Download Sexual Orientation Research Paper

Running Head: FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Factors that Influence Sexual Orientation in Men and Women
Amanda Cunningham
2976918
PSYC 290
Assignment 3: Research Paper
Linda Ableheart
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FACTORS INFLUENCING SEXUAL ORIENTATION
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Introduction
In the song, Letter to a John, Ani Difranco proposes that “women learn to be women, and
men learn to be men” (Difranco, 1994, track 3). But what does it mean to be a women or a man?
What factors influence human beings to become like a women or a man; how do we decide who
to love, to be attracted to, to feel passionate about, to desire?
Through a series of five research articles the question, what factors influence sexual
orientation in men and in women is considered. The research stems from research journal articles
published in journals of psychology and sociology. The research question is dissected into
subtopics including: a definition of sexual orientation; a definition of gender and sex; what it
means to be homosexual; theories of socialization, genetics, hormones, and evolution; a look at
where research falls short; and finally a link to motivation and emotion. Perhaps the question
“can anyone tell me why I’m gay?” (Jenkins, 2010, p. 279) can be answered.
By Definition
What is sexual orientation anyways? It has been explained as the “the cumulative
experience and interaction of erotic fantasy, romantic-emotional feelings, and sexual behavior
directed toward one or both genders” (Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.66). This definition has been
supported by the fact that “it recognizes the significance of affectionate relations in an
individual’s sexual orientation…and considers the possibility that the components of sexual
orientation can be independent, allowing an individual to express different and even
contradictory qualities of behaviors, fantasies, and feelings simultaneously and across time”
(Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.66). The definition allows each entity to portray a character of their
choice on the stage of life and that character may change or adapt over time.
If sexuality is based on sexual manners focussed on one or both genders, then the term
gender must be classified before the nature of sexual orientation can be truly understood. Gender,
by definition suggests “culturally constructed distinctions between femininity and
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masculinity…which according to this distinction, individuals are born female or male but they
become feminine or masculine” (Weiten & McCann, 2007. p.481). Furthermore, sex is not the
same as gender as it refers to the biological characteristics one is born with (Weiten & McCann,
2007. p.481).
Sex refers to what we are born with; gender is who culture shapes us into, and orientation
is who we connect too emotionally and through passion and fantasy.
When one is attracted sexually and have passionate feelings towards those of the same
sex as their own, they may be labelled as homosexual or from men, gay, and women, lesbian
(Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.65). If one portrays opposite characteristics than what is considered
to be the norm for their sex or even gender, then they may be described as being cross-gendered.
In cases such as these, the individual is more likely to be thought of as being a gay man or a
lesbian (Wilkinson & Roys, 2005, p.65).
Theories
Socialization
Everything around us will in some way or another shape the person we are to become.
Friends, family, parents, siblings, school, media, work, and all other domains in which we
interact with others, has a vested interest in the moulding of our personality.
Socialization varies from culture to culture, as does peoples’ perception of what it means
to be gay. Peter Bearman and Hannah Brückner have summarised their theory of socialization in
their March 2002 American Journal of Sociology article entitled Opposite-sex twins and
adolescent same-sex attraction. They state that:
Sexual preference is seen as the product of specific social and historical forces that link in
different ways diverse social processes organizing gender identity, desire, scripted behaviours,
and other cognitive and affective elements into a single framework. Because sexual expression
varies so remarkably across cultures, it is obvious that what is considered erotic, the expression
of erotic desires, and the organization of erotic practices, is the consequence of specific
socialization experiences. It follows that variation within a society with respect to sexual
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preference is seen by social scientists as the consequence of different socialization experiences
(p.1182).
Another presumption of socialization is the way in which social figures, such as parents
and peers, have diverse management of different individuals and any observed learning that
comes about when interacting with others (Bailey, Bechtold & Berenbaum, 2002, p 334).
Socialization has become a steadily increasing theory of interest for the determination of sexual
orientation.
Biological Influence
Several disciplines have attempted to explain the origin of sexual orientation with
biological evidence. One study conducted by Mustanski, Bailey, and Kaspar looked at
dermatoglyphics, (fingerprints) and handedness in order to conclude the point at which sexual
orientation is determined in utero (2002 p. 113). Their findings fell short as they failed to
replicate the experiments and concluded “that it may be premature to accept dermatoglyphic
asymmetry as a correlate of sexual orientation” (Mustankski et. al., 2002, p. 121). However, with
handedness there was a correlation with female sexual orientation and left handedness which was
in agreement with past research (Mustankski et. al., 2002, p. 121).
Prenatal androgen levels have also been thought to cause different sexual orientation in
utero (Bailey, 2002, p. 334). Women who are “exposed to high levels of prenatal androgens,
suggest that a core component of tomboyism—sex-typed toy play—is influenced by early
androgen exposure (Bailey, 2002, p. 334). This study did show that Tomboys, females who
associate more with masculine characteristics and activities, do in fact have more similarities to
their male counterparts then their sisters; however, biological evidence was not sufficiently
explained (Bailey, 2002).
Other studies consist of: prenatal development, brain morphology and function,
behaviour genetics, and hormone levels at various stages of prenatal development (Jenkins,
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2010, 281). These studies are conducted by the following departments: behaviour and molecular
genetics, neuroanatomy, neuropsychology, endocrinology, and anthropometry (Mustanski et. at.
2001, 113). The biological areas of sexual orientation are as vast as biology itself; however, the
lack of replication of experiments causes biological theories to be weak and poorly explained.
Evolution
Two studies are conducted within an evolutionary construct. One, looking at birth-order,
attempts to link birth-order and number of older siblings to sexual orientation; however, the
findings from this study do not support the hypothesis (Bearman & Brückman, 2002, p.11861187).
A second hypothesis “that homosexuality is a polygenetic trait” which means a gene that
is influenced of other genes and becomes fit to survive amongst other less dominant genes.
Again this hypothesis fails to be supported, as the testing of genes was not possible with the
instrumentation available to the experimenters (Bearman & Brückman, 2002, p.1186-1187).
Evolutionary theory, although weak, is still on the forefront of sexual orientation theories.
Perhaps with further evolution, this theory could be investigated with greater depth.
Failed Findings
Much research has been conducted over many decades regarding sexual orientation.
However, great amounts of hypotheses have not been proven and need to be revised and
revisited. Within the research used in this paper, most of the experiments could not be replicated,
thus hypotheses could not be proven. Relationships between genetics, hormones, socialization
and evolution (among others) are present; yet the tools to study these links perhaps are not
available at this point. “Human sexual behavior is extremely complex and variable; yet it is an
issue that fascinates many and inspires quite a bit of scientific investigation” (Jenkins, 2010, p.
279).
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Motivation and Emotions
Chapter ten of Psychology: Themes and Variations discusses motivation and emotion. In
this section of the textbook, sexual orientation is identified and explored. On page 406 a chart is
included to explain the differences between males and females with regards to biological reality,
evolutionary significance, and behavioural outcomes.
A summary of the chart suggests that males’ reproduction does not involve much
investment when it comes to threat, time or energy. In order to increase their reproduction they
have more sexual partners who also have great reproductive probability. This may lead to more
uncommitted sex with a greater number of partners, with important qualities in partners being
attractiveness and youthfulness (Weiten & McCann, 2007, p. 406).
With women, their reproduction has a high investment in terms of time, threat and
energy. They increase reproduction by taking partners that are interested in bringing materials to
children; and they are less interested in uncommitted sex and they have a smaller number of
partners. Important qualities include financial status and aspiration (Weiten & McCann, 2007,
p.406).
For heterosexual men and women these patterns are present consistently across many
cultures and cohorts. What about homosexuals? To begin with is it that black and white? The
short answer, no. Sexuality has been described as being a continuum from zero to six; zero being
exclusively heterosexual, three being the same amount of homo and heterosexual interest, and
six being only homosexual behaviour (Weiten & McCann, 2007, p.410). “Sex is essential for the
survival of a species, but it’s not essential to an individual’s survival” (Weiten & McCann, 2007,
p.403). The motivation to reproduce is evolutionary in nature; however, the emotional response
towards one’s sexual orientation is individual.
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Conclusion
After defining sexual orientation, looking at several theories, discussing the failings in the
findings and the emotional link to sexuality, the factors that influence sexual orientation in men
and women has not been clearly defined. By far, the hypothesis regarding socialization has the
most reasonable explanation and most significant evidence to support the theory. Further
research and instruments to conduct said research needs to be conducted in order to clearly
define the factors of sexual orientation. In conclusion, “can anyone tell me why I’m gay...not
yet” (Jenkins, 2010, p. 288).
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References
Bailey, M., Bechtold, K., & Berenbaum, S. (2002). Who are tomboys and why should we study
them? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31(4), 333-341.
Bearman, P., & Brückner, H. (2002). Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction, The
American Journal of Sociology. 107(5), 1179-1205.
Difranco, A. (1994). Letter to a John. On Out of Range [CD]. Buffalo, NY: Righteous Babe
Records.
Jenkins, W. (2010). Can anyone tell me why I’m gay? What research suggests regarding the
origins of sexual orientation. North American Journal of Psychology, 12(2), 279-296.
Mustanski, B., Bailey, M., & Kasper, S. (2002). Dermatoglyphics, handedness, sex, and sexual
orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31(1), 113-122.
Weiten, W., & McCann, D. 2007. Psychology: themes and variations. Toronto, ON. Thomson
Nelson Canada.
Wilkinson, W., & Roys, A. 2005.The components of sexual orientation, religiosity, and
heterosexuals’ impressions of gay men and lesbians. The Journal of Social Psychology,
145(1), 65-83.