in load-bearing or shear walls must comply with the dimension
and distortion tolerances.
Mortar. Most of the test data on which allowable stresses for engineered brick
masonry are based were obtained for specimens built with portland cement-hydrated
lime mortars.
Bond between Wythes in Masonry Walls
Grouted Masonry
Construction of walls requiring two or more wythes of brick or solid concrete block,
similar to the wall shown in Fig. 11.3a, may be speeded by pouring grout between
the two outer wythes, to fill the interior joints. Building codes usually require that,
for the wythes, the mortar be type M or S, consisting of portland cement, lime,
and aggregate (Art. 4.16). Also, they may require that, when laid, burned-clay brick
and sand-lime units should have a rate of absorption of not more than 0.025 oz/
in2 over a 1-mm period in the standard absorption test (ASTM C67). All units in
the two outer wythes should be laid with full head and bed joints.
Low-Lift Grouting. The vertical spaces between wythes that are to be grouted
should be at least 3⁄4 in wide. Masonry headers should not project into the gap.
One of the outer wythes may be carried up 18 in before grout is poured. The other
outer wythe is restricted to a height up to 6 times the grouting space, but not more
than 8 in, before grout is poured. Thus, in this type of construction, grout is poured
in lifts not exceeding 8 in. The grout should be puddled with a grout stick immediately
after it has been poured. If work has to be stopped for an hour or more,
horizontal construction joints should be formed by raising all wythes to the same
level and leaving the grout 1 in below the top. A suitable grout for this type of
construction consists of 1 part portland cement, 0.1 part hydrated lime or lime putty,
and 21⁄4 to 3 parts sand.
High-Lift Grouting. This type of construction is often used where steel reinforcement
is to be inserted in the vertical spaces between wythes; for example, in the
cavity of the wall shown in Fig. 11.3e. Grout is poured continuously in lifts up to
6 ft high and up to 30 ft long in the vertical spaces. (Vertical barriers, or dams, of
solid masonry may be built in the grout space to control the horizontal flow of
grout.) Building codes may require each lift to be completed within one day. The
grout should be consolidated by puddling or mechanical vibrating as it is placed
and reconsolidated after excess moisture has been absorbed but before plasticity
has been lost. A suitable grout for gaps 2 or more inches wide consists of 1 part
portland cement, 0.1 part hydrated lime or lime putty, 2 to 3 parts sand, and not
more than 2 parts gravel, by volume.
In construction of the wall, the wythes should be kept at about the same level.
No wythe should lay behind the others more than 16 in in height. The masonry
should be allowed to cure for at least 3 days, to gain strength, before grout is
poured. The grout space should be at least 2 in wide. If, however, horizontal
reinforcement
is to be placed in the gap, it should be wide enough to provide 1⁄4 in
clearance around the steel, but not less than 3 in wide.
SANDWICH PANELS
Walls may be built of prefabricated panels that are considerably larger in size than
unit masonry and capable of meeting requirements of appearance, strength, durability,
insulation, acoustics, and permeability. Such panels generally consist of an
insulation core sandwiched between a thin lightweight facing and backing.
When the edges of the panels are sealed, small holes should be left in the seal.
Otherwise, heat of the sun could set up sizable vapor pressure, which could cause
Trouble.
Plaster Mixes
Plaster Drying
Gypsum Bases for Plaster
Masonry Bases for Plaster
Gypsum partition tile has scored faces to provide a mechanical bond as well as the
natural bond of gypsum to gypsum plaster. The 12 _ 30-in faces of the tile present
an unwarped plastering surface because the tile is dried without burning. This is
done so that a mechanic can lay a straighter wall than with other types of units.
Mortars and Adhesives
Portland-Cement Mortar. This is suitable for most surfaces and ordinary installations.
For floors, the mix may be 1 part portland cement and about 6 parts sand.
For walls, about 1⁄2 part of hydrated lime may be added to the floor mix. The bed
may be 3⁄4 to 11⁄4 in thick. Tiles may be set into the bed while the mortar is still
plastic (ANSI A108.1). Or, after the mortar has cured, the tiles may be bonded to
the mortar bed with a 1⁄16-in-thick coat of dry-set or latex portland-cement mortar
or with neat cement. If a neat-cement bond coat is used and the tile is absorptive,
it should be soaked before being set.
Dry-Set Mortar. This is a mix of portland cement and sand, with additives that
impart water retentivity
Latex Portland-Cement Mortar. This is a mix containing portland cement, sand,
and a latex additive.
Organic Adhesive. This is an organic material that cures or sets by evaporation.
Epoxy Mortar. Suitable for use where chemical resistance, high bond strength, or
high impact resistance is needed, this mortar contains epoxy resin and hardener
TOOLS
Contents
Welcome to the 'Tools' resource. You will learn about:
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different tools
tool usage.
Tool tips
Whatever the type or purpose of the tools you are using, you must keep them in good
repair and safely stored.
1. Keep tools clean. Wash off any materials or dirt at the end of each day.
2. Maintain tools carefully - especially electrically-driven tools. These should be
inspected and tagged by an electrician every three months.
3. Lock tools away at the end of the day - especially those that are dangerous.
Applying and flattening
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Raking tool
Round iron jointer
Trowel - Large
Trowel - Pointing
Trowel - Finger
Caulking gun
Filling blade
Flat brushes
Paint pot
Paint roller
Paint roller tray
Paint stirrer
Sash cutter brush
Trowel - Rubber squeegee
Trowel - Notched or serrated
Trowel - Double ended pointing
Bullnose template
Floats
Floats - Fining
Floats - Long
Floats - Mitre
Trowel - Floating
Trowel - Gauging
Angle tools
Trowel - Laying
Metal scratcher
Plasterer's hawk
Trowel - Setting
Water brush
Automatic taper
Broad knives
Corner finisher/ Corner rollers
Corner tools
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Mechanical tools
Mechanical tools
Small tools
Trowel - Straight edge
Trowel - Wais
Cleaning and protecting
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Broom
Soft hand broom
Vacuum cleaner
Drop sheet
Masking machine
Scraper
Wire brush
Cutting and shaping tools
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Bolster
Brick hammer
Masonry saw
Hand sanding block
Tungsten tipped scribe
Nipper cutters
Hand tile cutter
Hole cutter
Cold chisel
Lump hammer
Mash hammer
Angle grinders
Bolt cutters
Cutting knife
Reciprocating saw
Wire cutters
Crosscut or hand saw
Coping saw
Drop saw
Electric drills
Mitre box
Panel saw
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Power sander
Sanders hand/ pole
Tin snips
Trimming knife
Digging and demolishing
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Crowbar/ Fencing bar
Earth moving equipment
Jackhammer
Pinch bar/ Wrecking bar
Pneumatic chisel
Rock breaker/ Pneumatic pick
Shovels and spades
Elevating and holding
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Scaffolding
Adjustable props
Elevated work platforms
Ladder
Lifting systems
Trestles
General equipment
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Concrete mixer
Extension/ power leads
Hoses
Wheelbarrow
Mortar board
Air compressor
Ropes, cables, chains
Saw stool/horse
Hammering and fixing
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Screwdrivers
Nail punch
Comb hammer
Nail gun
Pliers
Sledge hammer
Spanner
Stapler
Plumber's wrench
Nail gun
Explosive powered fastener (Hilti gun)
Claw hammer
Power/battery screwdriver or screwgun
Screw gun
Scutch hammer
Measuring, aligning and levelling
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One metre folding rule
Gauge rod
Bevel
Steel compass
Spirit level
Long straight edge
Large wooden square
Plumb rule and bob
Line pins and lines
Line blocks
Steel square
Metal joint rule
Straight edge
Combination square
Chalk line reel
Steel tape
Tee square/ T-square
Raking tool
This has an adjustable pin on two small wheels and you use it to rake out joints. The
adjustable pin means you can rake to a specific depth.
Round iron jointer
These jointers leave a recessed (concave) joint. They are used for facing concrete blocks.
Trowel - Large
These have steel blades and wooden handles. They are available in many shapes and
sizes and are used by bricklayers, plasterers and masons. This is a very useful tool. It can
be used for spreading mortar or plaster, tapping things into place and pointing.
Trowel - Pointing
Pointing trowels also come in various sizes. They are used for quality pointing work.
Trowel - Finger
This is a thin, narrow trowel (also called a caulking trowel) with a steel blade and a
wooden handle. It is used to smooth out joints and for caulking and filling mortar joints.
Bolster
A bolster is made of steel and is usually 100 mm wide. It is used with a lump hammer to
cut masonry and bricks accurately.
It is also used for removing tiles and bricks.
Check that the shaft and blade are straight and clean.
Brick hammer
This is a small hammer that has a sharp end (as well as the striking end). The sharp end is
used by masons and bricklayers to cut masonry and bricks roughly.
Masonry saw
This is a motor-driven power tool. It is especially useful for making accurate cuts in
masonry and bricks.
Tinsnips
Tinsnips are like strong scissors. They are used for cutting thin strips or sheets of
metal.
One metre folding rule
This handy rule is used to measure short distances. It is sometimes called a 'zigzag'
rule. It is made of plastic or boxwood and folds to a length of 250 mm.
Steel tape
A steel tape can be three to thirty metres long. It used to measure larger distances, such as
a wall and other building areas.
Gauge rod
This is used by bricklayers to work out courses. It is usually two to three metres long and
is made of timber or aluminium. It is marked off in required vertical measurements, such
as the height of window sills or door heads. It can be used, for example to make sure the
courses are a regular height at the main corners of a building.
Bevel
A bevel has a 250 mm adjustable blade, which is useful if you have to cut materials at an
angle other than 90º.
Steel compass
This is used to mark off a series of measurements.
Spirit level
A spirit level is used to check the level of a horizontal or vertical surface. For example, it
can be used to make sure corners and walls are aligned vertically. Spirit levels are 450 to
1200 mm long.
Long straight edge
These vary in size. A typical one might be three metres long. You use them with spirit
levels to check levels. It is usually used in building trades for setting out.
Large wooden square
You can use this tool to set out the right angle corners, especially of a large structure like
a building. It is made of battens 75 x 25 mm with sides around 1200 mm long.
Plumb rule and bob
This is a string with a weight on the end. The weight is usually about 1.3 kg. It is used to
show the direction of the vertical. You use the plumb and bob to check the vertical
alignment of walls and so on.
Line pins and lines
These are used by bricklayers to align the brick courses. The line is stretched tight
between the pins, which are held in the mortar joints. The bricks are laid to the line.
Line blocks
These are used by bricklayers as an alternative to pins to hold the lines. They are made of
wood or plastic and attach the line to the corner of the profile. (A profile is a temporary
structure that helps the bricklayer align the bricks.)
Steel square
A steel square can be used to set out or test small right angle corner
Broom
A broom is an essential piece of equipment. A tidy worksite involves keeping areas swept
clean of mud, dirt and rubble.
Soft hand broom
A small soft broom is used for sweeping extra materials off surfaces such as timber and
bricks.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding allows workers to work at height safely. Scaffolding above four metres can
only be erected or dismantled by a person who has a scaffolding certificate.
Concrete mixer
This may be electric or petrol-driven. It is used to mix large amounts of material such as
mortar or concrete.
Extension/power leads
These are used to connect electrically-driven power tools to the power source. They must
be regularly inspected to make sure they are safe and serviceable.
Hoses
Hoses can of course be used for cleaning but are also needed for connecting to clean
water supplies for mixing some materials.
Wheelbarrow
Wheelbarrows are used for moving heavy materials, removing debris and for mixing
smaller quantities of things such as mortar and concrete.
Check:


the wheelbarrow is big enough and strong enough for the job (it can tip over if the
things you carry in it are too big)
the wheel is turning correctly and the tyre is inflated.
Mortar board
Mortar boards are used by bricklayers for 'working' the already mixed mortar before
laying the bricks.
Caulking gun
A caulking gun can be used to apply sealant in cracks between wood and plaster surfaces.
The tube of sealant is attached to the gun, which squeezes the sealant out of the tube.
Filling blade
This is used to apply small amounts of plaster or oil-based filler to small gaps or cracks in
a surface you are going to coat.
Flat brushes
Variously sized flat brushes are used to coat large areas such as walls, ceilings,
weatherboards, and masonry. The most common are the 100 mm, 75 mm and 50 mm
brushes. For example, a 75 mm flat brush is used for coating such things as cornices and
downpipes.
Paint pot
Small amounts of paint are poured from large paint containers into a paint pot. This pot is
usually used when you are painting with a brush.
Paint roller
Paint rollers are used for painting large surfaces. They come with short handles and with
extension poles for reaching high surfaces.
Paint roller tray
These hold the paint when you are working with a paint roller. You roll the roller up and
down in the tray to cover it evenly with paint.
Paint stirrer
This is a broad, flat wooden stick. You use it to mix the paint while it is still in the
container. You mix until the paint is a consistent texture and colour.
Sash cutter brush
These are sometimes called 'fitches'. They come in various sizes, from very narrow to
75 mm wide. Sash cutters have long handles of about 200 mm, which means you can
reach into high or narrow, difficult to reach spaces.
Vacuum cleaner
Vacuum cleaners are useful for cleaning away dust. Unlike brooms, they do not spread
dust as they clean.
Check:


electric leads are in good condition
the dust collecting bag is emptied regularly.
Drop sheet
These can be fabric or plastic. You use these to cover large surfaces, such as floors,
cupboards or furniture to protect them from such things as paint, dust, or plaster.
Masking machine
You can use a masking machine to apply masking tape and plastic or paper, if you have
large surfaces to cover for protection.
Scraper
You can use a scraper to remove flaking paint spots when the rest of the surface is in
reasonable repair.
Power sander
Several kinds of power sanders are available. They are generally used for removing old
coatings of paint. Such power tools include disc sanders, orbital-rotating sanders, and belt
sanders. Like all power tools they can be dangerous if not used carefully.
Power-driven sanders vary in their specific purpose and in how they are used. You must
be trained in their use and follow the safety requirements.
Hand sanding block
A hand sanding block is often made of cork. Some have handles. You wrap sandpaper
(abrasive paper) around the block and sand in a circular or up and down motion.
Claw hammer
The 'claw' is used to grip nails and then lever them out.
The claw hammer can also be used for hammering nails and hitting other tools (eg chisels
and bolsters) lightly.
Check:


the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off
the handle isn't splintered or broken.
Screwdrivers
Screwdrivers are used for inserting and removing screws. Flat tipped screwdrivers can be
used for prising small objects away from surfaces.
Check:



you have the correct screwdrivers for the job - the wrong size or type can burr the
head of the screw
the shaft of each screwdriver is straight
the tip is square and not worn.
Nail punch
This small tool is used with a hammer to hit nails so that they do not protrude from a
surface.
Ladders
There are different ways ladders can be used:
1. extension ladder - leans against something solid like a wall
2. freestanding
3. trestles and planks to form a raised platform.
Check:



no treads are bent or broken
the ladder opens out and locks in position to support itself
the locking mechanism on the legs works correctly.
Wire brush
This is used to brush down hard, rough, very dirty or flaking surfaces. It can also be used
for cleaning brushes.
Trowel - Rubber squeegee
This trowel is particularly useful to tilers. The pointed blade means the grouting can be
forced into angles and around the edges of tiles.
Trowel - Notched or serrated
One version of this trowel has grooves around the edge and flat tips. Another has
serrations, that is, sharp points. This trowel is used to spread a thin bed of adhesive onto a
wall. It leaves the adhesive in a series of grooves at an even height.
Trowel - Double ended pointing
This small trowel is very useful for fine pointing and grouting work.
Tungsten-tipped scribe
This is a simple kind of cutting tool. It is used by tradespeople such as tilers. You draw
the hard steel tip across the face of the tile and then snap the tile along the cutting line.
This is how it is done.
Using a square and tungsten-tipped
scribe to cut a tile.
Nipper cutters
These are called nippers because of the nipping action you use with them. There are two
main types.
They are not scissors! You grip the tile and break it with a levering action, not just a
squeeze. You can nip out a curve like this.
Hand tile cutter
This has a flat bed where the tile is laid and measured for cutting, and a draw bar on
which the handle and cutting wheel ride. There is an adjustable gauge so that you can
easily cut a number of tiles to the same size.
After you have scored a line on the face of the tile with the wheel, you place the handle
assembly on the lower part of the tile. Then with a steady pressure you break the tile by
bending backwards along the cut.
Hole cutter
There are many kinds of hole cutters. In tiling, they may be needed to cut a hole to tile
around some kind of fitting. One common way to cut a hole in a tile is with a masonry
drill and bit. It must be kept wet or you may damage the bit or discolour the tile. You drill
the tile from the back.
Cold chisel
These come in various sizes and have many uses in the construction industry. They are
often used to chip rough material such as concrete. Tilers also use them, for example, to
lift old tiles.
Comb hammer
A comb hammer has a serrated edge. You use it for chipping off unwanted material such
as old mortar or tiles, or for roughing up parts of a surface to be solid plastered.
Lump hammer or Mash hammer
This solid hammer is used with cutting tools like bolsters and chisels.
Check:


the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off
the handle isn't splintered or broken.
Bullnose template
A frame of thin metal or wooden board with a rounded (bullnose) angle used as a guide
for forming work to be done. Used in plastering to give an even and accurate radius to an
external bullnose on floated walls.
Different templates are needed to give different radii. They are usually made by the
plasterer.
Floats
Wooden float
Plastic float
Floats are generally used for smoothing of walls 'floating' to provide a flat, even surface.
They come in a range of sizes. In mould work there are a lot of different shapes to float
up, so moulding floats are often made to suit a particular job or mould profile.
Small delicate floats should be stored separately from heavy tools to avoid damage.
Floats are mostly made from timber but can be made from plastic or composite materials.
See also Floats - Fining, Floats - Long and Floats - Mitre.
Warning!
Never scrape timber tools clean. They should always be washed with a brush. They
should also be stored out of the sun when not being used.
Floats - Fining
These are fine surfaced, small to medium sized floats that are used to bring up a fine
cement finish.
Floats - Long
Long floats are used in narrow areas or for applying and straightening setting coats. They
are also used in floating concrete. Long floats can be made from aluminium or timber.
Floats - Mitre
The ends of these floats are cut at 45° angles to allow access to awkward areas. They are
mostly used in mould work.
Trowel - Floating
These have flat steel blades with a mounted wooden or plastic
handle. Standard blade size is 120 x 280 mm.
A floating trowel is used to spread and flatten mortar on walls, ceilings or other areas. It
is also used to apply render and float coats.
Other uses include scraping walls and floors, cleaning mortar boards, tools and
equipment and mixing mortar on the board.
Trowel - Gauging
A tool used to apply cement mortar or plaster in awkward areas where a floating or
setting trowel cannot be used. Often used when doing mould work.
Gauging trowels are like a smaller version of the large trowel used in bricklaying but
with a rounded end. They come in sizes from 100 mm to 225 mm.
Angle tools
External angle tool Internal angle tool
These are a type of trowel with angular metal blades used to smooth internal and external
corners. They come in a range of sizes with each tool set to a different radius, so often a
number of different sized tools are needed.
Smaller radius
Metal scratcher
Larger radius
A tool made from a piece of sheet metal (approximately 200 mm by 150 mm) with large
teeth cut into one edge. It is used to scratch render or float coats to provide a key for the
next coat of mortar.
Plasterer's hawk
A square of aluminium or wood (300 mm x 300 mm) with a wooden handle underneath
which can be padded.
The hawk is used together with a trowel or float to transfer plaster or mortar from the
mortar board to the surface to be plastered.
Trowel - Setting
A setting trowel is used by plasterers to apply and finish setting and finishing coats.
Setting trowels should be stored in a protective sleeve (sheath) made from plywood or
sheet metal when not in use. This protects the fine edges from damage. Damaged edges
on trowels leave marks on finished work.
Small tools
These tools come in a range of shapes and sizes. They are made from steel. They are used
in fine ornamental work like stopping up and finishing cornices and mould work.
Water brush
A water brush is used to wet down walls when applying the set coat. The better the
quality of the bristles the more water the brush can hold.
Metal joint rule
Joint rules are used to extend internal and external members of cement and plaster mould
work. They are also useful where a short straight edge is needed. They come in a range of
sizes from 100 mm to 600 mm. Although some metal joint rules are available
commercially, many plasterers will get them made.
Straight edge
These vary in size from 1.5 m to 3.6 m. In plastering they are used to screed off mortar or
in some cases to straighten setting work.
Warning!
Wooden straight edges used for plastering should be cleaned with a water brush and hung
in a covered area to dry. They should also be stored out of the sun when not being used.
Adjustable props
These supports can be adjusted to the height that is needed. They are used, for
example, to support the roof over a load bearing wall that is going to be
demolished.
Check:


that you have enough props for the job
that the base and top plates, and winding mechanisms, are in good order.
Air compressor
This is used to power pneumatic tools like nail guns or screw guns. It should not be used
to blow away dust - this just makes dust pollution.
Check:



the compressor is on flat, dry ground
the power lead is in good condition and connected safely to a power outlet
hoses and fittings are in good condition and not leaking.
Angle grinders
The spinning disk on an angle grinder cuts through metal bars and pipes.
Warning!
You should always wear eye protection when using an angle grinder.
Bolt cutters
These are used for cutting metal rods and bolts.
Crowbar/Fencing bar
Crowbar
Fencing bar
These long, solid steel poles have a point or chisel at one end. They are used to break up
ground when digging holes for posts. They can also be used as a lever.
Cutting knife
Cutting knife or trimming knife
This knife is used for cutting or trimming materials such as plasterboard, wallpaper, vinyl
and cardboard. The blade may be replaceable or retractable. When a retractable blade
becomes blunt, the end section is snapped off to leave a new sharp section.
Warning: Trimming knives are very sharp.


Never cut towards yourself or anyone else.
The blade should be fully retracted when it is not being used.
Earth moving equipment
Excavator
Bobcat
Front end loader
Bulldozer
These machines are used for digging and moving earth.
Note that special requirements apply to trenches over 1.5 metres deep. Refer to the code
of practice for safety precautions in trenching operations.
Elevated work platforms
These raised platforms are used to make it easier and safer to work in high places.
Jackhammer
A jackhammer is a power tool that is used to break up small areas
of concrete or asphalt. With different bits attached, it becomes a
pneumatic chisel, pneumatic pick or rockbreaker.
Check the power cord is in good condition and connected safely to
a power outlet.
Ladder
Freestanding
Extension ladder - leans against something solid like a wall
Trestles and planks form a raised platform
There are several different types of ladders.
Check:



no treads are bent or broken
the ladder opens out and locks in position to support itself
the locking mechanism on the legs works correctly.
Lifting systems
Hoists and cranes are used to lift large or heavy materials into or out of a worksite.
Nail gun
This pneumatic tool inserts nails when a trigger is pressed. It drives in small or large nails
much faster than hand nailing.
Pinch bar/Wrecking bar
This is a length of steel with a claw at one end bent into a U-shape, and a chisel at the
other end. It is used when more force is needed to claw nails, fastenings and panels.
Pliers
Pliers are useful for gripping rods or bolts. They also have small cutting blades that can
be used to cut thin wire. Pliers can also be used for squeezing and bending soft metals.
Ropes, cables, chains
These are used:



to attach to structures that are being pulled down
to stabilise a wall during demolition
to attach materials to hoists or cranes.
Reciprocating saw
This power driven saw works with a backwards and forwards motion, and is useful for
sawing through materials that are difficult to reach, particularly when accurate cutting is
not needed (eg in demolition).
Shovels and spades
Spades



have flat blades
are used for digging
tend to have shorter handles.
Shovels


have shaped blades for scooping and moving materials
tend to have longer handles, which have greater reach, are better for
leverage and are easier on the back.
Sledgehammer
This large and heavy hammer is used for hitting heavy fixed objects like brick walls and
timber frames to demolish them.
Check:


the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off
the handle isn't splintered or broken.
Spanner
Ring spanner
Open end spanner
Adjustable spanner
Spanners are used for tightening and loosening bolts. You need to choose the size of
spanner that fits the bolt you are working on, or else use an adjustable spanner.
Stapler
A stapler is used for attaching materials such as plywood or thin sheeting cloth to wood.
Wire cutters
These are used for cutting fencing wire and other kinds of wire.
Check that the blades are sharp and the tool is in generally good condition.
Plumber's wrench
This tool is good for gripping round objects (eg pipe fittings) so they can be turned. It is
used for tightening and loosening plumbing fittings.
Panel saw
This is a hand saw with a blade between 450 and 500 mm long. It has small fine teeth that
allow you to cut very accurately and smoothly. You can use it to cut small to medium
sections of timber or plywood.
Crosscut saw
The crosscut saw is a hand tool with a blade between 500 and 700 mm long. The tooth
size is larger than a panel saw. You can use the crosscut saw to cut structural and
finishing timbers. Crosscut blades do not rip well. (Ripping means cutting along the
grain.)
Coping saw
A coping saw has a thin blade like a file only about 1.5 mm in depth. This blade is held in
a steel frame. You use the coping saw to cut curves and other small, difficult shapes.
Drop saw
The drop saw is sometimes called a mitre saw. It is electrically operated and adjustable,
and is used to cut (dock) timber to length. It can be adjusted to cut at angles between 90°
and any angle down to 45°. It makes accurate repetitive cuts. You can use it for detailed
joinery tasks.




You unlock and move the rotating saw table to the cutting angle required and then
lock it in place.
You lower the rotating saw towards the material to cut.
A similar tool is the sliding compound drop saw. The operation is the same as the
compound mitre saw except that the blade assembly slides towards you as it cuts.
Various kinds of blades are available for table saws. A common type for cutting
timber are the tungsten carbide tipped blades (TCT). These can be used for a lot
of cutting before they need sharpening.
Saw stool/horse
A saw stool is also called a saw horse. It is a four legged stool that is used to hold the
timber while you are sawing it.
Air nail gun
This machine drives in small or large nails much faster than hand nailing.
Explosive powered fastener (Hilti gun)
This tool drives in metal nails. It uses an explosive cartridge.
Power/battery screwdriver
This electric or battery tool drives in screws much faster than hand screwing.
Electric drills
Drills are used to bore holes in wood for fastening builders' fixings such as bolts and
masonry anchors.
Combination square
This tool has a sliding blade that can be locked in any position. You use it to test for
square, mark lines at 90 or 45 degrees, or to gauge parallel lines.
Chalk line reel
This tool is used to mark a straight line with a chalked string. You pull the string out of a
plastic or aluminium casing, which can be refilled with chalk.
Automatic taper
Automatic taper, corner finisher and corner roller
These are mechanical tools used for finishing joints between plasterboards.
Mechanical tools are useful when you have a lot of joints that need to be finished. They
are used to bed the tape and apply the skim coat.
Broad knives
These come in a range of widths from 25 mm to 150 mm to suit different uses. Narrow
blades are used for applying adhesive and bedding tape into corners. Wider blades are
used for bedding tapes into recess joints.
Claw hammer
The 'claw' is used to grip nails and then lever them out.
The claw hammer can also be used for hammering nails, and hitting other tools (like
chisels and bolsters) lightly.
Claw hammers used in dry wall plastering have a convex head to reduce the chance of
damaging the face of the plaster sheets. They also give a concave indent to the
plasterboard so that the nail can be easily concealed with plaster.
Check:


the head is strongly fixed on and can't fly off
the handle is not splintered or broken.
Corner finisher/corner rollers
Automatic taper, corner finisher and corner roller
These are mechanical tools used for finishing joints between plasterboards.
Mechanical tools are useful when you have a lot of joints that need to be finished. They
are used to bed the tape and apply the skim coat.
Corner tools
These are used by plasterers for finishing internal corners. They come in two sizes - 50
mm for applying tape to internal angles and 100 mm for finishing internal angles, to give
a neat, straight corner.
Mechanical tools
Automatic taper
Corner finisher
Automatic taper, corner finisher and corner roller
These are mechanical tools used for finishing joints between plasterboards.
Mechanical tools are useful when you have a lot of joints that need to be finished. They
are used to bed the tape and apply the skim coat.
Mitre box
This is used to cut 45o angles in cornices.
Panel saw
This is a small hand saw with a blade between 450 and 500 mm long. It has small fine
teeth that allow you to cut very accuratley and smoothly. You can use it to cut small
sections of timber, plywood or cornice.
A plaster saw is similar to this but has larger teeth.
Power sander
Belt sander
Orbital sander
Disc sander
Several kinds of power sanders are available. They are generally used for removing old
coatings of paint or sanding back plaster joints. Such power tools include disc sanders,
orbital-rotating sanders, and belt sanders. Like all power tools they can be dangerous if
not used carefully.
Power-driven sanders vary in their specific purpose and in how they are used. You must
be trained in their use and follow the safety requirements.
Power/battery screwdriver or screwgun
These electric or battery tools drive in screws much faster than hand screwing. These are
available with an automatic feed facility which feeds a strip of screws into the gun.
Screwgun
Screwgun
This electric or battery tools drives in screws much faster than hand screwing. These are
available with an automatic feed facility which feeds a strip of screws ino the gun.
Sanders - hand/pole
Hand sander and pole sander
A hand sander is shaped like a trowel with sand paper attached to the face.
A pole sander is like a hand sander with a long pole attached to the handle so that ceilings
can be sanded without a scaffold.
Trowel - Straight edge
A straight edge trowel is used for the general application of compound to external angles,
columns, beams and arches.
Tinsnips
Tinsnips are like strong scissors. They are used for cutting thin strips or sheets of metal.
Trimming knife or cutting knife
This knife is used for cutting or trimming materials such as plasterboard, wallpaper, vinyl
and cardboard. The blade may be replaceable or retractable. When a retractable blade
becomes blunt, the end section is snapped off to leave a new sharp section.
Warning: Trimming knives are very sharp.


Never cut towards yourself or anyone else.
The blade should be fully retracted when it is not being used.
Tee square or T-square
A Tee square (or T-square) is a T-shaped wooden tool, used when cutting across the
width of plasterboard with a knife. It comes in different lengths (1200 mm and 1350 mm)
to suit different widths of plasterboard sheet.
Trowel - Waisted
This tool is used to apply bedding and finishing compounds. When held at the correct
angle and with the right amount of pressure, the line of the trowel over the recessed joint
is straight.
A 200 mm waisted trowel is used to apply the second coat of bedding compound.
A 275 mm waisted trowel is used to apply the finishing compound and the edges are
automatically feathered (ie thinner on one side than on the other).
Trestles
Trestles are used to support planks to make an easily portable work platform.
Scutch hammer
A scutch hammer is like a brick hammer with a 'comb' at one end. This is used for
roughing up parts of a surface to be plastered.
Българо-английски речник на
строителни термини
Bulgarian
aрмировка, укрепване
English
a system of steel bars, strands,
wires, or mesh for absorbing the
tensile and shearing stresses in
concrete work
aрмировъчна стомана
агент недвижими имоти
английска превръзка
арка, свод
архитектура;
бетон
бетонджия
бетонирам
бетонобъркачка
reinforcement
reinforcing steel
a person who is authorized to act as
an agent for the sale of land
estate agent
English bond
a curved masonry construction for
spanning an opening, consisting of a
number of wedgelike stones, bricks,
or the like, set with the narrower side
toward the opening in such a way
that forces on the arch are
transmitted as vertical or oblique
stresses on either side of the
opening
arch
the profession of designing
buildings, open areas, communities,
and other artificial constructions and
environments, usually with some
regard to aesthetic effect
architecture
the mixture of cement, sand, gravel,
and water
concrete n.
concretor
to treat or lay with concrete
concrete v.
a machine with a large revolving
drum in which cement is mixed with
other materials to make concrete
concrete mixer
бичмета
блокова превръзка
боя
боядисвам
бутобетон
вар
варна мазилка
варов разтвор
водоснабдяване
водосточна тръба (канал)
възстановявам, обновявам
вътрешна oблицовка
heavy joist
the overlap of blocks in a
construction so as to increase its
strength
a substance composed of solid
coloring matter suspended in a
liquid medium and applied as a
protective or decorative coating to
various surfaces
to coat or cover anything with paint
concrete made with rubble from
demolished structures
a white or grayish-white, odorless,
lumpy, very slightly water-soluble
solid, CaO, used chiefly in mortars,
plasters, and cements, in bleaching
powder, and in the manufacture of
steel, paper, glass, and various
chemicals of calcium
the supply of purified water available
to a community
a channel at the eaves or on the
roof of a building, for carrying off rain
water
to restore to good condition; make
new or as if new again; repair
a layer of material on the inner side
or surface of something
газобетон
гасена вар
гвоздей
географска ширина
lime slacked by exposure to the air,
in consequence of the absorption of
carton dioxide and water, by which it
is converted into carbonate of lime
and hydrate of lime
a slim, pointed piece of metal
hammered into material as a
fastener
the angular distance north or south
from the equator of a point on the
earth's surface, measured on the
meridian of the point
block bond
paint n.
paint v.
rubble concrete
lime
lime cast
lime solution
water supply
gutter
renovate
lining
aero
concrete/aerocrete
slacked lime
nail n.
latitude
геодезист
геодезична снимка
геодезия
гипс
гипс
гипсова мазилка
гипсова мазилка
главна греда
греда, траверса
груба мазилка
датчик
двойна стена
двупластова мазилка
длето
дъска
дъска
дъсчена облицовка, ламперия
дялан камък
an engineer who determines the
boundaries and elevations of land or
structures
a land area survey in which the
curvature of the surface of the earth
is taken into account
the branch of applied mathematics
that deals with the measurement of
the shape and area of large tracts of
country, the exact position of
geographical points, and the
curvature, shape, and dimensions of
the earth
common white or colorless mineral
(hydrated calcium sulphate) used to
make cements and plasters
(especially plaster of Paris)
powdered gypsum
a layer or coating of plaster
an exterior finish for masonry or
frame walls, usually composed of
cement, sand, and hydrated lime
mixed with water and laid on wet
beam of a balance
A structural member transversely
supporting a load
An instrument for measuring or
testing
double wall
cover with two coats of plaster
a piece of wood sawed thin, and of
considerable length and breadth
compared with the thickness
a long, flat piece of timber, thicker
than a board
surveyor
geodetic survey
geodesy
gypsum
plaster
plastering
stucco
axis
beam
rough coat
gauge
double leaf
render set
tooler
board
plank
Planks considered as a group
planking
a squared building stone cut more or
less true on all faces adjacent to
those of other stones so as to permit
very thin mortar joints
ashlar
забивам гвоздей
замазка
засводен
земеустрoйство
To fasten, join, or attach with or as if
with a nail
A type of dough used in sealing
glass in the sash, filling small holes
and crevices in wood, and for similar
purposes
constructed or covered with a vault,
as a building or chamber
зидария
A person skilled in building with
bricks.
a person whose trade is building
with units of various natural or
artificial mineral products, as stones,
bricks, cinder blocks, or tiles, usually
with the use of mortar or cement as
a bonding agent
a person who builds with or dresses
stone
Stone, brick, concrete, hollow-tile,
concrete block, or other similar
building units or materials. Normally
bonded together with mortar to form
a wall.
зидария от дялани камъни
masonry made of ashlars
зидар
зидар
зидар, каменоделец
nail v.
putty
vaulted
land regulation
bricklayer
mason
stonemason
masonry
ashlarwork
зидария от ломени камъни
rubble masonry
зидария от плътни тухли
massive masonry
зидария от половин тухла
a masonry of bricks cut transversely
so as to leave one end whole
зидария с дебелина една тухла
зидарско канче
зидарция, облицована с дялан
камък
измерване
измерител; измервателен уред
bat brick
one stretcher wide
masonry can
masonry with stone that has been
worked to desired shape; the faces
to be exposed are smooth
a person or thing that gauges
dressed masonry
measuring
gauger
кадастър
каменарско шило
каменоделски чук
канал; улей
канап
канап
кариера
карта/географска/
картография
катран, смола
клещи
клещи
клещи
количество бетон от едно
забъркване
колона/в строителството/
an official register of the ownership,
extent, and value of real property in
a given area, used as a basis of
taxation
an adzlike tool for dressing stone
any channel, trough, or the like for
carrying off fluid
a string or thin rope made of several
strands braided, twisted, or woven
together
a slender cord or thick thread used
for binding or tying; line
an excavation or pit, usually open to
the air, from which building stone,
slate, or the like, is obtained by
cutting, blasting, etc.
a drawing or plan, in outline, of (any
part of) the surface of the earth, with
various features shown (usually
roads, rivers, seas, towns etc)
a structural member transversely
supporting a load
any of various dark, tenacious, and
viscous substances for caulking and
paving, consisting of the residue of
the distillation of coal tar or wood tar
a gripping tool consisting of two
pivoted limbs forming a pair of jaws
and a pair of handles
small pincers with long jaws, for
bending wire, holding small objects,
etc.
any of various implements
consisting of two arms hinged,
pivoted, or otherwise fastened
together, for seizing, holding, or
lifting something
the quantity of concrete prepared or
required for one operation
a rigid, relatively slender, upright
support
cadastre
juniper
hack-hammer
gutter
cord
string
quarry
map
cartography
pitch
pinchers
pliers (a pair of)
tongs
batch
column
конзолна греда
конструирам,строя
конструкция
корито (за строителен разтвор)
корниз
a short wooden beam projecting
from an interior wall to support or tie
together rafters or arched roof
braces
to build or form by putting together
parts; frame; devise
something built or constructed, as a
building, bridge, or dam
a portable trough for carrying mortar,
bricks, etc., fixed crosswise on top of
a pole and carried on the shoulder
any prominent, continuous,
horizontally projecting feature
surmounting a wall or other
construction
космичен геодезист
кота/надморска височина/
кофа
кофраж
кофраж
кофраж
крива
лак
ламарина
лата
construct, build
structure
hod
cornice, perch,
moulding
cosmic surveyor
The height of a thing above a
reference level
elevation /level ma
a deep, cylindrical vessel, usually of
metal, plastic, or wood, with a flat
bottom and a semicircular bail, for
collecting, carrying, or holding water,
sand, fruit, etc.; pail
bucket
encasing
the structure of boards, bolts, etc.,
composing a form for pouredconcrete or rammed-earth
construction
formwork/sheathin
shuttering
a continuously bending line, without
angles
curve
кръстата превръзка
кръстовище/пътно/
hammer-beam
cross bond
a road that crosses another road, or
one that runs transversely to main
roads
A paint containing a solvent and an
oxidizing or evaporating binder,
used to coat a surface with a hard,
glossy, transparent film
plate iron thinner than tank iron
a conspicuously painted pole held
upright to show the position of a
survey mark
cross-road
varnish
sheet iron
range pole/lath,ba
лебедка
лебедка, крич
лепило
летва, дъска
либела
лопата
мазилка
мазилка;
мазилка; облицовка; слой, покритие
мастар;
мерене, измерване
метален ъгъл, винкел
метла
метър
jinny
A stationary motor-driven or handpowered machine used for hoisting
or hauling, having a drum around
which is wound a rope or chain
attached to the load being moved
a substance that causes something
to adhere, as glue or rubber cement
A thin strip of wood or metal, usually
nailed in rows to framing supports as
a substructure for plaster, shingles,
slates, or tiles
a device used for determining or
adjusting something to a horizontal
surface
A tool with a handle and a broad
scoop or blade for digging and
moving material
A cement mixture used to
waterproof outer walls
a composition, as of lime or gypsum,
sand, water, and sometimes hair or
other fiber, applied in a pasty form to
walls, ceilings, etc., and allowed to
harden and dry;
a layer of anything that covers a
surface
a paving tool for spreading and
smoothing concrete, consisting of a
straightedge mounted transversely
on a long handle
A method of determining quantity,
capacity, or dimension
a piece of structural iron or steel
having a cross section in the form of
an L
an implement for sweeping,
consisting of a brush of straw or stiff
strands of synthetic material bound
tightly to the end of a long handle
A yardstick is a tool used to
physically measure lengths of up to
a yard (0.9144 metres or three feet).
winch
adhesive
lath
balance level
shovel
parget
plaster
coat
lute
measurement
angle iron/L beam
broom
yard meter
метър
мистрия
мистрия
мистрия
мистрия
монтажен отвор
монтажна стяга
монтиране
мост
надлъжна превръзка
наклонена покривна греда
напоителен/оросителен канал
напречна греда
напречна греда
напречна греда
напречна греда
A yardstick is a tool used to
physically measure lengths of up to
a yard (0.9144 metres or three feet).
a flat tool for spreading and
smoothing plaster or stucco
a shaping tool used by potters and
consisting of a flat blade or plate
with a handle at one end
any of various tools having a flat
blade with a handle, used for
depositing and working mortar,
plaster, etc.
Any of various devices used to join,
grip, support, or compress
mechanical or structural parts
the process of putting with precise
placement or adjustment
a structure spanning and providing
passage over a river, chasm, road,
or the like
a brickwork bond having successive
courses of overlapping stretchers
One of a series of structural
members of a roof designed to
support roof loads. The rafters of a
flat roof are sometimes called roof
joists
water conveyance artificial channels,
which are used for the conveyance
and delivery of water
a girder supporting the ends of two
sets of floor joists
yard stick
depositor
float
pallet
trowel
mounting hole
assembly clamp
fitting
bridge
stretcher bond
rafter
irrigation canal
binder, cross-arm
cross beam
a horizontal timber or the like for
connecting two structural members
to keep them from spreading apart,
as a beam connecting the feet of
two principal rafters in a roof truss
tie beam
A structural load-carrying member
with an open web system which
supports floors and roofs utilizing
hot-rolled or cold-formed steel and is
designed as a simple span member joist
напречна греда, щурц
a crosspiece separating a door or
the like from a window or fanlight
above it
напречна превръзка
настилка
настилка;тротоар
негасена вар
недвижим имот
нивелир, либела;
ниво
носеща греда
носеща стена
носеща, подсилваща част
oблицовка
oблицовка
oблицовка с плочки
окачен таван
основа на мазилка
отвес
oтвес
oтвес
отводнителен канал, тръба;
канализация
transom
transverse bond
Material, such as lumber or tile,
used in making floors
walk consisting of a paved area for
pedestrians; usually beside a street
or roadway
Calcium oxide; unslacked lime; -- so
called because when wet it
develops great heat
property, esp. in land
a device used for determining or
adjusting something to a horizontal
surface
height above ground
A wall that supports any vertical load
in addition to its own weight
a timber or the like connecting two
ribs of a centering
a covering in front, for ornament,
protection, etc., as an outer layer of
stone on a brick wall
an ornamental facing, as on a
common masonry wall, of marble,
face brick, tiles, etc.
the operation of covering with tiles
a ceiling system supported by
hanging it from the overhead
structural framing
A coat of plaster or cement applied
to a masonry surface
A weight on the end of a line, used
especially by masons and
carpenters to establish a true
vertical
something, as a pipe or conduit, by
which a liquid drains
flooring
pavement
quick(burnt) lime
real estate
level
level
carrier beam
bearing wall
bolster
facing
revetment
tiling
suspended ceiling
rendering
plumb
plumb-line
vertical level
drain n.
отводнявам, пресушавам; дренирам
oтвор
oтвор
oтвор
парцел
парче тухла
пенобетон
пенобетон
пердашка
планиране
плоча
поддръжка
покрив
поправям
преградна стена
to withdraw liquid gradually from;
make empty or dry by drawing off
liquid
an opening, as a hole, slit, crack,
gap, etc.
an opening through something; gap;
aperture
an open space serving as a
passage or gap
a measured area of land; a lot
a piece, especially of brick
foam concrete is cement bonded
material manufactured by blending a
very fluid cement paste (slurry) and
then injecting stable, pre-formed
foam into the slurry.
a tool for smoothing the surface of
plaster or cement
an act of formulating a program for a
definite course of action
a piece of fine-grained metamorphic
rock cut for use as roofing or
surfacing material
the work of keeping something in
proper condition; upkeep
the external upper covering of a
house or other building
To restore to sound condition after
damage or injury; fix, mend
an interior wall or barrier dividing a
room, area of a building, enclosure,
etc., into separate areas
drain v.
aperture
hole
opening
plot
brick-bat
cellular concrete
foam concrete
mason’s float
planning
slate
maintenance
roof
repair
partition
предварително напрегнат бетон
prestressed conc
преносима бъркачка
проект
portable mixer
design
проект
проектиране
a plan; a project
something that is contemplated,
devised, or planned; plan; scheme
project
the act of working out the form of
something (as by making a sketch or
outline or plan
design
първа/основна боя
пясък
a primary coat of paint; priming;
base coat
the more or less fine debris of rocks,
consisting of small, loose grains,
often of quartz
разпънка, траверса, напречник.
разтвор /строителен/; варов разтвор
регистриране
редова зидария
репер
решетка
pешетна тухла
pулетка
A mixture of cement (or lime) with
sand and water used in masonry
work
The act of registering; registry;
enrollment
Masonry construction in which the
stones are laid in regular courses,
not irregularly as in rough or random
rubble.
an official register of the ownership,
extent, and value of real property in
a given area, used as a basis of
taxation
A framework of crossed wood or
metal strips
A brick having holes through it which
total at least 25% of its volume
a long, flexible strip marked with
subdivisions of the foot or meter and
used for measuring
mortar
registration
coursed masonry
bеnchmark
lattice
hollow brick
tape measure
project manager
A one- or two-wheeled vehicle with
handles at the rear, used to convey
small loads
сводест, куполовиден
сводова зидария
sand
crossarm; tie-bar
ръководител проект
ръчна количка
ground/first coat
wheelbarrow
arched, arch-shap
A structure, especially one of
masonry, forming the curved,
pointed, or flat upper edge of an
open space and supporting the
weight above it, as in a bridge or
doorway
arching
свързващо вещество, строителен
разтвор
a material for holding loose material
together, as in a macadamized road
сглобяване; дограма
cекач
cистема от греди и подпори
скеле
cкица
cтеги
cтеги
стомана
стоманобетон
joinery
a wedgelike tool with a cutting edge
at the end of the blade, often made
of steel, used for cutting or shaping
wood, stone, etc.
a system of large beams of wood or
steel used to support concentrated
loads at isolated points along its
length
a temporary structure for holding
workers and materials during the
erection, repair, or decoration of a
building
A drawing or diagram made to scale
showing the structure or
arrangement of something
Any of various tools with opposing,
often adjustable sides or parts for
bracing objects or holding them
together
generally hard, strong, durable,
malleable alloy of iron and
carbonwidely used as a structural
material
concrete containing steel bars,
strands, mesh, etc., to absorb
tensile and shearing stresses
стоманобетонна плоча
строителен разтвор (вода, пясък,
цимент и понякога дребен чакъл)
строителна площадка
строително скеле
binder
a thin, coarse mortar poured into
various narrow cavities, as masonry
joints or rock fissures, to fill them
and consolidate the adjoining
objects into a solid mass
a lot on which there are no
permanent buildings
a temporary platform or structure of
posts and boards for support, as in
building; scaffolding
chisel
girderage
scaffold
plan
building clips
clamps
steel
reinforced concret
reinforced concret
slab
grout
building site
staging
стълба
стълбище
cуха зидария
суха каменна зидария
cуха мазилка
сухопътен,земен
cхема
схема/чертеж/
теодолит
технически pъководител (на обект),
майстор-бригадир
трион
тръбопровод
тухла
тухлена превръзка
фина мазилка
фина мазилка
An often portable structure
consisting of two long sides crossed
by parallel rungs, used to climb up
and down
steps collectively, esp. as forming a
flight or a series of flights
the activity of building stone walls
without mortar
masonry made with irregular
fragments or pieces of rock
pertaining to, consisting of, or
representing the earth as distinct
from other planets
a plan, design, or program of action
to be followed; project
a graphic representation, as by
curves, of a dependent variable, as
temperature, price, etc.; graph
pertaining to, consisting of, or
representing the earth
a person who exercises control over
workers
a tool or device for cutting, typically
a thin blade of metal with a series of
sharp teeth
A conduit of pipe, especially one
used for the conveyance of water,
gas, or petroleum products
a block of clay hardened by drying in
the sun or burning in a kiln, and
used for building, paving, etc.
the overlap of bricks in a
construction so as to increase its
strength
a final coat of plaster or paint
фламандска превръзка
фугирам (при зидане)
фугирана зидария
ladder
stairs
dry walling
rubble work
plaster board
terrestrial
scheme
chart
theodolite
foreman
saw
pipeline
brick
brick bond
finishing coat
skin coat
Flemish bond
to finish (a mortar joint), as by
striking
joint v.
joint masonry
фундамент
хаспел
хаспел
хаспел, макара, скрипец
хелиографско копие; чертеж
хоризонтална греда или дъска на
скеле
цимент
циментна замазка
челна превръзка
чело, шев, спойка, шарнир (на
връзка)
чертеж
чертеж (груб)
чертеж (груб)
четка
чук
шпакла
the lowest division of a building,
wall, or the like, usually of masonry
and partly or wholly below the
surface of the ground
machine or device designed to pick
up, raise, or carry something
An object, such as a spool or barrel,
around which material is wound
A chain or electric lifting device
usually attached to a trolly which
travels along a monorail or bridge
crane
a process of photographic printing,
used chiefly in copying architectural
and mechanical drawings, which
produces a white line on a blue
background
A horizontal timber in a scaffold,
attached to the uprights and
supporting the putlogs
A structural member transversely
supporting a load
A substance, such as dried clay or
cement, used to pack and seal pipe
joints and other connections or coat
a porous surface in order to make it
tight
a brickwork bond composed entirely
of overlapping headers
The space between the adjacent
surfaces of two members or
components joined and held
together by nails, glue, cement,
mortar, or other means
a sketch or design
a drawing, sketch, or design
a drawing, sketch, or design
an implement for sweeping,
consisting of a brush of straw or stiff
strands of synthetic material bound
tightly to the end of a long handle
a tool consisting of a solid head,
usually of metal, set crosswise on a
handle, used for beating metals,
driving nails, etc.
foundation
lift
winder
hoist
blue print
ledger
cement
lute
header bond
joint
drawing
draft
draught, draft
brush
hammer
broad knife
шпакла, бояджийска лопата
шпакловка
шпакловка
щурц
язовир
putty knife
a coat of plaster for finishing a
ceiling or interior wall
A horizontal structural member that
supports the load over an opening
such as a door or window
a barrier to obstruct the flow of
water, esp. one of earth, masonry,
etc., built across a stream or river
Construction Glossary from Home Building Manual
A/C- An abbreviation for air conditioner or air conditioning.
A/C Condenser- The outside fan unit of the Air Conditioning system. It removes the
heat from the freon gas and "turns" the gas back into a liquid and pumps the liquid back
to the coil in the furnace.
A/C Disconnect- The main electrical ON-OFF switch near the A/C Condenser.
Aerator- The round screened screw-on tip of a sink spout. It mixes water and air for a
smooth flow.
Aggregate- A mixture of sand and stone and a major component of concrete.
Air space - The area between insulation facing and interior of exterior wall coverings.
Normally a 1" air gap.
Allowance(s) - A sum of money set aside in the construction contract for items which
have not been selected and specified in the construction contract. For example, selection
of tile as a flooring may require an allowance for an underlayment material, or an
electrical allowance which sets aside an amount of money to be spent on electrical
fixtures.
grout
void filling
lintel
dam
Amortization - A payment plan by which a loan is reduced through monthly payments of
principal and interest.
Anchor bolts- Bolts to secure a wooden sill plate to concrete , or masonry floor or wall.
Annual Percentage Rate (APR)- Annual cost of credit over the life of a loan, including
interest, service charges, points, loan fees, mortgage insurance, and other items.
Appraisal An expert valuation of property.
Apron- A trim board that is installed beneath a window sill
Architect - One who has completed a course of study in building and design, and is
licensed by the state as an architect. One who draws up plans.
Area wells- Corrugated metal or concrete barrier walls installed around a basement
window to hold back the earth
Assessment - A tax levied on a property, or a value placed on the worth of a property.
Assumption - Allows a buyer to assume responsibility for an existing loan instead of
getting a new loan.
Astragal- A molding, attached to one of a pair of swinging double doors, against which
the other door strikes.
Attic access- An opening that is placed in the drywalled ceiling of a home providing
access to the attic.
Attic Ventilators- In houses, screened openings provided to ventilate an attic space.
Back Charge- Billings for work performed or costs incurred by one party that, in
accordance with the agreement, should have been performed or incurred by the party to
whom billed. Owners bill back charges to general contractors, and general contractors bill
back charges to subcontractors. Examples of back charges include charges for cleanup
work or to repair something damaged by another subcontractor, such as a tub chip or
broken window.
Backfill- The replacement of excavated earth into a trench around or against a basement
/crawl space foundationwall.
Backing- Frame lumber installed between the wall studs to give additional support for
drywall or an interior trim related item, such as handrail brackets, cabinets, and towel
bars. In this way, items are screwed and mounted into solid wood rather than weak
drywall that may allow the item to break loose from the wall. Carpet backing holds the
pile fabric in place.
Backout- Work the framing contractor does after the mechanical subcontractors
(Heating-Plumbing-Electrical) finish their phase of work at the Rough (before insulation)
stage to get the home ready for a municipal frame inspection. Generally, the framing
contractor repairs anything disturbed by others and completes all framing necessary to
pass a Rough Frame Inspection.
Ballast- A transformer that steps up the voltage in a florescent lamp.
Balloon - A loan that has a series of monthly payments with the remaining balance due in
a large lump sum payment at the end.
Balloon framed wall- Framed walls (generally over 10' tall) that run the entire vertical
length from the floor sill plate to the roof. This is done to eliminate the need for a gable
end truss.
Balusters- Vertical members in a railing used between a top rail and bottom rail or the
stair treads. Sometimes referred to as 'pickets' or 'spindles'.
Balustrade- The rail, posts and vertical balusters along the edge of a stairway or elevated
walkway.
Barge- Horizontal beam rafter that supports shorter rafters.
Barge board- A decorative board covering the projecting rafter (fly rafter) of the gable
end. At the cornice, this member is a fascia board.
Base or baseboard- A trim board placed against the wall around the room next to the
floor.
Basement window inserts- The window frame and glass unit that is installed in the
window buck.
Base shoe- Molding used next to the floor on interior base board. Sometimes called a
carpet strip.
Bat - A half-brick.
Batt - A section of fiber-glass or rock-wool insulation measuring 15 or 23 inches wide by
four to eight feet long and various thickness'. Sometimes "faced" (meaning to have a
paper covering on one side) or "unfaced" (without paper).
Batten- Narrow strips of wood used to cover joints or as decorative vertical members
over plywood or wide boards.
Bay window- Any window space projecting outward from the walls of a building, either
square or polygonal in plan.
Beam- A structural member transversely supporting a load. A structural member carrying
building loads (weight) from one support to another. Sometimes called a "girder".
Bearing partition- A partition that supports any vertical load in addition to its own
weight.
Bearing point- A point where a bearing or structural weight is concentrated and
transferred to the foundation
Bearing wall- A wall that supports any vertical load in addition to its own weight.
Bearing header- (a) A beam placed perpendicular to joists and to which joists are nailed
in framing for a chimney, stairway, or other opening. (b) A wood lintel. (c) The
horizontal structural member over an opening (for example over a door or window).
Bedrock- A subsurface layer of earth that is suitable to support a structure.
Bid- A formal offer by a contractor, in accordance with specifications for a project, to do
all or a phase of the work at a certain price in accordance with the terms and conditions
stated in the offer.
Bid bond- A bond issued by a surety on behalf of a contractor that provides assurance to
the recipient of the contractor's bid that, if the bid is accepted, the contractor will execute
a contract and provide a performance bond. Under the bond, the surety is obligated to pay
the recipient of the bid the difference between the contractor's bid and the bid of the next
lowest responsible bidder if the bid is accepted and the contractor fails to execute a
contract or to provide a performance bond.
Bid security Funds or a bid bond submitted with a bid as a guarantee to the recipient of
the bid that the contractor, if awarded the contract, will execute the contract in
accordance with the bidding requirements of the contract documents.
Bid shopping- A practice by which contractors, both before and after their bids are
submitted, attempt to obtain prices from potential subcontractors and material suppliers
that are lower than the contractors' original estimates on which their bids are based, or
after a contract is awarded, seek to induce subcontractors to reduce the subcontract price
included in the bid.
Bidding requirements- The procedures and conditions for the submission of bids. The
requirements are included ion documents, such as the notice to bidders, advertisements
for bids, instructions to bidders, invitations to bid, and sample bid forms.
Bifold door- Doors that are hinged in the middle for opening in a smaller area than
standard swing doors. Often used for closet doors.
Binder- A receipt for a deposit to secure the right to purchase a home at an agreed terms
by a buyer and seller.
Bipass doors- Doors that slide by each other and commonly used as closet doors.
Blankets- Fiber-glass or rock-wool insulation that comes in long rolls 15 or 23 inches
wide.
Blocked (door blocking)- Wood shims used between the door frame and the vertical
structural wall framing members.
Blocked (rafters)- Short "2 by 4's" used to keep rafters from twisting, and installed at the
ends and at mid-span.
Blocking- Small wood pieces to brace framing members or to provide a nailing base for
gypsum board or paneling.
Block out- To install a box or barrier within a foundation wall to prevent the concrete
from entering an area. For example, foundation walls are sometimes "blocked" in order
for mechanical pipes to pass through the wall, to install a crawl space door, and to
depress the concrete at a garage door location.
Blow insulation- Fiber insulation in loose form and used to insulate attics and existing
walls where framing members are not exposed.
Blue print(s) - A type of copying method often used for architectural drawings. Usually
used to describe the drawing of a structure which is prepared by an architect or designer
for the purpose of design and planning, estimating, securing permits and actual
construction.
Blue stake- Another phrase for Utility Notification. This is when a utility company
(telephone, gas, electric, cable TV, sewer and water, etc) comes to the job site and locates
and spray paints the ground and/or installs little flags to show where their service is
located underground.
Board foot- A unit of measure for lumber equal to 1 inch thick by 12 inches wide by 12
inches long. Examples: 1" x 12" x 16' = 16 board feet, 2" x 12" x 16' = 32 board feet
Bond or bonding - An amount of money (usually $5,000-$10,000) which must be on
deposit with a governmental agency in order to secure a contractor's license. The bond
may be used to pay for the unpaid bills or disputed work of the contractor. Not to be
confused with a 'performance bond'. Such bonds are rarely used in residential
construction, they are an insurance policy which guarantees proper completion of a
project.
Boom- A truck used to hoist heavy material up and into place. To put trusses on a home
or to set a heavy beam into place.
Bottom chord - The lower or bottom horizontal member of a truss.
Bottom plate- The "2 by 4's or 6's" that lay on the subfloor upon which the vertical studs
are installed. Also called the 'sole plate'.
Brace- An inclined piece of framing lumber applied to wall or floor to strengthen the
structure. Often used on walls as temporary bracing until framing has been completed.
Breaker panel- The electrical box that distributes electric power entering the home to
each branch circuit (each plug and switch) and composed of circuit breakers.
Brick ledge- Part of the foundation wall where brick (veneer) will rest.
Brick lintel- The metal angle iron that brick rests on, especially above a window, door,
or other opening.
Brick mold-Trim used around an exterior door jamb that siding butts to.
Brick tie- A small, corrugated metal strip @ 1" X 6"- 8" long nailed to wall sheeting or
studs. They are inserted into the grout mortar joint of the veneer brick, and holds the
veneer wall to the sheeted wall behind it.
Brick veneer- A vertical facing of brick laid against and fastened to sheathing of a
framed wall or tile wall construction.
Bridging- Small wood or metal members that are inserted in a diagonal position between
the floor joists or rafters at mid-span for the purpose of bracing the joists/rafters &
spreading the load.
Buck- Often used in reference to rough frame opening members. Door bucks used in
reference to metal door frame. See Window Bucks
Builder's Risk Insurance- Insurance coverage on a construction project during
construction, including extended coverage that may be added for the contract for the
customer's protections.
Building codes- Community ordinances governing the manner in which a home may be
constructed or modified.
Building insurance- Insurance covering the structure of the building.
Building paper- A general term for papers, felts, and similar sheet materials used in
buildings without reference to their properties or uses. Generally comes in long rolls.
Built-up roof- A roofing composed of three to five layers of asphalt felt laminated with
coal tar, pitch, or asphalt. The top is finished with crushed slag or gravel. Generally used
on flat or low-pitched roofs.
Bull nose (drywall)- Rounded drywall corners.
Bundle - A package of shingles. Normally, there are 3 bundles per square and 27
shingles per bundle.
Butt edge- The lower edge of the shingle tabs.
Butt hinge- The most common type. One leaf attaches to the door's edge, the other to its
jamb.
Butt joint- The junction where the ends of two timbers meet, and also where sheets of
drywall meet on the 4 foot edge. To place materials end-to-end or end-to-edge without
overlapping.
Buy down- A subsidy (usually paid by a builder or developer) to reduce monthly
payments on a mortgage.
By fold door- Doors that are hinged in the middle for opening in a smaller area than
standard swing doors. Often used for closet doors.
By pass doors- Doors that slide by each other and commonly used as closet doors.
C
CO- An abbreviation for "Certificate of Occupancy". This certificate is issued by the
local municipality and is required before anyone can occupy and live within the home. It
is issued only after the local municipality has made all inspections and all monies and
fees have been paid.
Caisson- A 10" or 12" diameter hole drilled into the earth and embedded into bedrock 3 4 feet. The structural support for a type of foundation wall, porch, patio, monopost, or
other structure. Two or more "sticks" of reinforcing bars (rebar) are inserted into and run
the full length of the hole and concrete is poured into the caisson hole
Cantilever- An overhang. Where one floor extends beyond and over a foundation wall.
For example at a fireplace location or bay window cantilever. Normally, not extending
over 2 feet.
Cantilevered void- Foundation void material used in unusually expansive soils
conditions. This void is "trapezoid" shaped and has vertical sides of 6" and 4"
respectively.
Cap- The upper member of a column, pilaster, door cornice, molding, or fireplace.
Cap flashing- The portion of the flashing attached to a vertical surface to prevent water
from migrating behind the base flashing.
Capital- The principal part of a loan, i.e. the original amount borrowed.
Capital and interest- A repayment loan and the most conventional form of home loan.
The borrower pays an amount each month to cover the amount borrowed (or capital or
principal) plus the interest charged on capital.
Capped rate- The mortgage interest rate will not exceed a specified value during a
certain period of time, but it will fluctuate up and down below that level.
Casement- Frames of wood or metal enclosing part (or all) of a window sash. May be
opened by means of hinges affixed to the vertical edges.
Casement Window- A window with hinges on one of the vertical sides and swings open
like a normal door
Casing- Wood trim molding installed around a door or window opening.
Caulking- (1) A flexible material used to seal a gap between two surfaces e.g. between
pieces of siding or the corners in tub walls. (2) To fill a joint with mastic or asphalt
plastic cement to prevent leaks.
CCA (Chromated Copper Arsenate)- A pesticide that is forced into wood under high
pressure to protect it from termites, other wood boring insects, and decay caused by
fungus
Celotex ™- Black fibrous board that is used as exterior sheething.
Ceiling joist- One of a series of parallel framing members used to support ceiling loads
and supported in turn by larger beams, girders or bearing walls. Also called roof joists.
Cement- The gray powder that is the "glue" in concrete. Portland cement. Also, any
adhesive.
Ceramic tile- A man-made or machine-made clay tile used to finish a floor or wall.
Generally used in bathtub and shower enclosures and on counter tops.
CFM (cubic feet per minute)- A rating that expresses the amount of air a blower or fan
can move. The volume of air (measured in cubic feet) that can pass through an opening in
one minute.
Chair rail- Interior trim material installed about 3-4 feet up the wall, horizontally.
Chalk line- A line made by snapping a taut string or cord dusted with chalk. Used for
alignment purposes.
Change order- A written document which modifies the plans and specifications and/or
the price of the construction Contract.
Chase- A framed enclosed space around a flue pipe or a channel in a wall, or through a
ceiling for something to lie in or pass through.
Chink- To install fiberglass insulation around all exterior door and window frames, wall
corners, and small gaps in the exterior wall.
Chip Board- A manufactured wood panel made out of 1"- 2" wood chips and glue. Often
used as a substitute for plywood in the exterior wall and roof sheathing. Also called OSB
(Oriented Strand Board) or wafer board.
Circuit- The path of electrical flow from a power source through an outlet and back to
ground.
Circuit Breaker- A device which looks like a switch and is usually located inside the
electrical breaker panel or circuit breaker box. It is designed to (1) shut of the power to
portions or all of the house and (2) to limit the amount of power flowing through a circuit
(measured in amperes). 110 volt household circuits require a fuse or circuit breaker with
a rating of 15 or a maximum of 20 amps. 220 volt circuits may be designed for higher
amperage loads e.g. a hot water heater may be designed for a 30 amp load and would
therefore need a 30 amp fuse or breaker.
Class "A"- Optimum fire rating issued by Underwriter's Laboratories on roofing. The
building codes in some areas require this type of roofing for fire safety.
Class "C"- Minimum fire rating issued by the Underwriters' Laboratories for roofing
materials.
Clean out- An opening providing access to a drain line. Closed with a threaded plug.
Clip ties- Sharp, cut metal wires that protrude out of a concrete foundation wall (that at
one time held the foundation form panels in place).
Cold air return- The ductwork (and related grills) that carries room air back to the
furnace for re-heating.
Collar- Preformed flange placed over a vent pipe to seal the roofing above the vent pipe
opening. Also called a vent sleeve.
Collar beam- Nominal 1- or 2-inch-thick members connecting opposite roof rafters.
They serve to stiffen the roof structure.
Column- A vertical structural compression member which supports loads.
Combustion air- The duct work installed to bring fresh, outside air to the furnace and/or
hot water heater. Normally 2 separate supplies of air are brought in: One high and One
low.
Combustion chamber- The part of a boiler, furnace or woodstove where the burn
occurs; normally lined with firebrick or molded or sprayed insulation.
Compression web- A member of a truss system which connects the bottom and top
chords and which provides downward support.
Compressor- A mechanical device that pressurizes a gas in order to turn it into a liquid,
thereby allowing heat to be removed or added. A compressor is the main component of
conventional heat pumps and air conditioners. In an air conditioning system, the
compressor normally sits outside and has a large fan (to remove heat).
Concrete- The mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water. Used to make garage
and basement floors, sidewalks, patios, foundation walls, etc. It is commonly reinforced
with steel rods (rebar) or wire screening (mesh).
Concrete block - A hollow concrete 'brick' often 8" x 8" x 16" in size.
Concrete board - A panel made out of concrete and fiberglass usually used as a tile
backing material.
Condensation- Beads or drops of water (and frequently frost in extremely cold weather)
that accumulate on the inside of the exterior covering of a building. Use of louvers or
attic ventilators will reduce moisture condensation in attics. A vapor barrier under the
gypsum lath or dry wall on exposed walls will reduce condensation.
Condensing unit - The outdoor component of a cooling system. It includes a compressor
and condensing coil designed to give off heat.
Conditions, Convenants, and Restrictions (CC and Rs) - The standards that define
how a property may be used and the protections the developer makes for the benefit of all
owners in a subdivision.
Conduction- The direct transfer of heat energy through a material.
Conductivity- The rate at which heat is transmitted through a material.
Conduit, electrical- A pipe, usually metal, in which wire is installed.
Construction Contract - A legal document which specifies the what-when-where-howhow much and by whom in a construction project. A good construction contract will
include:
1. The contractors registration number.
2.
A statement of work quality such as 'Standard Practices of the Trades' or
'according to Manufacturers Specifications'.
3. A set of Blue Prints or Plans
4. A construction timetable including starting and completion dates.
5. A set of Specifications
6. A Fixed Price for the work, or a Time and Materials formula.
7. A Payment Schedule.
8. Any Allowances.
9. A clause which outlines how any disputes will be resolved.
10. A written Warrantee.
Construction drywall- A type of construction in which the interior wall finish is applied
in a dry condition, generally in the form of sheet materials or wood paneling as contrasted
to plaster.
Construction, frame- A type of construction in which the structural components are
wood or depend upon a wood frame for support.
Continuity tester- A device that tells whether a circuit is capable of carrying electricity.
Contractor- A company licensed to perform certain types of construction activities. In
most states, the generals contractor's license and some specialty contractor's licenses don't
require of compliance with bonding, workmen's compensation and similar regulations.
Some of the specialty contractor licenses involve extensive training, testing and/or
insurance requirements. There are various types of contractors:
· General contractor - responsible for the execution, supervision and overall
coordination of a project and may also perform some of the individual construction
tasks. Most general contractors are not licensed to perform all specialty trades and
must hire specialty contractors for such tasks, e.g. electrical, plumbing.
· Remodeling contractor - a general contractor who specializes in remodeling work.
· Specialty contractor - licensed to perform a specialty task e.g. electrical, side
sewer, asbestos abatement.
· Sub contractor - a general or specialty contractor who works for another general
contractor.
Control joint- Tooled, straight grooves made on concrete floors to "control" where the
concrete should crack
Convection- Currents created by heating air, which then rises and pulls cooler air behind
it. Also see radiation.
Conventional loan A mortgage loan not insured by a government agency (such as FHA
or VA)
Convertibility The ability to change a loan from an adjustable rate schedule to a fixed
rate schedule.
Cooling load- The amount of cooling required to keep a building at a specified
temperature during the summer, usually 78° F, regardless of outside temperature.
Coped- Removing the top and bottom flange of the end(s) of a metal I-beam. This is
done to permit it to fit within, and bolted to, the web of another I-beam in a "T"
arrangement
Coped joint- Cutting and fitting woodwork to an irregular surface.
Corbel- The triangular, decorative and supporting member that holds a mantel or
horizontal shelf.
Corner bead- A strip of formed sheet metal placed on outside corners of drywall before
applying drywall 'mud'.
Corner boards- Used as trim for the external corners of a house or other frame structure
against which the ends of the siding are finished.
Corner braces- Diagonal braces at the corners of the framed structure designed to stiffen
and strengthen the wall.
Cornice- Overhang of a pitched roof , usually consisting of a fascia board, a soffit and
appropriate trim moldings.
Counter flashing- A metal flashing usually used on chimneys at the roofline to cover
shingle flashing and used to prevent moisture entry.
Counterfort- A foundation wall section that strengthens (and generally perpendicular to)
a long section of foundation wall
Course- A row of shingles or roll roofing running the length of the roof. Parallel layers
of building materials such as bricks, or siding laid up horizontally.
Cove molding- A molding with a concave face used as trim or to finish interior corners.
Crawl space- A shallow space below the living quarters of a house, normally enclosed
by the foundation wall and having a dirt floor.
Credit rating- A report ordered by a lender from a credit agency to determine a
borrower's credit habits.
Cricket- A second roof built on top of the primary roof to increase the slope of the roof
or valley. A saddle-shaped, peaked construction connecting a sloping roof with a
chimney. Designed to encourage water drainage away from the chimney joint.
Cripple- Short vertical "2 by 4's or 6's" frame lumber installed above a window or door.
Cross bridging- Diagonal bracing between adjacent floor joists, placed near the center of
the joist span to prevent joists from twisting.
Cross Tee- Short metal "T" beam used in suspended ceiling systems to bridge the spaces
between the main beams.
Crown molding- A molding used on cornice or wherever an interior angle is to be
covered, especially at the roof and wall corner.
Culvert- Round, corrugated drain pipe (normally 15" or 18" in diameter) that is installed
beneath a driveway and parallel to and near the street.
Cupping- A type of warping that causes boards to curl up at their edges.
Curb- The short elevation of an exterior wall above the deck of a roof. Normally a 2 by 6
box (on the roof) on which a skylight is attached.
Curb stop- Normally a cast iron pipe with a lid (@ 5" in diameter) that is placed
vertically into the ground, situated near the water tap in the yard, and where a water cutoff valve to the home is located (underground). A long pole with a special end is inserted
into the curb stop to turn off/on the water.
Cut-in brace- Nominal 2-inch-thick members, usually 2 by 4's, cut in between each stud
diagonally.
Dado- A groove cut into a board or panel intended to receive the edge of a connecting
board or panel.
Damper- A metal "door" placed within the fireplace chimney. Normally closed when the
fireplace is not in use.
Dampproofing- The black, tar like waterproofing material applied to the exterior of a
foundation wall.
Daylight- The end of a pipe (the terminal end) that is not attached to anything.
Dead bolt- An exterior security lock installed on exterior entry doors that can be
activated only with a key or thumb-turn. Unlike a latch, which has a beveled tongue, dead
bolts have square ends.
Dead light- The fixed, non-operable window section of a window unit.
Deck, decked- To install the plywood or wafer board sheeting on the floor joists, rafters,
or trusses.
Dedicated circuit- An electrical circuit that serves only one appliance (ie, dishwasher) or
a series of electric heaters or smoke detectors.
Default- Breach of a mortgage contract (not making the required payments).
De-humidistat- A control mechanism used to operate a mechanical ventilation system
based upon the relative humidity in the home.
Delamination- Separation of the plies in a panel due to failure of the adhesive. Usually
caused by excessive moisture.
Disconnect- A large (generally 20 Amp) electrical ON-OFF switch.
Discount rate- A mortgage interest rate that is lower than the current rate for a certain
period of time, e.g. 2.00% below variable rate for 2 years.
Doorjamb, interior- The surrounding case into which and out of which a door closes
and opens. It consists of two upright pieces, called side jambs, and a horizontal head
jamb. These 3 jambs have the "door stop" installed on them.
Door operator- An automatic garage door opener.
Door stop- The wooden style that the door slab will rest upon when it's in a closed
position.
Dormer- An opening in a sloping roof, the framing of which projects out to form a
vertical wall suitable for windows or other openings.
Double glass- Window or door in which two panes of glass are used with a sealed air
space between. Also known as Insulating Glass.
Double hung window- A window with two vertically sliding sashes, both of which can
move up and down.
Down payment- The difference between the sales price and the mortgage amount. A
downpayment is usually paid at closing.
Downspout- A pipe, usually of metal, for carrying rainwater down from the roof's
horizontal gutters.
Drain tile- A perforated, corrugated plastic pipe laid at the bottom of the foundation wall
and used to drain excess water away from the foundation. It prevents ground water from
seeping through the foundation wall. Sometimes called perimeter drain.
Draw- The amount of progress billings on a contract that is currently available to a
contractor under a contract with a fixed payment schedule.
Drip- (a) A member of a cornice or other horizontal exterior finish course that has a
projection beyond the other parts for throwing off water.(b) A groove in the underside of
a sill or drip cap to cause water to drop off on the outer edge instead of drawing back and
running down the face of the building.
Drip cap- A molding or metal flashing placed on the exterior topside of a door or
window frame to cause water to drip beyond the outside of the frame.
Dry in- To install the black roofing felt (tar paper) on the roof.
Drywall (or Gypsum Wallboard (GWB), Sheet rock or Plasterboard)- Wall board or
gypsum- A manufactured panel made out of gypsum plaster and encased in a thin
cardboard. Usually 1/2" thick and 4' x 8' or 4' x 12' in size. The panels are nailed or
screwed onto the framing and the joints are taped and covered with a 'joint compound'.
'Green board' type drywall has a greater resistance to moisture than regular (white)
plasterboard and is used in bathrooms and other "wet areas".
Ducts- The heating system. Usually round or rectangular metal pipes installed for
distributing warm (or cold) air from the furnace to rooms in the home. Also a tunnel
made of galvanized metal or rigid fiberglass, which carries air from the heater or
ventilation opening to the rooms in a building.
Due-on-sale- A clause in a mortgage contract requiring the borrower to pay the entire
outstanding balance upon sale or transfer of the property.
Dura board, dura rock- A panel made out of concrete and fiberglass usually used as a
ceramic tile backing material. Commonly used on bathtub decks. Sometimes called
Wonder board
DWV (drain-waste-vent)- The section of a plumbing system that carries water and
sewer gases out of a home.
Easement
Earnest Money- A sum paid to the seller to show that a potential purchaser is serious
about buying.
Earthquake Strap- A metal strap used to secure gas hot water heaters to the framing or
foundation of a house. Intended to reduce the chances of having the water heater fall over
in an earthquake and causing a gas leak.
Easement- A formal contract which allows a party to use another party's property for a
specific purpose. e.g. A sewer easement might allow one party to run a sewer line
through a neighbors property.
Eaves- The horizontal exterior roof overhang.
Egress- A means of exiting the home. An egress window is required in every bedroom
and basement. Normally a 4' X 4' window is the minimum size required
Elbow (ell)- A plumbing or electrical fitting that lets you change directions in runs of
pipe or conduit.
Electric lateral- The trench or area in the yard where the electric service line (from a
transformer or pedestal) is located, or the work of installing the electric service to a
home.
Electric resistance coils- Metal wires that heat up when electric current passes through
them and are used in baseboard heaters and electric water heaters.
Electrical entrance package- The entry point of the electrical power including: (1) the
'strike' or location where the overhead or underground electrical lines connect to the
house, (2) The meter which measures how much power is used and (3) The 'panel' or
'circuit breaker box ' (or 'fuse box') where the power can be shut off and where overload
devices such a fuses or circuit breakers and located.
Electrical Rough- Work performed by the Electrical Contractor after the plumber and
heating contractor are complete with their phase of work. Normally all electrical wires,
and outlet, switch, and fixture boxes are installed (before insulation).
Electrical Trim- Work performed by the electrical contractor when the house is nearing
completion. The electrician installs all plugs, switches, light fixtures, smoke detectors,
appliance "pig tails", bath ventilation fans, wires the furnace, and "makes up" the electric
house panel. The electrician does all work necessary to get the home ready for and to
pass the municipal electrical final inspection
Elevation sheet- The page on the blue prints that depicts the house or room as if a
vertical plane were passed through the structure.
Equity- The "valuation" that you own in your home, i.e. the property value less the
mortgage loan outstanding.
Escrow - The handling of funds or documents by a third party on behalf of the buyer
and/or seller.
Estimate- The amount of labor, materials, and other costs that a contractor anticipates for
a project as summarized in the contractor's bid proposal for the project.
Escutcheon- An ornamental plate that fits around a pipe extending through a wall or
floor to hide the cut out hole
Estimating- The process of calculating the cost of a project. This can be a formal and
exact process or a quick and imprecise process.
Evaporator coil- The part of a cooling system that absorbs heat from air in your home.
Also see condensing unit.
Expansion joint- Fibrous material (@1/2" thick) installed in and around a concrete slab
to permit it to move up and down (seasonally) along the non-moving foundation wall.
Expansive soils- Earth that swells and contracts depending on the amount of water that is
present. ("Betonite" is an expansive soil).
Exposed aggregate finish- A method of finishing concrete which washes the
cement/sand mixture off the top layer of the aggregate - usually gravel. Often used in
driveways, patios and other exterior surfaces.
Extras- Additional work requested of a contractor, not included in the original plan,
which will be billed separately and will not alter the original contract amount, but
increase the cost of building the home.
FHA strap- Metal straps that are used to repair a bearing wall "cut-out", and to "tie
together" wall corners, splices, and bearing headers. Also, they are used to hang stairs
and landings to bearing headers.
Face nail- To install nails into the vertical face of a bearing header or beam.
Faced concrete- To finish the front and all vertical sides of a concrete porch, step(s), or
patio. Normally the "face" is broom finished.
Facing brick- The brick used and exposed on the outside of a wall. Usually these have a
finished texture.
Fascia- Horizontal boards attached to rafter/truss ends at the eaves and along gables.
Roof drain gutters are attached to the fascia.
Felt- Tar paper. Installed under the roof shingles. Normally 15 lb. or 30 lb.
Female- Any part, such as a nut or fitting, into which another (male) part can be inserted.
Internal threads are female.
Ferrule- Metal tubes used to keep roof gutters "open". Long nails (ferrule spikes) are
driven through these tubes and hold the gutters in place along the fascia of the home.
Field measure- To take measurements (cabinets, countertops, stairs, shower doors, etc.)
in the home itself instead of using the blueprints.
Finger joint- A manufacturing process of interlocking two shorter pieces of wood end to
end to create a longer piece of dimensional lumber or molding. Often used in jambs and
casings and are normally painted (instead of stained).
Fire block- Short horizontal members sometimes nailed between studs, usually about
halfway up a wall. See also 'Fire stop'.
Fire brick- Brick made of refractory ceramic material which will resist high
temperatures. Used in a fireplace and boiler.
Fireplace chase flashing pan- A large sheet of metal that is installed around and
perpendicular to the fireplace flue pipe. It's purpose is to confine and limit the spread of
fire and smoke to a small area.
Fire-resistive or Fire rated- Applies to materials that are not combustible in the
temperatures of ordinary fires and will withstand such fires for at least 1 hour. Drywall
used in the garage and party walls are to be fire rated, 5/8", Type X.
Fire retardant chemical- A chemical or preparation of chemicals used to reduce the
flammability of a material or to retard the spread of flame.
Fire stop- A solid, tight closure of a concealed space, placed to prevent the spread of fire
and smoke through such a space. In a frame wall, this will usually consist of 2 by 4 cross
blocking between studs. Work performed to slow the spread of fire and smoke in the
walls and ceiling (behind the drywall). Includes stuffing wire holes in the top and bottom
plates with insulation, and installing blocks of wood between the wall studs at the drop
soffit line. This is integral to passing a Rough Frame inspection. See also 'Fire block'.
Fishplate (gusset)- A wood or plywood piece used to fasten the ends of two members
together at a butt joint with nails or bolts. Sometimes used at the junction of opposite
rafters near the ridge line. Sometimes called a gang nail plate.
Fish tape- A long strip of spring steel used for fishing cables and for pulling wires
through conduit.
Fixed price contract- A contract with a set price for the work. See Time and Materials
Contract.
Fixed rate- A loan where the initial payments are based on a certain interest rate for a
stated period . The rate payable will not change during this period regardless of changes
in the lender's standard variable rate.
Fixed Rate Mortgage- A mortgage with an interest rate that remains the same over the
years.
Flagstone (flagging or flags)- Flat stones (1 to 4 inches thick) used for walks, steps,
floors, and vertical veneer (in lieu of brick).
Flakeboard- A manufactured wood panel made out of 1"- 2" wood chips and glue. Often
used as a substitute for plywood in the exterior wall and roof sheathing. Also called OSB
or wafer board.
Flame retention burner- An oil burner, designed to hold the flame near the nozzle
surface. Generally the most efficient type for residential use.
Flashing- Sheet metal or other material used in roof and wall construction to protect a
building from water seepage.
Flat mold- Thin wood strips installed over the butt seam of cabinet skins.
Flat paint- An interior paint that contains a high proportion of pigment and dries to a flat
or lusterless finish.
Flatwork- Common word for concrete floors, driveways, basements, and sidewalks.
Floating- The next-to-last stage in concrete work, when you smooth off the job and bring
water to the surface by using a hand float or bull float.
Floating wall- A non-bearing wall built on a concrete floor. It is constructed so that the
bottom two horizontal plates can compress or pull apart if the concrete floor moves up or
down. Normally built on basements and garage slabs.
Fluorescent lighting- A fluorescent lamp is a gas-filled glass tube with a phosphur
coating on the inside. Gas inside the tube is ionized by electricity which causes the
phosphur coating to glow. Normally with two pins that extend from each end.
Flue- Large pipe through which fumes escape from a gas water heater, furnace, or
fireplace. Normally these flue pipes are double walled, galvanized sheet metal pipe and
sometimes referred to as a "B Vent". Fireplace flue pipes are normally triple walled. In
addition, nothing combustible shall be within one inch from the flue pipe.
Flue collar- Round metal ring which fits around the heat flue pipe after the pipe passes
out of the roof.
Flue damper- An automatic door located in the flue that closes it off when the burner
turns off; purpose is to reduce heat loss up the flue from the still-warm furnace or boiler.
Flue lining- 2-foot lengths, fire clay or terra-cotta pipe (round or square) and usually
madein all ordinary flue sizes. Used for the inner lining of chimneys with the brick or
masonry work done around the outside. Flue linings in chimneys runs from one foot
below the flue connection to the top of the chimney.
Fly rafters- End rafters of the gable overhang supported by roof sheathing and lookouts.
Footer, footing- Continuous 8" or 10" thick concrete pad installed before and supports
the foundation wall or monopost.
Forced air heating - A common form of heating with natural gas, propane, oil or
electricity as a fuel. Air is heated in the furnace and distributed through a set of metal
ducts to various areas of the house.
Form- Temporary structure erected to contain concrete during placing and initial
hardening.
Foundation- The supporting portion of a structure below the first floor construction, or
below grade, including the footings.
Foundation ties- Metal wires that hold the foundation wall panels and rebar in place
during the concrete pour.
Foundation waterproofing- High-quality below-grade moisture protection. Used for
below-grade exterior concrete and masonry wall damp-proofing to seal out moisture and
prevent corrosion. Normally looks like black tar.
Frame Inspection- The act of inspecting the home's structural integrity and it's
complianceto local municipal codes.
Framer-The carpenter contractor that installs the lumber and erects the frame, flooring
system, interior walls, backing, trusses, rafters, decking, installs all beams, stairs, soffits
and all work related to the wood structure of the home. The framer builds the home
according to the blueprints and must comply with local building codes and regulations.
Framing- Lumber used for the structural members of a building, such as studs, joists,
and rafters.
Frieze- In house construction a horizontal member connecting the top of the siding with
the soffit of the cornice.
Frost lid- Round metal lid that is installed on a water meter pit.
Frost line- The depth of frost penetration in soil and/or the depth at which the earth will
freeze and swell. This depth varies in different parts of the country.
Furring strips- Strips of wood, often 1 X 2 and used to shim out and provide a level
fastening surface for a wall or ceiling.
Fuse- A device often found in older homes designed to prevent overloads in electrical
lines. This protects against fire. See also 'circuit breakers'.
G
GF C I, or G F I- Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter- an ultra sensitive plug designed to
shut off all electric current. Used in bathrooms, kitchens, exterior waterproof outlets,
garage outlets, and "wet areas". Has a small reset button on the plug.
Gable- The end, upper, triangular area of a home, beneath the roof.
Gang nail plate- A steel plate attached to both sides at each joint of a truss. Sometimes
called a fishplate or gussett.
Gate valve- A valve that lets you completely stop—but not modulate—the flow within a
pipe.
General Contractor A contractor who enters into a contract with the owner of a project
for the construction of the project and who takes full responsibility for its completion,
although the contractor may enter into subcontracts with others for the performance of
specific parts or phases of the project.
Gas lateral- The trench or area in the yard where the gas line service is located, or the
work of installing the gas service to a home.
Girder- A large or principal beam of wood or steel used to support concentrated loads at
isolated points along its length.
Glazing- The process of installing glass, which commonly is secured with glazier's points
and glazing compound.
Globe valve- A valve that lets you adjust the flow of water to any rate between fully on
and fully off. Also see gate valve.
Gloss enamel- A finishing paint material. Forms a hard coating with maximum
smoothness of surface and dries to a sheen or luster (gloss)
Glued Laminated Beam (Glulam)- A structural beam composed of wood laminations or
lams. The lams are pressure bonded with adhesives to attain a typical thickness of 1 ½" .
(It looks like 5 or more 2 X 4's are glued together).
Grade- Ground level, or the elevation at any given point. Also the work of leveling dirt.
Also the designated quality of a manufactured piece of wood.
Grade beam- A foundation wall that is poured @ level with or just below the grade of
theearth. An example is the area where the 8' or 16' overhead garage door "block out" is
located, or a lower (walk out basement) foundation wall is poured
Graduated Payment Mortgage (GPM) - A fixed-rate, fixed-schedule loan. It starts with
lower payments than a level payment loan; payments rise annually, with the entire
increase being used to reduce the outstanding balance. The increase in payments may
enable the borrower to pay off a 30-year loan in 15 to 20 years, or less.
Grain- The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, or quality of the fibers in wood.
Grid- The completed assembly of main and cross tees in a suspended ceiling system
before the ceiling panels are installed. Also the decorative slats (munton) installed
between glass panels.
Ground- Refers to electricity's habit of seeking the shortest route to earth. Neutral wires
carry it there in all circuits. An additional grounding wire or the sheathing of the metalclad cable or conduit—protects against shock if the neutral leg is interrupted.
Ground fault- Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI, GFI)- an ultra sensitive plug
designed to shut off all electric current. Used in bathrooms, kitchens, exterior waterproof
outlets, garage outlets, and "wet areas". Has a small reset button on the plug.
Ground iron- The plumbing drain and waste lines that are installed beneath the
basement floor. Cast iron was once used, but black plastic pipe (ABS) is now widely
used.
Groundwater- Water from an aquifer or subsurface water source.
Grout- A wet mixture of cement, sand and water that flows into masonry or ceramic
crevices to seal the cracks between the different pieces. Mortar made of such consistency
(by adding water) that it will flow into the joints and cavities of the masonry work and fill
them solid.
Gusset- A flat wood, plywood, or similar type member used to provide a connection at
the intersection of wood members. Most commonly used at joints of wood trusses. They
are fastened by nails, screws, bolts, or adhesives.
Gutter- A shallow channel or conduit of metal or wood set below and along the (fascia)
eaves of a house to catch and carry off rainwater from the roof.
Gyp board- Drywall. Wall board or gypsum- A panel (normally 4' X 8', 10', 12', or
16')made with a core of Gypsum (chalk-like) rock, which covers interior walls and
ceilings.
Gypsum plaster- Gypsum formulated to be used with the addition of sand and water for
base-coat plaster.
H
H Clip- Small metal clips formed like an "H" that fits at the joints of two plywood (or
wafer board) sheets to stiffen the joint. Normally used on the roof sheeting.
Hardware- All of the "metal" fittings that go into the home when it is near completion.
For example, door knobs, towel bars, handrail brackets, closet rods, house numbers, door
closers, etc. The Interior Trim Carpenter installs the "hardware".
Haunch- An extension, knee like protrusion of the foundation wall that a concrete porch
or patio will rest upon for support.
Hazard insurance - Protection against damage caused by fire, windstorms, or other
common hazards. Many lenders require borrowers to carry it in an amount at least equal
to the mortgage.
Header- (a) A beam placed perpendicular to joists and to which joists are nailed
inframing for a chimney, stairway, or other opening. (b) A wood lintel. (c) The horizontal
structural member over an opening (for example over a door or window).
Hearth- The fireproof area directly in front of a fireplace. The inner or outer floor of a
fireplace, usually made of brick, tile, or stone.
Heating load- The amount of heating required to keep a building at a specified
temperature during the winter, usually 65° F, regardless of outside temperature.
Heat meter- An electrical municipal inspection of the electric meter breaker panel box.
Heat pump- A mechanical device which uses compression and decompression of gas to
heat and/or cool a house.
Heat Rough- Work performed by the Heating Contractor after the stairs and interior
walls are built. This includes installing all duct work and flue pipes. Sometimes, the
furnace and fireplaces are installed at this stage of construction.
Heat Trim- Work done by the Heating Contractor to get the home ready for the
municipal Final Heat Inspection. This includes venting the hot water heater, installing all
vent grills, registers, air conditioning services, turning on the furnace, installing
thermostats, venting ranges and hoods, and all other heat related work.
Heel cut- A notch cut in the end of a rafter to permit it to fit flat on a wall and on the top,
doubled, exterior wall plate.
Highlights- A light spot, area, or streak on a painted surface.
Hip- A roof with four sloping sides. The external angle formed by the meeting of two
sloping sides of a roof.
Hip roof- A roof that rises by inclined planes from all four sides of a building.
Home run (electrical)- The electrical cable that carries power from the main circuit
breaker panel to the first electrical box, plug, or switch in the circuit.
Honey combs- The appearance concrete makes when rocks in the concrete are visible
and where there are void areas in the foundation wall, especially around concrete
foundation windows.
Hose bib- An exterior water faucet (sill cock).
Hot wire- The wire that carries electrical energy to a receptacle or other device—in
contrast to a neutral, which carries electricity away again. Normally the black wire. Also
see ground.
Humidifier- An appliance normally attached to the furnace, or portable unit device
designed to increase the humidity within a room or a house by means of the discharge of
water vapor.
Hurricane clip- Metal straps that are nailed and secure the roof rafters and trusses to the
top horizontal wall plate. Sometimes called a Teco clip.
H V A C- An abbreviation for Heat, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
I-beam- A steel beam with a cross section resembling the letter I. It is used for long
spans as basement beams or over wide wall openings, such as a double garage door,
when wall and roof loads bear down on the opening.
I-joist- Manufactured structural building component resembling the letter "I". Used as
floor joists and rafters. I-joists include two key parts: flanges and webs. The flange of the
I joist may be made of laminated veneer lumber or dimensional lumber, usually formed
into a 1 ½" width. The web or center of the I-joist is commonly made of plywood or
oriented strand board (OSB). Large holes can be cut in the web to accommodate duct
work and plumbing waste lines. I-joists are available in lengths up to 60 feet long
Incandescent lamp- A lamp employing an electrically charged metal filament that glows
at white heat. A typical light bulb.
Index- The interest rate or adjustment standard that determines the changes in monthly
payments for an adjustable rate loan.
Infiltration- The passage of air from indoors to outdoors and vice versa; term is usually
associated with drafts from cracks, seams or holes in buildings.
Inside corner- The point at which two walls form an internal angle, as in the corner of a
room.
Insulating glass- Window or door in which two panes of glass are used with a sealed air
space between. Also known as Double glass.
Insulation board, rigid- A structural building board made of coarse wood or cane fiber
in ½- and 25/32-inch thickness. It can be obtained in various size sheets and densities.
Insulation- Any material high in resistance to heat transmission that, when placed in the
walls, ceiling, or floors of a structure, and will reduce the rate of heat flow.
Interest - The cost paid to a lender for borrowed money.
Interior finish- Material used to cover the interior framed areas of walls and ceilings
Irrigation- Lawn sprinkler system.
J Channel- Metal edging used on drywall to give the edge a better finished appearance
when a wall is not "wrapped" Generally, basement stairway walls have drywall only on
the stair side. J Channel is used on the vertical edge of the last drywall sheet
Jack post- A type of structural support made of metal, which can be raised or lowered
through a series of pins and a screw to meet the height required. Basically used as a
replacement for an old supporting member in a building. See Monopost.
Jack rafter- A rafter that spans the distance from the wall plate to a hip, or from a valley
to a ridge.
Jamb- The side and head lining of a doorway, window, or other opening. Includes studs
as well as the frame and trim.
Joint- The location between the touching surfaces of two members or components joined
and held together by nails, glue, cement, mortar, or other means.
Joint cement or Joint compound- A powder that is usually mixed with water and used
for joint treatment in gypsum-wallboard finish. Often called "spackle" or drywall mud.
Joint tenancy- A form of ownership in which the tenants own a property equally. If one
dies, the other automatically inherits the entire property.
Joint trench- When the electric company and telephone company dig one trench and
"drop" both of their service lines in.
Joist- Wooden 2 X 8's, 10's, or 12's that run parallel to one another and support a floor or
ceiling, and supported in turn by larger beams, girders, or bearing walls.
Joist hanger- A metal "U" shaped item used to support the end of a floor joist and
attached with hardened nails to another bearing joist or beam.
Jumpers- Water pipe installed in a water meter pit (before the water meter is installed),
or electric wire that is installed in the electric house panel meter socket before the meter
is installed. This is sometimes illegal.
Keeper- The metal latch plate in a door frame into which a doorknob plunger latches.
Keyless- A plastic or porcelain light fixture that operates by a pull string. Generally
found in the basement, crawl space , and attic areas.
Keyway- A slot formed and poured on a footer or in a foundation wall when another wall
will be installed at the slot location. This gives additional strength to the joint/meeting
point.
Kilowatt (kw)- One thousand watts. A kilowatt hour is the base unit used in measuring
electrical consumption. Also see watt.
King stud- The vertical "2 X's" frame lumber (left and right) of a window or door
opening, and runs continuously from the bottom sole plate to the top plate.
Knot- In lumber, the portion of a branch or limb of a tree that appears on the edge or face
of the piece.
Laminated shingles - Shingles that have added dimensionality because of extra layers or
tabs, giving a shake-like appearance. May also be called "architectural shingles" or
"three-dimensional shingles."
Laminating- Bonding together two or more layers of materials.
Landing- A platform between flights of stairs or at the termination of a flight of stairs.
Often used when stairs change direction. Normally no less than 3 ft. X 3 ft. square.
Lap- To cover the surface of one shingle or roll with another.
Latch- A beveled metal tongue operated by a spring-loaded knob or lever. The tongue's
bevel lets you close the door and engage the locking mechanism, if any, without using a
key. Contrasts with dead bolt.
Lateral (electric, gas, telephone, sewer and water)- The underground trench and
related services (i.e., electric, gas, telephone, sewer and water lines) that will be buried
within the trench.
Lath- A building material of narrow wood, metal, gypsum, or insulating board that is
fastened to the frame of a building to act as a base for plaster, shingles, or tiles.
Lattice- An open framework of criss-crossed wood or metal strips that form regular,
patterned spaces.
Ledger (for a Structural Floor)- The wooden perimeter frame lumber member that
bolts onto the face of a foundation wall and supports the wood structural floor.
Ledger strip- A strip of lumber nailed along the bottom of the side of a girder on which
joists rest.
Leech field- A method used to treat/dispose of sewage in rural areas not accessible to a
municipal sewer system. Sewage is permitted to be filtered and eventually discharged
into a section of the lot called a leech field.
Let-in brace- Nominal 1 inch-thick boards applied into notched studs diagonally. Also,
an "L" shaped, long (@ 10') metal strap that are installed by the framer at the rough stage
to give support to an exterior wall or wall corner.
Level- True horizontal. Also a tool used to determine level.
Level Payment Mortgage- A mortgage with identical monthly payments over the life of
the loan.
Lien- An encumbrance that usually makes real or personal property the security for
payment of a debt or discharge of an obligation.
Light- Space in a window sash for a single pane of glass. Also, a pane of glass.
Limit switch- A safety control that automatically shuts off a furnace if it gets too hot.
Most also control blower cycles.
Lineal foot- A unit of measure for lumber equal to 1 inch thick by 12 inches wide by 12
inches long. Examples: 1" x 12" x 16' = 16 board feet, 2" x 12" x 16' = 32 board feet.
Lintel- A horizontal structural member that supports the load over an opening such as a
door or window.
Load bearing wall- Includes all exterior walls and any interior wall that is aligned above
a support beam or girder. Normally, any wall that has a double horizontal top plate.
Loan- The amount to be borrowed.
Loan to value ratio- The ratio of the loan amount to the property valuation and
expressed as a percentage. E.g. if a borrower is seeking a loan of $200,000 on a property
worth $400,000 it has a 50% loan to value rate. If the loan were $300,000, the LTV
would be 75%. The higher the loan to value, the greater the lender's perceived risk. Loans
above normal lending LTV ratios may require additional security.
Lookout- A short wood bracket or cantilever that supports an overhang portion of a roof.
Louver- A vented opening into the home that has a series of horizontal slats and arranged
to permit ventilation but to exclude rain, snow, light, insects, or other living creatures.
Lumens- Unit of measure for total light output. The amount of light falling on a surface
of one square foot.
Male- Any part, such as a bolt, designed to fit into another (female) part. External threads
are male.
Mantel- The shelf above a fireplace opening. Also used in referring to the decorative
trim around a fireplace opening.
Manufactured wood- A wood product such as a truss, beam, gluelam, microlam or joist
which is manufactured out of smaller wood pieces and glued or mechanically fastened to
form a larger piece. Often used to create a stronger member which may use less wood.
See also Oriented Strand Board.
Manufacturer's specifications- The written installation and/or maintenance instructions
which are developed by the manufacturer of a product and which may have to be
followed in order to maintain the product warrantee.
Masonry- Stone, brick, concrete, hollow-tile, concrete block, or other similar building
units or materials. Normally bonded together with mortar to form a wall.
Mastic- A pasty material used as a cement (as for setting tile) or a protective coating (as
for thermal insulation or waterproofing)
Mechanics lien- A lien on real property, created by statue in many years, in favor of
persons supplying labor or materials for a building or structure, for the value of labor or
materials supplied by them. In some jurisdictions, a mechanics lien also exists for the
value of professional services. Clear title to the property cannot be obtained until the
claim for the labor, materials, or professional services is settled. Timely filing is essential
to support the encumbrance, and prescribed filing dates vary by jurisdiction.
Metal lath- Sheets of metal that are slit to form openings within the lath. Used as a
plaster base for walls and ceilings and as reinforcing over other forms of plaster base.
Microlam- A manufactured structural wood beam. It is constructed of pressure and
adhesive bonded wood strands of wood. They have a higher strength rating than solid
sawn lumber. Normally comes in l ½" thickness' and 9 ½", 11 ½" and 14" widths
Milar (mylar)- Plastic, transparent copies of a blueprint.
Millwork- Generally all building materials made of finished wood and manufactured in
millwork plants. Includes all doors, window and door frames, blinds, mantels, panelwork,
stairway components (ballusters, rail, etc.), moldings, and interior trim. Does not include
flooring, ceiling, or siding.
Miter joint- The joint of two pieces at an angle that bisects the joining angle. For
example, the miter joint at the side and head casing at a door opening is made at a 45°
angle.
Molding- A wood strip having an engraved, decorative surface.
Monopost- Adjustable metal column used to support a beam or bearing point. Normally
11 gauge or Schedule 40 metal, and determined by the structural engineer
Mortar- A mixture of cement (or lime) with sand and water used in masonry work.
Mortgage- Loan secured by land.
Mortgage broker - A broker who represents numerous lenders and helps consumers find
affordable mortgages; the broker charges a fee only if the consumer finds a loan.
Mortgage company - A company that borrows money from a bank, lends it to
consumers to buy homes, then sells the loans to investors.
Mortgage deed- Legal document establishing a loan on property.
Mortgagee- The lender who makes the mortgage loan.
Mortgage loan- A contract in which the borrower's property is pledged as collateral. It is
repaid in installments. The mortgagor (buyer) promises to repay principal and interest,
keep the home insured, pay all taxes and keep the property in good condition.
Mortgage Origination Fee- A charge for work involved in preparing and servicing a
mortgage application (usually one percent of the loan amount).
Mortise- A slot cut into a board, plank, or timber, usually edgewise, to receive the tenon
(or tongue) of another board, plank, or timber to form a joint.
Mudsill- Bottom horizontal member of an exterior wall frame which rests on top a
foundation, sometimes called sill plate. Also sole plate, bottom member of interior wall
frame.
Mullion- A vertical divider in the frame between windows, doors, or other openings.
Muntin- A small member which divides the glass or openings of sash or doors.
Muriatic acid- Commonly used as a brick cleaner after masonry work is completed.
Mushroom- The unacceptable occurrence when the top of a caisson concrete pier
spreads out and hardens to become wider than the foundation wall thickness.
Nail inspection- An inspection made by a municipal building inspector after the drywall
material is hung with nails and screws (and before taping).
Natural finish- A transparent finish which does not seriously alter the original color or
grain of the natural wood. Natural finishes are usually provided by sealers, oils,
varnishes, water repellent preservatives, and other similar materials.
NEC (National Electrical Code)- A set of rules governing safe wiring methods. Local
codes—which are backed by law—may differ from the NEC in some ways.
Neutral wire- Usually color-coded white, this carries electricity from an outlet back to
the service panel. Also see hot wire and ground.
Newel post- The large starting post to which the end of a stair guard railing or balustrade
is fastened.
Nonbearing wall- A wall supporting no load other than its own weight.
Nosing- The projecting edge of a molding or drip or the front edge of a stair tread.
Notch- A crosswise groove at the end of a board.
Note- A formal document showing the existence of a debt and stating the terms of
repayment.
Nozzle- The part of a heating system that sprays the fuel of fuel-air mixture into the
combustion chamber.
O
O C- On Center- The measurement of spacing for studs, rafters, and joists in a building
from the center of one member to the center of the next.
Oakum- Loose hemp or jute fiber that's impregnated with tar or pitch and used to caulk
large seams or for packing plumbing pipe joints
Open hole inspection- When an engineer (or municipal inspector) inspects the open
excavation and examines the earth to determine the type of foundation (caisson, footer,
wall on ground, etc.) that should be installed in the hole.
Oriented Strand Board or OSB- A manufactured 4' X 8' wood panel made out of 1"- 2"
wood chips and glue. Often used as a substitute for plywood.
Outrigger- An extension of a rafter beyond the wall line. Usually a smaller member
nailed to a larger rafter to form a cornice or roof overhang.
Outside corner- The point at which two walls form an external angle, one you usually
can walk around.
Overhang- Outward projecting eave-soffit area of a roof; the part of the roof that hangs
out or over the outside wall. See also Cornice.
Padding- A material installed under carpet to add foot comfort, isolate sound, and to
prolong carpet life.
Pad out, pack out- To shim out or add strips of wood to a wall or ceiling in order that
the finished ceiling/wall will appear correct.
Paint- A combination of pigments with suitable thinners or oils to provide decorative and
protective coatings. Can be oil based or latex water based.
Pallets- Wooden platforms used for storing and shipping material. Forklifts and hand
trucks are used to move these wooden platforms around.
Panel- A thin flat piece of wood, plywood, or similar material, framed by stiles and rails
as in a door (or cabinet door), or fitted into grooves of thicker material with molded edges
for decorative wall treatment.
Paper, building- A general term for papers, felts, and similar sheet materials used in
buildings without reference to their properties or uses. Generally comes in long rolls.
Parapet- A wall placed at the edge of a roof to prevent people from falling off.
Parting stop or strip- A small wood piece used in the side and head jambs of double
hung windows to separate the upper sash from the lower sash.
Particle board- Plywood substitute made of course sawdust that is mixed with resin and
pressed into sheets. Used for closet shelving, floor underlayment, stair treads, etc.
Partition- A wall that subdivides spaces within any story of a building or room.
Paver, paving- Materials—commonly masonry—laid down to make a firm, even
surface.
Payment schedule- A pre-agreed upon schedule of payments to a contractor usually
based upon the amount of work completed. Such a schedule may include a deposit prior
to the start of work. There may also be a temporary 'retainer' (5-10% of the total cost of
the job) at the end of the contract for correcting any small items which have not been
completed or repaired.
Pedestal- A metal box installed at various locations along utility easements that contain
electrical, telephone, or cable television switches and connections.
Penalty clause - A provision in a contract that provides for a reduction in the amount
otherwise payable under a contract to a contractor as a penalty for failure to meet
deadlines or for failure of the project to meet contract specifications.
Penny- As applied to nails, it originally indicated the price per hundred. The term now
series as a measure of nail length and is abbreviated by the letter "d". Normally, 16d (16
"penny") nails are used for framing
Percolation test or perc. test- Tests that a soil engineer performs on earth to determine
the feasibility of installing a leech field type sewer system on a lot. A test to determine if
the soil on a proposed building lot is capable of absorbing the liquid affluent from a
septic system.
Performance bond- An amount of money (usually 10% of the total price of a job) that a
contractor must put on deposit with a governmental agency as an insurance policy that
guarantees the contractors' proper and timely completion of a project or job.
Perimeter drain- 3" or 4" perforated plastic pipe that goes around the perimeter (either
inside or outside) of a foundation wall (before backfill) and collects and diverts ground
water away from the foundation. Generally, it is "daylighted" into a sump pit inside the
home, and a sump pump is sometimes inserted into the pit to discharge any accumulation
of water.
Permeability- A measure of the ease with which water penetrates a material.
Permit - A governmental municipal authorization to perform a building process as in:
· Zoning\Use permit - Authorization to use a property for a specific use e.g. a garage, a
single family residence etc.
· Demolition permit - Authorization to tear down and remove an existing structure.
· Grading permit - Authorization to change the contour of the land.
· Septic permit - A health department authorization to build or modify a septic system.
· Building permit - Authorization to build or modify a structure.
· Electrical permit - A separate permit required for most electrical work.
· Plumbing permit - A separate permit required for new plumbing and larger
modifications of existing plumbing systems.
Pigtails, electrical- The electric cord that the electrician provides and installs on an
appliance such as a garbage disposal, dishwasher, or range hood.
Pier- A column of masonry, usually rectangular in horizontal cross section, used to
support other structural members. Also see Caisson.
Pigment- A powdered solid used in paint or enamel to give it a color.
Pilot hole- A small-diameter, pre-drilled hole that guides a nail or screw.
Pilot light- A small, continuous flame (in a hot water heater, boiler, or furnace) that
ignites gas or oil burners when needed.
Pitch- The incline slope of a roof or the ratio of the total rise to the total width of a house,
i.e., a 6-foot rise and 24-foot width is a one-fourth pitch roof. Roof slope is expressed in
the inches of rise, per foot of horizontal run.
PITI - Principal, interest, taxes and insurance (the four major components of monthly
housing payments).
Plan view- Drawing of a structure with the view from overhead, looking down.
Plate- Normally a 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 that lays horizontally within a framed structure, such
as:

Sill plate- A horizontal member anchored to a concrete or masonry wall.

Sole plate- Bottom horizontal member of a frame wall.

Top plate- Top horizontal member of a frame wall supporting ceiling joists,
rafters, or other members.
Plenum- The main hot-air supply duct leading from a furnace.
Plot plan- An overhead view plan that shows the location of the home on the lot.
Includes all easements, property lines, set backs, and legal descriptions of the home.
Provided by the surveyor.
Plough, plow- To cut a lengthwise groove in a board or plank. An exterior handrail
normally has a ploughed groove for hand gripping purposes
Plumb- Exactly vertical and perpendicular.
Plumb bob- A lead weight attached to a string. It is the tool used in determining plumb.
Plumbing boots- Metal saddles used to strengthen a bearing wall/vertical stud(s) where a
plumbing drain line has been cut through and installed.
Plumbing ground- The plumbing drain and waste lines that are installed beneath a
basement floor.
Plumbing jacks- Sleeves that fit around drain and waste vent pipes at, and are nailed to,
the roof sheeting.
Plumbing rough- Work performed by the plumbing contractor after the Rough Heat is
installed. This work includes installing all plastic ABS drain and waste lines, copper
water lines, bath tubs, shower pans, and gas piping to furnaces and fireplaces. Lead solder
should not be used on copper piping.
Plumbing stack- A plumbing vent pipe that penetrates the roof.
Plumbing trim- Work performed by the plumbing contractor to get the home ready for a
final plumbing inspection. Includes installing all toilets (water closets), hot water heaters,
sinks, connecting all gas pipe to appliances, disposal, dishwasher, and all plumbing items.
Plumbing waste line- Plastic pipe used to collect and drain sewage waste.
Ply- A term to denote the number of layers of roofing felt, veneer in plywood, or layers
in built-up materials, in any finished piece of such material.
Plywood- A panel (normally 4' X 8') of wood made of three or more layers of veneer,
compressed and joined with glue, and usually laid with the grain of adjoining plies at
right angles to give the sheet strength.
Point load- A point where a bearing/structural weight is concentrated and transferred to
the foundation.
Portland cement- Cement made by heating clay and crushed limestone into a brick and
then grinding to a pulverized powder state.
Post- A vertical framing member usually designed to carry a beam. Often a 4" x 4", a 6"
x 6", or a metal pipe with a flat plate on top and bottom.
Post-and-beam- A basic building method that uses just a few hefty posts and beams to
support an entire structure. Contrasts with stud framing.
Power vent- A vent that includes a fan to speed up air flow. Often installed on roofs.
Premium- Amount payable on a loan.
Preservative-. Any pesticide substance that, for a reasonable length of time, will prevent
the action of wood-destroying fungi, insect borers, and similar destructive agents when
the wood has been properly coated or impregnated with it. Normally an arsenic
derivative. Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) is an example.
Pressure Relief Valve (PRV)- A device mounted on a hot water heater or boiler which is
designed to release any high steam pressure in the tank to prevent tank explosions.
Pressure-treated wood- Lumber that has been saturated with a preservative.
Primer- The first, base coat of paint when a paint job consists of two or more coats. A
first coating formulated to seal raw surfaces and holding succeeding finish coats.
Principal- The original amount of the loan, the capital.
Property survey- A survey to determine the boundaries of your property. The cost
depends on the complexity of the survey.
P trap- Curved, "U" section of drain pipe that holds a water seal to prevent sewer gasses
from entering the home through a fixtures water drain.
Pump mix- Special concrete that will be used in a concrete pump. Generally, the mix has
smaller rock aggregate than regular mix.
Punch list- A list of discrepancies that need to be corrected by the contractor.
Punch out- To inspect and make a discrepancy list.
Putty- A type of dough used in sealing glass in the sash, filling small holes and crevices
in wood, and for similar purposes.
PVC or CPVC - Poly Vinyl Chloride-A type of white or light gray plastic pipe
sometimes used for water supply lines and waste pipe.
Q
Quarry tile- A man-made or machine-made clay tile used to finish a floor or wall.
Generally 6" X 6" X 1/4" thick .
Quarter round- A small trim molding that has the cross section of a quarter circle.
R
Rabbet- A rectangular longitudinal groove cut in the corner edge of a board or plank.
Radiant heating- A method of heating, usually consisting of a forced hot water system
with pipes placed in the floor, wall, or ceiling. Also electrically heated panels.
Radiation- Energy transmitted from a heat source to the air around it. Radiators actually
depend more on convection than radiation.
Radon- A naturally-occurring, heavier than air, radioactive gas common in many parts of
the country. Radon gas exposure is associated with lung cancer. Mitigation measures
may involve crawl space and basement venting and various forms of vapor barriers.
Radon system- A ventilation system beneath the floor of a basement and/or structural
wood floor and designed to fan exhaust radon gas to the outside of the home
Rafter- Lumber used to support the roof sheeting and roof loads. Generally, 2 X 10's and
2 X 12's are used. The rafters of a flat roof are sometimes called roof joists.
Rafter, hip- A rafter that forms the intersection of an external roof angle.
Rafter, valley- A rafter that forms the intersection of an internal roof angle. The valley
rafter is normally made of double 2-inch-thick members.
Rail- Cross members of panel doors or of a sash. Also, a wall or open balustrade placed
at the edge of a staircase, walkway bridge, or elevated surface to prevent people from
falling off. Any relatively lightweight horizontal element, especially those found in
fences (split rail).
Railroad tie- Black, tar and preservative impregnated, 6" X 8" and 6'-8' long wooden
timber that was used to hold railroad track in place. Normally used as a member of a
retaining wall.
Rake- Slope or slanted.
Rake fascia- The vertical face of the sloping end of a roof eave.
Rake siding- The practice of installing lap siding diagonally
Ranch- A single story, one level home.
Ready mixed concrete- Concrete mixed at a plant or in trucks en route to a job and
delivered ready for placement.
Rebar, reinforcing bar-Ribbed steel bars installed in foundation concrete walls, footers,
and poured in place concrete structures designed to strengthen concrete. Comes in
various thickness' and strength grade.
Receptacle- An electrical outlet. A typical household will have many 120 volt
receptacles for plugging in lams and appliances and 240 volt receptacles for the range,
clothes dryer, air conditioners, etc.
Recording fee - A charge for recording the transfer of a property, paid to a city, county,
or other appropriate branch of government.
Redline, red lined prints- Blueprints that reflect changes and that are marked with red
pencil.
Reducer- A fitting with different size openings at either end and used to go from a larger
to a smaller pipe.
Reflective insulation- Sheet material with one or both faces covered with aluminum foil.
Refrigerant- A substance that remains a gas at low temperatures and pressure and can be
used to transfer heat. Freon is an example and is used in air conditioning systems.
Register- A grill placed over a heating duct or cold air return.
Reglaze- To replace a broken window.
Relief valve- A device designed to open if it detects excess temperature or pressure.
Remote- Remote electrical, gas, or water meter digital readouts that are installed near the
front of the home in order for utility companies to easily read the home owners usage of
the service.
Retaining wall- A structure that holds back a slope and prevents erosion.
Retentions- Amounts withheld from progress billings until final and satisfactory project
completion.
R factor or value- A measure of a materials resistance to the passage of heat. New
homewalls are usually insulated with 4" of batt insulation with an R value of R-13, and a
ceiling insulation of R-30.
Ribbon (girt)- Normally a 1 X 4 board let into the studs horizontally to support the
ceiling or second-floor joists.
Ridge- The horizontal line at the junction of the top edges of two sloping roof surfaces.
Ridge board- The board placed on the ridge of the roof onto which the upper ends of
other rafters are fastened.
Ridge shingles- Shingles used to cover the ridge board.
Rim joist- A joist that runs around the perimeter of the floor joists and home.
Rise- The vertical distance from the eaves line to the ridge. Also the vertical distance
from stair tread to stair tread (and not to exceed 7 ½").
Riser- Each of the vertical boards closing the spaces between the treads of stairways.
Riser and panel- The exterior vertical pipe (riser) and metal electric box (panel) the
electrician provides and installs at the "Rough Electric" stage.
Road base- A aggregate mixture of sand and stone.
Rock 1, 2, 3- When referring to drywall, this means to install drywall to the walls and
ceilings (with nails and screws), and before taping is performed.
Roll, rolling- To install the floor joists or trusses in their correct place. (To "roll the
floor" means to install the floor joists).
Romex- A name brand of nonmetallic sheathed electrical cable that is used for indoor
wiring.
Roll roofing- Asphalt roofing products manufactured in roll form. 36-inch wide rolls
with and 108 square feet of material. Weights are generally 45 to 90 pounds per roll.
Romex- A name brand of nonmetallic sheathed electrical cable that is used for indoor
wiring.
Roof jack- Sleeves that fit around the black plumbing waste vent pipes at, and are nailed
to, the roof sheeting.
Roof joist- The rafters of a flat roof. Lumber used to support the roof sheeting and roof
loads. Generally, 2 X 10's and 2 X 12's are used.
Roof sheathing or sheeting- The wood panels or sheet material fastened to the roof
rafters or trusses on which the shingle or other roof covering is laid.
Roof valley- The "V" created where two sloping roofs meet.
Rough opening- The horizontal and vertical measurement of a window or door opening
before drywall or siding is installed.
Rough sill- The framing member at the bottom of a rough opening for a window. It is
attached to the cripple studs below the rough opening.
Roughing-in- The initial stage of a plumbing, electrical, heating, carpentry, and/or other
project, when all components that won't be seen after the second finishing phase are
assembled. See also Heat Rough, Plumbing Rough, and Electrical Rough.
Run, roof - The horizontal distance from the eaves to a point directly under the ridge.
One half the span.
Run, stair- the horizontal distance of a stair tread from the nose to the riser.
R Value- A measure of insulation. A measure of a materials resistance to the passage of
heat. The higher the R value, the more insulating "power" it has. For example, typical
new home's walls are usually insulated with 4" of batt insulation with an R value of R-13,
and a ceiling insulation of R-30.
S
Saddle- A small second roof built behind the back side of a fireplace chimney to divert
water around the chimney. Also, the plate at the bottom of some—usually exterior—door
openings. Sometimes called a threshold.
Sack mix- The amount of Portland cement in a cubic yard of concrete mix. Generally, 5
or 6 sack is required in a foundation wall.
Sales contract - A contract between a buyer and seller which should explain: (1) What
the purchase includes, (2) What guarantees there are, (3) When the buyer can move in,
(4) What the closing costs are, and (5) What recourse the parties have if the contract is
not fulfilled or if the buyer cannot get a mortgage commitment at the agreed upon time.
Sand float finish- Lime that is mixed with sand, resulting in a textured finish on a wall.
Sanitary sewer- A sewer system designed for the collection of waste water from the
bathroom, kitchen and laundry drains, and is usually not designed to handle storm water.
Sash- A single light frame containing one or more lights of glass. The frame that holds
the glass in a window, often the movable part of the window.
Sash balance- A device, usually operated by a spring and designed to hold a single hung
window vent up and in place
Saturated felt- A felt which is impregnated with tar or asphalt.
Schedule (window, door, mirror)- A table on the blueprints that list the sizes, quantities
and locations of the windows, doors and mirrors.
Scrap out- The removal of all drywall material and debris after the home is "hung out"
(installed) with drywall.
Scratch coat- The first coat of plaster, which is scratched to form a bond for a second
coat.
Screed, concrete- To level off concrete to the correct elevation during a concrete pour.
Screed, plaster- A small strip of wood, usually the thickness of the plaster coat, used as a
guide for plastering.
Scribing- Cutting and fitting woodwork to an irregular surface.
Scupper- (1) An opening for drainage in a wall, curb or parapet. (2) The drain in a
downspout or flat roof, usually connected to the downspout.
Sealer- A finishing material, either clear or pigmented, that is usually applied directly
over raw wood for the purpose of sealing the wood surface.
Seasoning- Drying and removing moisture from green wood in order to improve its
usability.
Self-sealing shingles- Shingles containing factory-applied strips or spots of self-sealing
adhesive.
Semigloss paint or enamel- A paint or enamel made so that its coating, when dry, has
some luster but is not very glossy. Bathrooms and kitchens are normally painted semigloss
Septic system- An on site waste water treatment system. It usually has a septic tank
which promotes the biological digestion of the waste, and a drain field which is designed
to let the left over liquid soak into the ground. Septic systems and permits are usually
sized by the number of bedrooms in a house.
Service entrance panel- Main power cabinet where electricity enters a home wiring
system.
Service equipment- Main control gear at the service entrance, such as circuit breakers,
switches, and fuses.
Service lateral- Underground power supply line.
Setback Thermostat- A thermostat with a clock which can be programmed to come on
or go off at various temperatures and at different times of the day/week. Usually used as
the heating or cooling system thermostat.
Settlement- Shifts in a structure, usually caused by freeze-thaw cycles underground.
Sewage ejector- A pump used to 'lift' waste water to a gravity sanitary sewer line.
Usually used in basements and other locations which are situated bellow the level of the
side sewer.
Sewer lateral- The portion of the sanitary sewer which connects the interior waste water
lines to the main sewer lines. The side sewer is usually buried in several feet of soil and
runs from the house to the sewer line. It is usually 'owned' by the sewer utility, must be
maintained by the owner and may only be serviced by utility approved contractors.
Sometimes called side sewer.
Sewer stub- The junction at the municipal sewer system where the home's sewer line is
connected.
Sewer tap- The physical connection point where the home's sewer line connects to the
main municipal sewer line.
Shake- A wood roofing material, normally cedar or redwood. Produced by splitting a
block of the wood along the grain line. Modern shakes are sometimes machine sawn on
one side. See shingle.
Shear block- Plywood that is face nailed to short (2 X 4's or 2 X 6's) wall studs (above a
door or window, for example). This is done to prevent the wall from sliding and
collapsing.
Sheathing, sheeting- The structural wood panel covering, usually OSB or plywood, used
over studs, floor joists or rafters/trusses of a structure.
Shed roof- A roof containing only one sloping plane.
Sheet metal work- All components of a house employing sheet metal, such as flashing,
gutters, and downspouts.
Sheet metal duct work- The heating system. Usually round or rectangular metal pipes
and sheet metal (for Return Air) and installed for distributing warm (or cold) air from the
furnace to rooms in the home.
Sheet rock- Drywall-Wall board or gypsum- A manufactured panel made out of
gypsum plaster and encased in a thin cardboard. Usually 1/2" thick and 4' x 8' or 4' x 12'
in size. The 'joint compound'. 'Green board' type drywall has a greater resistance to
moisture than regular (white) plasterboard and is used in bathrooms and other "wet
areas".
Shim- A small piece of scrap lumber or shingle, usually wedge shaped, which when
forced behind a furring strip or framing member forces it into position. Also used when
installing doors and placed between the door jamb legs and 2 X 4 door trimmers. Metal
shims are wafer 1 1/2" X 2" sheet metal of various thickness' used to fill gaps in wood
framing members, especially at bearing point locations.
Shingles- Roof covering of asphalt. asbestos, wood, tile, slate, or other material cut to
stock lengths, widths, and thickness'.
Shingles, siding- Various kinds of shingles, used over sheathing for exterior wall
covering of a structure.
Short circuit- A situation that occurs when hot and neutral wires come in contact with
each other. Fuses and circuit breakers protect against fire that could result from a short.
Shutter- Usually lightweight louvered decorative frames in the form of doors located on
the sides of a window. Some shutters are made to close over the window for protection.
Side sewer- The portion of the sanitary sewer which connects the interior waste water
lines to the main sewer lines. The side sewer is usually buried in several feet of soil and
runs from the house to the sewer line. It is usually 'owned' by the sewer utility, must be
maintained by the owner and may only be serviced by utility approved contractors.
Sometimes called sewer lateral.
Siding- The finished exterior covering of the outside walls of a frame building.
Siding, (lap siding)- Slightly wedge-shaped boards used as horizontal siding in a lapped
pattern over the exterior sheathing. Varies in butt thickness from ½ to ¾ inch and in
widths up to 12".
Sill- (1) The 2 X 4 or 2 X 6 wood plate framing member that lays flat against and bolted
to the foundation wall (with anchor bolts) and upon which the floor joists are installed.
Normally the sill plate is treated lumber. (2) The member forming the lower side of an
opening, as a door sill or window sill.
Sill cock- An exterior water faucet (hose bib).
Sill plate (mudsill)- Bottom horizontal member of an exterior wall frame which rests on
top a foundation, sometimes called mudsill. Also sole plate, bottom member of an interior
wall frame.
Sill seal- Fiberglass or foam insulation installed between the foundation wall and sill
(wood) plate. Designed to seal any cracks or gaps.
Single hung window- A window with one vertically sliding sash or window vent.
Skylight- A more or less horizontal window located on the roof of a building.
Slab, concrete- Concrete pavement, i.e. driveways, garages, and basement floors.
Slab, door- A rectangular door without hinges or frame.
Slab on grade- A type of foundation with a concrete floor which is placed directly on the
soil. The edge of the slab is usually thicker and acts as the footing for the walls.
Slag- Concrete cement that sometimes covers the vertical face of the foundation void
material.
Sleeper- Usually, a wood member embedded in concrete, as in a floor, that serves to
support and to fasten the subfloor or flooring.
Sleeve(s)- Pipe installed under the concrete driveway or sidewalk, and that will be used
later to run sprinkler pipe or low voltage wire.
Slope- The incline angle of a roof surface, given as a ratio of the rise (in inches) to the
run (in feet). See also pitch.
Slump- The "wetness" of concrete. A 3 inch slump is dryer and stiffer than a 5 inch
slump.
Soffit- The area below the eaves and overhangs. The underside where the roof overhangs
the walls. Usually the underside of an overhanging cornice.
Soil pipe- A large pipe that carries liquid and solid wastes to a sewer or septic tank.
Soil stack- A plumbing vent pipe that penetrates the roof.
Sole plate- The bottom, horizontal framing member of a wall that's attached to the floor
sheeting and vertical wall studs.
Solid bridging- A solid member placed between adjacent floor joists near the center of
the span to prevent joists or rafters from twisting.
Sonotube- Round, large cardboard tubes designed to hold wet concrete in place until it
hardens.
Sound attenuation- Sound proofing a wall or subfloor, generally with fiberglass
insulation.
Space heat- Heat supplied to the living space, for example, to a room or the living area
of a building.
Spacing- The distance between individual members or shingles in building construction.
Span- The clear distance that a framing member carries a load without support between
structural supports. The horizontal distance from eaves to eaves.
Spec home- A house built before it is sold. The builder speculates that he can sell it at a
profit.
Specifications or Specs- A narrative list of materials, methods, model numbers, colors,
allowances, and other details which supplement the information contained in the blue
prints. Written elaboration in specific detail about construction materials and methods.
Written to supplement working drawings.
Splash block- Portable concrete (or vinyl) channel generally placed beneath an exterior
sill cock (water faucet) or downspout in order to receive roof drainage from downspouts
and to divert it away from the building.
Square- A unit of measure-100 square feet-usually applied to roofing and siding
material. Also, a situation that exists when two elements are at right angles to each other.
Also a tool for checking this.
Square-tab shingles- Shingles on which tabs are all the same size and exposure.
Squeegie- Fine pea gravel used to grade a floor (normally before concrete is placed).
Stack (trusses)- To position trusses on the walls in their correct location.
Standard practices of the trade(s)- One of the more common basic and minimum
construction standards. This is another way of saying that the work should be done in the
way it is normally done by the average professional in the field.
Starter strip- Asphalt roofing applied at the eaves that provides protection by filling in
the spaces under the cutouts and joints of the first course of shingles.
Stair carriage or stringer- Supporting member for stair treads. Usually a 2 X 12 inch
plank notched to receive the treads; sometimes called a "rough horse."
Stair landing- A platform between flights of stairs or at the termination of a flight of
stairs. Often used when stairs change direction. Normally no less than 3 ft. X 3 ft. square.
Stair rise- The vertical distance from stair tread to stair tread (and not to exceed 7 ½").
Static vent- A vent that does not include a fan.
STC (Sound Transmission Class)- The measure of sound stopping of ordinary noise.
Steel inspection- A municipal and/or engineers inspection of the concrete foundation
wall, conducted before concrete is poured into the foundation panels. Done to insure that
the rebar (reinforcing bar), rebar nets, void material, beam pocket plates, and basement
window bucks are installed and wrapped with rebar and complies with the foundation
plan.
Step flashing- Flashing application method used where a vertical surface meets a sloping
roof plane. 6" X 6" galvanized metal bent at a 90 degree angle, and installed beneath
siding and over the top of shingles. Each piece overlaps the one beneath it the entire
length of the sloping roof (step by step).
Stick built- A house built without prefabricated parts. Also called conventional building.
Stile- An upright framing member in a panel door.
Stool- The flat molding fitted over the window sill between jambs and contacting the
bottom rail of the lower sash. Also another name for toilet.
Stop box- Normally a cast iron pipe with a lid (@ 5" in diameter) that is placed vertically
into the ground, situated near the water tap in the yard, and where a water cut-off valve to
the home is located (underground). A long pole with a special end is inserted into the
curb stop to turn off/on the water.
Stop Order- A formal, written notification to a contractor to discontinue some or all
work on a project for reasons such as safety violations, defective materials or
workmanship, or cancellation of the contract.
Stops- Moldings along the inner edges of a door or window frame. Also valves used to
shut off water to a fixture.
Stop valve- A device installed in a water supply line, usually near a fixture, that permits
an individual to shut off the water supply to one fixture without interrupting service to the
rest of the system.
Storm sash or storm window-. An extra window usually placed outside of an existing
one, as additional protection against cold weather.
Storm sewer- A sewer system designed to collect storm water and is separated from the
waste water system.
Story- That part of a building between any floor or between the floor and roof.
Strike- The plate on a door frame that engages a latch or dead bolt.
String, stringer- A timber or other support for cross members in floors or ceilings. In
stairs, the supporting member for stair treads. Usually a 2 X 12 inch plank notched to
receive the treads
Strip flooring- Wood flooring consisting of narrow, matched strips.
Structural floor- A framed lumber floor that is installed as a basement floor instead of
concrete. This is done on very expansive soils.
Stub, stubbed- To push through.
Stucco- Refers to an outside plaster finish made with Portland cement as its base.
Stud- A vertical wood framing member, also referred to as a wall stud, attached to the
horizontal sole plate below and the top plate above. Normally 2 X 4's or 2 X 6's, 8' long
(sometimes 92 5/8"). One of a series of wood or metal vertical structural members placed
as supporting elements in walls and partitions.
Stud framing- A building method that distributes structural loads to each of a series of
relatively lightweight studs. Contrasts with post-and-beam.
Stud shoe- A metal, structural bracket that reinforces a vertical stud. Used on an outside
bearing wall where holes are drilled to accommodate a plumbing waste line.
Subfloor- The framing components of a floor to include the sill plate, floor joists, and
deck sheeting over which a finish floor is to be laid.
Sump- Pit or large plastic bucket/barrel inside the home designed to collect ground water
from a perimeter drain system.
Sump pump- A submersible pump in a sump pit that pumps any excess ground water to
the outside of the home.
Suspended ceiling- A ceiling system supported by hanging it from the overhead
structural framing.
Sway brace- Metal straps or wood blocks installed diagonally on the inside of a wall
from bottom to top plate, to prevent the wall from twisting, racking, or falling over
"domino" fashion.
Switch- A device that completes or disconnects an electrical circuit.
T & G, tongue and groove- A joint made by a tongue (a rib on one edge of a board) that
fits into a corresponding groove in the edge of another board to make a tight flush joint.
Typically, the subfloor plywood is T & G.
Tab - The exposed portion of strip shingles defined by cutouts.
Tail beam- A relatively short beam or joist supported in a wall on one end and by a
header at the other.
Take off- The material necessary to complete a job.
Taping- The process of covering drywall joints with paper tape and joint compound.
T bar- Ribbed, "T" shaped bars with a flat metal plate at the bottom that are driven into
the earth. Normally used chain link fence poles, and to mark locations of a water meter
pit.
Teco- Metal straps that are nailed and secure the roof rafters and trusses to the top
horizontal wall plate. Sometimes called a hurricane clip.
Tee- A "T" shaped plumbing fitting.
Tempered- Strengthened. Tempered glass will not shatter nor create shards, but will
"pelletize" like an automobile window. Required in tub and shower enclosures and
locations, entry door glass and sidelight glass, and in a windows when the window sill is
less than 16" to the floor.
Termites- Wood eating insects that superficially resemble ants in size and general
appearance, and live in colonies.
Termite shield- A shield, usually of galvanized metal, placed in or on a foundation wall
or around pipes to prevent the passage of termites.
Terra cotta- A ceramic material molded into masonry units.
Thermoply ™- Exterior laminated sheathing nailed to the exterior side of the exterior
walls. Normally ¼ " thick, 4 X 8 or 4 x 10 sheets with an aluminumized surface.
Thermostat- A device which relegates the temperature of a room or building by
switching heating or cooling equipment on or off.
Three-dimensional shingles- Laminated shingles. Shingles that have added
dimensionality because of extra layers or tabs, giving a shake-like appearance. May also
be called "architectural shingles".
Threshold- The bottom metal or wood plate of an exterior door frame. Generally they
are adjustable to keep a tight fit with the door slab.
Time and materials contract- A construction contract which specifies a price for
different elements of the work such as cost per hour of labor, overhead, profit, etc. A
contract which may not have a maximum price, or may state a 'price not to exceed'.
Tinner- Another name for the heating contractor.
Tip up- The downspout extension that directs water (from the home's gutter system)
away from the home. They typically swing up when mowing the lawn, etc.
Title- Evidence (usually in the form of a certificate or deed) of a person's legal right to
ownership of a property.
TJI or TJ- Manufactured structural building component resembling the letter "I". Used
as floor joists and rafters. I-joists include two key parts: flanges and webs. The flange or
from of the I joist may be made of laminated veneer lumber or dimensional lumber,
usually formed into a 1 ½" width. The web or center of the I-joist is commonly made of
plywood or oriented strand board (OSB). Large holes can be cut in the web to
accommodate duct work and plumbing waste lines. I-joists are available in lengths up to
60'' long.
Toenailing- To drive a nail in at a slant. Method used to secure floor joists to the plate.
Top chord- The upper or top member of a truss.
Top plate- Top horizontal member of a frame wall supporting ceiling joists, rafters, or
other members.
Transmitter (garage door)- The small, push button device that causes the garage door to
open or close.
Trap- A plumbing fitting that holds water to prevent air, gas, and vermin from backing
up into a fixture.
Tread- The walking surface board in a stairway on which the foot is placed.
Treated lumber- A wood product which has been impregnated with chemical pesticides
such as CCA (Chromated Copper Arsenate) to reduce damage from wood rot or insects.
Often used for the portions of a structure which are likely to be in contact with soil and
water. Wood may also be treated with a fire retardant.
Trim (plumbing, heating, electrical)- The work that the "mechanical" contractors
perform to finish their respective aspects of work, and when the home is nearing
completion and occupancy.
Trim- Interior- The finish materials in a building, such as moldings applied around
openings (window trim, door trim) or at the floor and ceiling of rooms (baseboard,
cornice, and other moldings). Also, the physical work of installing interior doors and
interior woodwork, to include all handrails, guardrails, stair way balustrades, mantles,
light boxes, base, door casings, cabinets, countertops, shelves, window sills and aprons,
etc. Exterior- The finish materials on the exterior a building, such as moldings applied
around openings (window trim, door trim), siding, windows, exterior doors, attic vents,
crawl space vents, shutters, etc. Also, the physical work of installing these materials
Trimmer- The vertical stud that supports a header at a door, window, or other opening.
Truss- An engineered and manufactured roof support member with "zig-zag" framing
members. Does the same job as a rafter but is designed to have a longer span than a
rafter.
Tub trap- Curved, "U" shaped section of a bath tub drain pipe that holds a water seal to
prevent sewer gasses from entering the home through tubs water drain.
Turnkey- A term used when the subcontractor provides all materials (and labor) for a
job.
Turpentine- A petroleum, volatile oil used as a thinner in paints and as a solvent in
varnishes
U
UL (Underwriters' Laboratories)- An independent testing agency that checks electrical
devices and other components for possible safety hazards.
Undercoat- A coating applied prior to the finishing or top coats of a paint job. It may be
the first of two or the second of three coats. Sometimes called the Prime coat.
Underground plumbing- The plumbing drain and waste lines that are installed beneath a
basement floor.
Underlayment- A ¼" material placed over the subfloor plywood sheeting and under
finish coverings, such as vinyl flooring, to provide a smooth, even surface. Also a
secondary roofing layer that is waterproof or water-resistant, installed on the roof deck
and beneath shingles or other roof-finishing layer.
Union- A plumbing fitting that joins pipes end-to-end so they can be dismantled.
Utility easement- The area of the earth that has electric, gas, or telephone lines. These
areas may be owned by the homeowner, but the utility company has the legal right to
enter the area as necessary to repair or service the lines.
V
Valley- The "V" shaped area of a roof where two sloping roofs meet. Water drains off the
roof at the valleys.
Valley flashing- Sheet metal that lays in the "V" area of a roof valley.
Valuation- An inspection carried out for the benefit of the mortgage lender to ascertain if
a property is a good security for a loan.
Valuation fee- Th fee paid by the prospective borrower for the lender's inspection of the
property. Normally paid upon loan application.
Vapor barrier- A building product installed on exterior walls and ceilings under the
drywall and on the warm side of the insulation. It is used to retard the movement of water
vapor into walls and prevent condensation within them. Normally, polyethylene plastic
sheeting is used.
Variable rate- An interest rate that will vary over the term of the loan.
Veneer- Extremely thin sheets of wood. Also a thin slice of wood or brick or stone
covering a framed wall.
Vent- A pipe or duct which allows the flow of air and gasses to the outside. Also, another
word for the moving glass part of a window sash, i.e. window vent.
Vermiculite- A mineral used as bulk insulation and also as aggregate in insulating and
acoustical plaster and in insulating concrete floors.
Veterans Administration (VA)- A federal agency that insures mortgage loans with very
liberal down payment requirements for honorably discharged veterans and their surviving
spouses.
Visqueen- A 4 mil or 6 mil plastic sheeting.
Void- Cardboard rectangular boxes that are installed between the earth (between
caissons) and the concrete foundation wall. Used when expansive soils are present.
Voltage- A measure of electrical potential. Most homes are wired with 110 and 220 volt
lines. The 110 volt power is used for lighting and most of the other circuits. The 220 volt
power is usually used for the kitchen range, hot water heater and dryer.
Wafer board - A manufactured wood panel made out of 1"- 2" wood chips and glue.
Often used as a substitute for plywood in the exterior wall and roof sheathing.
Walk-Through- A final inspection of a home before "Closing" to look for and document
problems that need to be corrected.
Wall out- When a painter pray paints the interior of a home.
Warping- Any distortion in a material.
Warranty- In construction there are two general types of warranties. One is provided by
the manufacturer of a product such as roofing material or an appliance. The second is a
warranty for the labor. For example, a roofing contract may include a 20 year material
warranty and a 5 year labor warranty. Many new homebuilders provide a one year
warranty. Any major issue found during the first year should be communicated to the
builder immediately. Small items can be saved up and presented to the builder for
correction periodically through the first year after closing.
Waste pipe and vent- Plumbing plastic pipe that carries waste water to the municipal
sewage system.
Water board- Water resistant drywall to be used in tub and shower locations. Normally
green or blue colored
Water closet- Another name for toilet.
Water meter pit (or vault)- The box /cast iron bonnet and concrete rings that contains
the water meter.
Water-repellent preservative- A liquid applied to wood to give the wood water
repellant properties
Water table- The location of the underground water, and the vertical distance from the
surface of the earth to this underground water.
Water tap- The connection point where the home water line connects to the main
municipal water system.
W C- An abbreviation for water closet (toilet).
Weatherization- Work on a building exterior in order to reduce energy consumption for
heating or cooling. Work involving adding insulation, installing storm windows and
doors, caulking cracks and putting on weather-stripping.
Weatherstrip- Narrow sections of thin metal or other material installed to prevent the
infiltration of air and moisture around windows and doors.
Weep holes- Small holes in storm window frames that allow moisture to escape.
Whole house fan- A fan designed to move air through and out of a home and normally
installed in the ceiling.
Wind bracing- Metal straps or wood blocks installed diagonally on the inside of a wall
from bottom to top plate, to prevent the wall from twisting, racking, or falling over
"domino" fashion.
Window buck- Square or rectangular box that is installed within a concrete foundation
or block wall. A window will eventually be installed in this "buck" during the siding
stage of construction
Window frame- The stationary part of a window unit; window sash fits into the window
frame.
Window sash- The operating or movable part of a window; the sash is made of window
panes and their border.
Wire nut- A plastic device used to connect bare wires together.
Wonderboard ™- A panel made out of concrete and fiberglass usually used as a ceramic
tile backing material. Commonly used on bathtub decks.
Wrapped drywall- Areas that get complete drywall covering, as in the doorway
openings of bifold and bipass closet doors.
Y- A "Y" shaped plumbing fitting.
Yard of concrete- One cubic yard of concrete is 3' X 3' X 3' in volume, or 27 cubic feet.
One cubic yard of concrete will pour 80 square feet of 3 ½" sidewalk or basement/garage
floor.
Yoke- The location where a home's water meter is sometimes installed between two
copper pipes, and located in the water meter pit in the yard.
Z-bar flashing- Bent, galvanized metal flashing that's installed above a horizontal trim
board of an exterior window, door, or brick run. It prevents water from getting behind the
trim/brick and into the home.
Zone- The section of a building that is served by one heating or cooling loop because it
has noticeably distinct heating or cooling needs. Also, the section of property that will be
watered from a lawn sprinkler system.
Zone valve- A device, usually placed near the heater or cooler, which controls the flow
of water or steam to parts of the building; it is controlled by a zone thermostat.
Zoning- A governmental process and specification which limits the use of a property e.g.
single family use, high rise residential use, industrial use, etc. Zoning laws may limit
where you can locate a structure. Also see building codes.
ИЗПОЛЗВАНА ЛИТЕРАТУРА
BUILDING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
HANDBOOK
David J. Akers Civil Engineer, San Diego, California (SECT. 4: Building
Materials)
James M. Bannon Chief Electrical Engineer, STV Incorporated,
Douglassville, Pennsylvania
(SECT. 15: Electrical Systems)
Robert F. Borg Chairman, Kreisler Borg Florman General Construction
Company, Scarsdale,
New York (SECT. 17: Construction Project Management)
Robert W. Day Chief Engineer, American Geotechnical, San Diego,
California (SECT. 6:
Soil Mechanics and Foundations)
Steven D. Edgett Edgett-Williams Consulting Group, Mill Valley,
California (SECT. 16:
Vertical Circulation)
Dave Flickinger National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA),
Technical Service Section,
Rosemont, Illinois (SECT. 12: Roof Systems)
Gregory P. Gladfelter Gladfelter Engineering Group, Kansas City,
Missouri (SECT. 14:
Plumbing—Water-Supply, Sprinkler, and Wastewater Systems)
Bruce Glidden President, Glidden & Co., Ltd., Bridgeville, Pennsylvania
(SECT. 7: Structural
Steel Construction)
David P. Gustafson Vice President of Engineering, Concrete Reinforcing
Steel Institute,
Schaumburg, Illinois (SECT. 9: Concrete Construction)
Alan D. Hinklin Director, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SECT. 2: The
Building Team)
Edward S. Hoffman President, Edward S. Hoffman, Ltd., Structural
Engineers, Chicago
(SECT. 9: Concrete Construction)
Lawrence E. McCabe Chief Engineer—Mechanical STV Group,
Douglassville, Pennsylvania
(SECT. 13: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning)
Frederick S. Merritt Consulting Engineer, West Palm Beach, Florida
(SECT. 11: Wall, Floor,
and Ceiling Systems)
David W. Mock Gee & Jenson, West Palm Beach, Florida (SECT. 3:
Protection against
Hazards
Colman J. Mullin Senior Estimator, Bechtel Corporation, San Francisco,
California (SECT.
19: Construction Cost Estimating)
Tom Nevling, RCDD Independent Consultant, Lancaster, Pennsylvania
(SECT. 18: Communications
Systems)
Brian L. Olsen Poole Fire Protection Engineering, Inc., Olathe, Kansas
(SECT. 14: Plumbing—
Water-Supply, Sprinkler, and Wastewater Systems)
Jonathan T. Ricketts Consulting Engineer, Palm Beach Gardens,
Florida (SECT. 1: System
Fundamentals)
John ‘‘Buddy’’ Showalter American Forest & Paper Association,
Washington, D.C. (SECT.
10: Wood Construction)
Akbar Tamboli, Michael Xing, Mohsin Ahmed Thornton-Tomasetti
Engineers, Newark,
New Jersey (SECT. 5: Structural Theory)
Allen M. Williams Edgett-Williams Consulting Group, Mill Valley,
California (SECT. 16:
Vertical Circulation)
Thomas G. Williamson APA—The Engineered Wood Association,
Tacoma, Washington
(SECT. 10: Wood Construction)
Don S. Wolford Consulting Engineer, Middletown, Ohio (SECT. 8: ColdFormed Steel Construction)
Wei-Wen Yu Univesity of Missouri–Rolla, Rolla, Missouri (SECT. 8:
Cold-Formed Steel
Construction)