Download Who`s Who: Kaiser Wilhelm II

Who's Who: Kaiser Wilhelm II
Updated - Saturday, 15 May, 2004
Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941), Germany's last Kaiser, was born in
Potsdam in 1859, the son of Frederick III and Victoria, daughter of
Queen Victoria.
Wilhelm's upbringing was strict and authoritarian. He was
educated first at the Kassel Gymnasium and then at the University
of Bonn.
Wilhelm became emperor of Germany in 1888 following the death of Frederick II. At the
time of his accession Otto von Bismarck was still German Chancellor; however he was
effectively dismissed from office by Wilhelm II two years later. The elderly Bismarck proved
unable - or unwilling - to manipulate the new Kaiser as he had his predecessor.
Wilhelm was an overtly militaristic man, and believed fervently in increasing the strength of
Germany's armed forces. In particular he was keen to develop a German navy the equal of
Britain's Royal Navy, encouraged by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz; the latter desire prompted
the Liberal administration of the 1900's to finance rearmament of the Royal Navy.
Wilhelm's policy towards Britain was by turns contradictory. Whilst supporting South Africa
during the Second Boer War of 1899-1902, he attempted a reconciliation shortly
afterwards. He held a senior position within the British armed forces; and he confessed that
he could not envisage a war with Britain. Yet he publicly criticised King Edward VII, whom
he described as Satan. Even after war was declared in August 1914 he wrote that war
would never have occurred had Queen Victoria, who died in 1901, still held the British
throne.
Wilhelm suffered a nervous breakdown in 1908, consequently playing a lesser role in the
government of Germany for the following few years. Wilhelm was, however, no friend of
democracy.
Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary on 28 June
1914, Wilhelm and his Chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, incited AustriaHungary to exact revenge against Serbia. Events spiralled throughout July resulting in the
First World War.
Wilhelm appeared not to foresee the consequences of an Austro-Hungarian attack on
Serbia, pulling France, Russia and Britain into the war. Too late he attempted to scale back
German involvement: he was firmly dissuaded by the German military.
Wilhelm operated as Commander in Chief of the German armed forces throughout the war.
Notwithstanding this, the German military operated under its own effective control: Wilhelm
was essentially a figurehead. Wilhelm opposed the replacement of Erich Falkenhayn with
Paul von Hindenburg in August 1916, but the dismissal of Falkenhayn took place
nonetheless.
Despite the great push of Spring 1918, which nearly won the war for Germany, Germany's
ability to win the war in 1918 collapsed, as U.S. involvement took on real form, and
shortages at home in Germany spun out of control. It became clear that Germany was set
to lose the war.
With revolution spreading to Berlin, Wilhelm was forced to abdicate on 9 November 1918.
Chancellor Max von Baden pre-empted Wilhelm's decision by announcing his abdication to
the public. Wilhelm sought exile in Holland, where he lived for the rest of his life. Holland
refused to extradite Wilhelm as a war criminal to the Allies following the Armistice.
The text of Kaiser Wilhelm II's abdication proclamation:
I herewith renounce for all time claims to the throne of Prussia and to the
German Imperial throne connected therewith. At the same time I release all
officials of the German Empire and of Prussia, as well as all officers, noncommissioned officers and men of the navy and of the Prussian army, as
well as the troops of the federated states of Germany, from the oath of
fidelity which they tendered to me as their Emperor, King and Commanderin-Chief. I expect of them that until the re-establishment of order in the
German Empire they shall render assistance to those in actual power in
Germany, in protecting the German people from the threatening dangers of
anarchy, famine, and foreign rule.
Proclaimed under our own hand and with the imperial seal attached.
Amerongen, 28 November, 1918
Signed WILLIAM
With Hitler's rise to power in 1933, Wilhelm harboured hopes of restoration of his throne,
and made tentative representations to that effect; they came to naught. Even so, Wilhelm
supported German nationalism as personified by Hitler.
Wilhelm wrote two volumes of memoirs during the 1920's. Memoirs 1878-1918 was
published in 1922, and My Early Life followed in 1926.
Kaiser Wilhelm II died in 1941.
Who's Who: Tsar Nicholas II
Updated - Tuesday, 3 January, 2006
Tsar Nicholas II (1868-1918) - Russia's last emperor - was born on
18 May 1868 in Tsarskoe Selo.
Nicholas succeeded his father's throne, Alexander III, when the later
died from liver disease on 20 October 1894. Nicholas was 26.
That same year Nicholas married Princess Alexandra of Hesse
Darmstadt, the grand-daughter of Queen Victoria. Alexandra was
instrumental in convincing Nicholas to resist ever-growing calls for
increased democracy within Russia. Alexandra was a firm believer
in the autocratic principle. Nicholas required little persuasion: as a nationalist he decried
those who favoured western style democracy.
Alexandra was unpopular with the Russian elite, more so as evidence emerged of her
increasing influence over her husband. Her reliance upon Grigory Rasputin in determining
Russian policy angered many, ultimately leading to Rasputin's assassination.
Defeat in the war with Japan of 1904-5 seriously damaged Russian prestige - and with it the
esteem of the monarchy. Japan had launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet based
at Port Arthur; throughout the war the Russian navy was found wanting, although the army
fared better in repulsing Japanese troops in Manchuria.
At the same time as Russia faced war with Japan, there was increasing industrial unrest at
home. Workers who faced long hours and poor conditions increasingly formed protests.
In 1904 110,000 workers in St Petersburg striked for four days in protest at the declining
value of wages in real terms. Georgi Gapon, of the Assembly of Russian Workers, appealed
to Nicholas for help in reducing working hours and improving pay and conditions. A
consequent march on the Winter Palace was greeted by armed Cossacks: over 100
protestors were killed and many more wounded.
'Bloody Sunday', as it became known, sparked the 1905 Revolution, whereby strikes spread
around the country and mutiny throughout the army and navy. Leon Trotsky founded the
St Petersburg Soviet in October, with 50 more being established over the next month in the
rest of the country.
In response to such wide-scale protest, and under the advice of close advisers, the Tsar
published the 'October Manifesto', which granted freedom of conscience, speech, meeting
and association, and the end of imprisonment without trial. In addition, no new law would
become effective without the approval of the Duma, a consultative body.
The October Manifesto did not satisfy Trotsky (who with his supporters was subsequently
arrested for his actions taken in protest) but did take the sting out of the crisis that had
formed.
Although the Duma had been viewed as a toothless advisory body, at its first meeting in
May 1906 it made demands for the release of political prisoners, for trade union rights and
land reform. In rejecting these demands Nicholas promptly dissolved the Duma.
Later that year Nicholas replaced the moderate chief minister Sergi Witte with the more
conservative Peter Stolypin. Stolypin attempted to balance the demands of both liberal and
conservative factions in the country. He was ultimately unsuccessful: he was assassinated
in 1911 by a member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party at the Kiev Opera House.
With Germany's decision to enter into the Triple Alliance system with Austria-Hungary and
Italy - whereby each of the three nations agreed to come to the other's aid in the event of
attack by either France or Russia - Russia naturally saw Germany as its main potential
enemy; this despite Nicholas's position as the cousin of German Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Consequently Russia entered into an alliance with Britain and France, the 'Triple Entente'.
When war was declared by Germany with France in August 1914, Russia came into the war
on France's side.
Russian industrial unrest had continued into the first half of 1914. Up to half of the entire
workforce are estimated to have striked that year. The war temporarily brought an
effective end to industrial unrest however, although it later returned. The war also brought
Nicholas political benefits; the establishment united behind him in the conduct of the war.
Dissatisfied with the army's conduct of the war, Nicholas took personal command in
September 1915. The Russian army were fighting on the Eastern Front and its ongoing lack
of success was causing dissension at home. Unfortunately, now operating under Nicholas
II's supreme command, its continued failure reflected directly upon the Tsar himself rather
than the army command. Nicholas's popularity dwindled.
By late 1916 royalists within the Duma warned the Tsar that revolution was imminent; even
so, Nicholas refused to sanction further constitutional reform. During the so-called
'February Revolution' in 1917, which he misinterpreted as a minor uprising, his routine
suppression orders to the Petrograd garrison sparked its mutiny on 10 March.
Nicholas II was persuaded to abdicate on 15 March 1917 under the recommendation of the
Russian Army High Command. In search of exile elsewhere, Lloyd George offered a haven
in Britain, only for the offer to be withdrawn under the direction of King George V, who did
not wish to be associated with his autocratic cousin at this point: a controversial decision.
Moved to the Siberian city of Ekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks, Nicholas and his family were
executed on the night of 16/17 July 1918.
Who's Who: Emperor Franz Josef I
Updated - Sunday, 19 January, 2003
Franz Josef I (1830-1916), Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary
was born on 18 August 1830, the eldest son of Archduke Franz Karl,
the brother and heir of Emperor Ferdinand I.
Franz Josef became heir-apparent after his father renounced his right
to the crown, becoming Emperor of Austria in 1848 at the age of 18
following Ferdinand's abdication towards the end of the Hungarian
revolution of that year.
Already in decline as a major power, with Franz Josef quickly losing the war with the French
soon after his accession in 1848, Austria's influence further declined throughout Franz
Josef's reign, for a variety of reasons.
Austria's relationship with Russia was irreparably damaged as a consequence of Austria's
withholding of support during the Anglo-Russian Crimean War of 1853-56, a factor in the
July Crisis of 1914. Ultimately Russia entered into an alliance with France and Britain
ranged against Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, feeling no lingering loyalty to AustriaHungary.
In addition, Italy's growing strength following its reunification led to the loss of almost all of
Austria's Italian possessions, including Lombardy and Venetia.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, Germany's rise to dominance following its successful
war with Austria in 1866 and its reunification under Bismarck in 1871, rendered Austria the
junior of the two Germanic powers.
Meanwhile, Franz Josef had to deal with Hungary's growing demands for autonomy. After
negotiation, the two nations agreed to create a dual monarchy in which both were equal
partners; the empire of Austria-Hungary was therefore established in 1867. Franz Josef
was its monarch, serving alongside his wife Elisabeth whom he married in 1853 (and who
was regarded by many Hungarians as their true monarch). Elisabeth played a role in the
discussions that resulted in the shared power arrangements.
Under the terms of the compromise agreement Hungary retained control of its own internal
affairs. In matters pertaining to foreign affairs the two countries would act together.
Now that he served as dual monarch, Franz Josef announced his intention of granting a
form of self-government to Austria's Slav population. However he was frustrated in this by
the German and Magyar politicians who effectively ran the empire, and who adamantly
opposed any extension of power-sharing to include the Slavs.
Franz Josef's failure to enact change led to increased dissatisfaction among Austrian Czechs
and Serbs, as well as causing a further straining of relations with Russia, the natural
champion of the Slav peoples.
Tragedy struck Franz Josef's immediate family in the 1880s and 1890s. His only son,
Archduke Rudolf, committed suicide in 1889. His brother, Karl Ludwig, died in 1896 from
an illness incurred from drinking infected water during a pilgrimage to the Holy Lands.
Finally his wife, Elisabeth, was assassinated in Geneva in 1898 by an Italian anarchist.
The issue of succession to Franz Josef's throne was complex. With Rudolf's suicide, next in
line for the succession was Franz Josef's younger brother Maximilian. He had however been
shot by a Mexican firing squad in 1867 following an unsuccessful three-year reign as
Emperor of Mexico. Therefore his dead brother Karl Ludwig's eldest son, Franz Ferdinand,
emerged as heir.
Franz Josef had little affection for Franz Ferdinand, disapproving of the man himself, and of
his marriage to Sophie Chotek von Chotkova, whom he considered below Ferdinand's rank.
Ferdinand's marriage only went ahead after he agreed to renounce all rights of his children
to succeed him as Emperor; even this agreement was extracted from Franz Josef following
representations by the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II, and the Russian Tsar, Nicholas II. Even
so, he neither attended Ferdinand's marriage nor, following his assassination in Sarajevo on
28 June 1914, his funeral.
Despite his dislike of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Franz Josef accepted the advice of his
foreign minister, Leopold von Berchtold, in first issuing an unacceptable ultimatum to
Serbia, and then declaring war after Serbia quibbled with one of Austria-Hungary's
demands. Franz Josef left the conduct of the war strictly to his military officials, although
by 1916 he believed victory to be impossible and the break-up of his empire likely.
The last significant Habsburg monarch, remaining popular to the end of his life, Emperor
Franz Josef died on 21 November 1916 after reigning for 66 years. His grand-nephew, Karl
I, assumed the throne until 1918 as the last Habsburg monarch.
Who's Who: King Alexander I
Updated - Sunday, 2 June, 2002
King Alexander I of Yugoslavia (1888-1934) lived a turbulent life as
Crown Prince, Regent, Commander in Chief and finally King of Serbia
and, latterly, Yugoslavia.
Born on 16 December 1888 in Cetinje, Montenegro, Alexander
Karadjordjevic was the second son of King Peter I, who came to power
as constitutional monarch of Serbia in the violent coup of 1903 that
saw the downfall of the Obrenovic dynasty.
After spending his formative years in exile in Geneva with his father, Alexander entered the
Russian imperial corps in 1904, at St. Petersburg. With his older brother George's decision
in 1909 to renounce his position as heir to the Serbian throne, Alexander became Crown
Prince and returned to Serbia where his father was by now King.
Having served with distinction in the Balkan Wars of 1912-13, Alexander found himself
appointed Regent on 24 June 1914, a position variously accredited to his father's ill-health
and to compunction forced upon King Peter by the Serbian military high command.
At this time there was some question of Alexander's name being linked to the Serbian Black
Hand secret society (a member of whom, Gavrilo Princip, was responsible for the
assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914).
The First World War broke out shortly afterwards and Alexander took up a role as Serbia's
nominal Commander in Chief, although the vastly more experienced Field Marshal Putnik
retained effective control of the army.
Serbia's spirited and successful defence in 1914 against the manifestly stronger and betterequipped Austro-Hungarians, led by Oskar Potiorek, took on an epic quality. However, the
Austro-Hungarians' second planned invasion, launched in October/November 1915 with the
combined forces of Austria-Hungary, Germany and Bulgaria, led by August von Mackensen,
saw the Serbian army of 90,000 swept out across the wintry Albanian mountains and into
exile at Corfu.
Once in Corfu Alexander, who had effectively been subservient to his Prime Minister, Pasic,
and to Putnik (who, gravely ill, was relieved of command at Corfu), re-asserted his
leadership of the Serbian people. Alexander oversaw reform of the army which, redeployed
to Salonika, played an important role in the victorious Allied offensive in October/November
1918.
In the intervening years between his arrival at Corfu and success at the close of the war,
Alexander continuously lobbied the Allied governments to encourage the creation of a
'Greater Serbia' after the war, to include Croatia and Slovenia.
On 1 December 1918 a Greater Serbia was indeed proclaimed, as King Peter was declared
head of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. With his succession to the throne on
16 August 1921 the Crown Prince became King Alexander I; and on 3 October 1929 he
changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia.
Dissension and violent turmoil marked the years of the 1920s, as Croat nationalists (among
others) protested against Serbian dominance of the newly created state. On 6 January
1929 Alexander abolished parliament and the constitution and established a dictatorship,
unable to appoint a cohesive government from among the numerous squabbling political
factions. However he continued in his attempts to unify the various elements of his country,
outlawing ethnic, religious or regional based political groups.
In September 1931 Alexander legalised Yugoslavia's military state. In 1933 he improved
relations with Bulgaria and brought Yugoslavia into the Little Entente with Czechoslovakia
and Romania, and into the Balkan Entente with Greece, Turkey and Romania, in 1934.
Public demand for a return to democratic government grew during 1932 with a downturn in
the country's economic position. Alexander was considering restoring a form of
parliamentary government when, on 9 October 1934, while on a state visit to France, he
was assassinated in Marseilles by a Macedonian activist (allegedly acting with Croat
separatists). He was survived by his wife Marie, a daughter of Romania's Ferdinand I,
whom he married on 8 June 1922.
Who's Who: Woodrow Wilson
Updated - Sunday, 21 October, 2001
Like Roosevelt before him, Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) regarded
himself as the personal representative of the people. "No one but the
President," he said, "seems to be expected... to look out for the general
interests of the country."
He developed a program of progressive reform and asserted
international leadership in building a new world order. In 1917 he
proclaimed American entrance into World War I a crusade to make the
world "safe for democracy."
Wilson had seen the frightfulness of war. He was born in Virginia in 1856, the son of a
Presbyterian minister who during the Civil War was a pastor in Augusta, Georgia, and during
Reconstruction a professor in the charred city of Columbia, South Carolina.
After graduation from Princeton (then the College of New Jersey) and the University of
Virginia Law School, Wilson earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University and entered
upon an academic career. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson.
Wilson advanced rapidly as a conservative young professor of political science and became
president of Princeton in 1902.
His growing national reputation led some conservative Democrats to consider him
Presidential timber. First they persuaded him to run for Governor of New Jersey in 1910.
In the campaign he asserted his independence of the conservatives and of the machine that
had nominated him, endorsing a progressive platform, which he pursued as governor.
He was nominated for President at the 1912 Democratic Convention and campaigned on a
program called the New Freedom, which stressed individualism and states' rights. In the
three-way election he received only 42 percent of the popular vote but an overwhelming
electoral vote.
Wilson manoeuvred through Congress three major pieces of legislation. The first was a
lower tariff, the Underwood Act; attached to the measure was a graduated Federal income
tax. The passage of the Federal Reserve Act provided the Nation with the more elastic
money supply it badly needed. In 1914 antitrust legislation established a Federal Trade
Commission to prohibit unfair business practices.
Another burst of legislation followed in 1916. One new law prohibited child labour; another
limited railroad workers to an eight-hour day. By virtue of this legislation and the slogan
"he kept us out of war," Wilson narrowly won re-election.
But after the election Wilson concluded that America could not remain neutral in the World
War. On April 2, 1917, he asked Congress for a declaration of war on Germany.
Massive American effort slowly tipped the balance in favour of the Allies. Wilson went
before Congress in January 1918, to enunciate American war aims - the Fourteen Points,
the last of which would establish "A general association of nations... affording mutual
guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike."
After the Germans signed the Armistice in November 1918, Wilson went to Paris to try to
build an enduring peace. He later presented to the Senate the Versailles Treaty, containing
the Covenant of the League of Nations, and asked, "Dare we reject it and break the heart of
the world?"
But the election of 1918 had shifted the balance in Congress to the Republicans. By seven
votes the Versailles Treaty failed in the Senate.
The President, against the warnings of his doctors, had made a national tour to mobilize
public sentiment for the treaty. Exhausted, he suffered a stroke and nearly died. Tenderly
nursed by his second wife, Edith Bolling Galt, he lived until 1924.
Who's Who: Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Updated - Saturday, 11 August, 2001
Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) was born in Graz, Austria. As the
heir to the Austro-Hungarian empire his assassination on 28 June
1914 sparked the First World War.
Although only third in line to the throne, Franz Ferdinand became
the heir-apparent following the death of the Emperor's son, Crown Prince Rudolf in 1889,
and his own father Archduke Charles Louis in 1896, Franz Josef's brother. Considered a
prideful and mistrusting man, and not overly cultured, and with a short temper, Franz
Ferdinand lacked the necessary charisma to guarantee popularity.
Following his marriage to Sophie Chotek von Chotkova in 1900, Ferdinand became more
reclusive. A happy husband and a devoted father (they had three children), Ferdinand's
private persona in this regard was at odds with public perception. The Emperor, Franz
Josef, was against the marriage, arguing that Franz Ferdinand was marrying beneath his
station. The marriage eventually only took place after Ferdinand agreed to renounce all
rights of succession for his children. Franz Josef did not attend the wedding.
The primary source of Franz Ferdinand's unpopularity however related to the policies he
intended to apply once he assumed the throne. He proposed to replace Austro-Hungarian
dualism with 'Trialism,' a triple monarchy in which the empire's Slavs would have an equal
voice in government with the Germans and Magyars.
Ferdinand was also considering the idea of a federalism made up of 16 states; the aim being
to avoid disintegration of the fading Austro-Hungarian empire. However these ideas were
not popular among the ruling elite.
As Inspector General of the army Franz Ferdinand accepted an invitation from General
Oskar Potiorek to visit the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo, to inspect army manoeuvres. Bosnia
- and Herzegovina - were provinces that had been under Austro-Hungarian administration
since 1878, by international agreement. Austria annexed the provinces outright in 1908, a
controversial move which upset governments in the west; however, Greater-Serbia
proponents were outraged. They wanted the provinces to be part of a Serbian led pan-Slav
state, rather than part of the Austro-Hungarian empire.
A Serbian terrorist group, the Black Hand, resolved to assassinate Franz Ferdinand during
his visit to Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, thereby stalling his proposed reforms.
While riding in the motorcade through the streets of Sarajevo on 28 June, Franz Ferdinand
and his wife Sophie were shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian member of the Black
Hand; earlier in the day Ferdinand's car had also been fired at by a hand grenade, causing
him to complain angrily upon his arrival at the city hall.
"What is the good of your speeches? I come to Sarajevo on a visit, and I
get bombs thrown at me. It is outrageous!"
Archduke Franz Ferdinand interrupting the Mayor's welcome speech at
Sarajevo's city hall, 28 June 1914.
The assassination provided Austria-Hungary with an excuse to take action against Serbia.
During July 1914 the situation escalated, pulling in the major European powers via the
complex alliance relationships each had struck up with one another. The result was world
war.
Franz Ferdinand was buried in a crypt beneath the chapel of his castle, Artstetten, instead of
the customary burial place of the Hapsburgs, Capuchin Crypt, in Vienna. Neither Franz
Josef nor the German Kaiser attended the funeral.
Who's Who: King George V
Updated - Tuesday, 28 January, 2003
George V (1865-1936) was born on 3 June 1865, the second son of
Edward VII and Alexandra.
Following a cursory education at home George opted for a naval career
in 1877, serving with his older brother Albert as naval cadets and until
the latter left to study at Trinity College in 1882. George remained in
the navy as a professional officer until Albert's death in 1892. From this
point onwards George assumed the role of the heir-apparent.
In 1893 he married Princess Mary of Teck, a great-granddaughter of George III. The couple
had six children - five sons and a daughter (of which one - John - suffered from epilepsy
and (probably) autism, and was hidden from public view).
With Queen Victoria's death on 22 January 1901 and Edward VII's accession to the throne,
George became direct heir to the throne.
George's tenure as monarch - 1910-36 - began in the midst of a constitutional crisis in
Britain. The Liberal government, under Prime Minister Asquith and Chancellor of the
Exchequer Lloyd George, were in dispute with the House of Lords, Parliament's upper
chamber.
The Conservative-dominated upper chamber had rejected Lloyd George's annual finance bill
of 1909, a controversial budget which included several significant social welfare provisions.
The government was deadlocked with the unelected Lords, and threatened to flood the
upper chamber with specially created peers simply in order to force its finance bill through
Parliament.
It was in this context that George V was faced with a difficult decision. Asquith and Lloyd
George required the King's consent to create such a large number of new peers; naturally
the Conservative opposition expected the monarch to refuse to break with convention in
creating so many party political peers.
Eventually George agreed to Asquith's request to grant permission to create the new peers
if necessary; at which point the Lords capitulated and passed Lloyd George's budget. As a
consequence of the crisis however, the Parliament Act of 1911 was enacted which severely
cut back the power of the Lords, including its right of veto of government bills.
During the First World War King George - and his wife May (as Mary was known) - visited
the Western Front on several occasions. During one such visit his horse rolled on top of
him, breaking his pelvis, an injury that plagued him for the rest of his life.
In the midst of the war, in 1917, and sensitive of the Royal Family's German background,
George changed the family name from the too-German sounding Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to
Windsor.
That same year George controversially denied the Russian Tsar Nicholas II - George's cousin
- and his family asylum in Britain following the Russian Revolution. The Tsar was
subsequently arrested and murdered by the Bolsheviks.
The depression of 1929-31 convinced George that a unity government was required in order
for the nation to unite in combating the prevalent poverty of the time. To that end he
persuaded the three major political parties to enter into a temporary government coalition,
Labour, Liberal and the Conservatives.
During George's reign Britain's relationship with its colonies underwent a number of
changes. Ireland was divided along religious lines in 1920 with the south being selfgoverning; and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa demanded and received
the right to self governance, which led to the creation in 1931 of the British Commonwealth
of Nations. India gained a measure of self-governance in 1935.
George V was considered neither well-educated nor well-read, and nor was he a popular wit
or raconteur. However he embodied diligence, duty and duty. He sought to represent his
subjects, rather than define government policy as had his predecessors Victoria and
Edward.
George V died on 20 January 1936 - the year previous, 1935, saw his silver jubilee - after
suffering a series of debilitating attacks of bronchitis. He was succeeded by his son, Edward
VIII.
Who's Who: Raymond Poincare
Updated - Saturday, 11 August, 2001
Raymond Poincare (1860-1934) was born on 20 August 1860 at Bar
le-duc in Lorraine, the son of an engineer.
Poincare studied at the University of Paris, after which he became a
lawyer.
Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1887, Poincare held various
cabinet posts between 1893 and 1906, including the ministries of
education and finance, entering the senate in 1903. At 33 he was the
youngest person to hold a ministry in the history of the republic.
Poincare became premier and foreign minister in January 1912 of a coalition government
and succeeded Armand Fallieres as president in January 1913, defeating Georges
Clemenceau.
A conservative and a nationalist, as president Poincare moved to strengthen France's armed
forces for the eventuality of war. A bill increasing the duration of national service to three
years was passed, and alliances with Britain and Russia strengthened.
During the First World War Poincare called upon Georges Clemenceau to form a government
in 1917, despite his personal loathing of the man.
Following the armistice Poincare called for harsh remedies against Germany, and for future
guarantees of French security. Partly frustrated in this, he consequently regarded the
Versailles treaty as too lax in its treatment of Germany.
Upon completion of his presidential term in January 1920 Poincare returned to the senate,
becoming leader of the coalition of conservative parties, the 'bloc national'. This in turn
brought him to the premiership in January 1922.
As premier Poincare followed up his harsh rhetoric against Germany, sending troops to
occupy the Ruhr in January 1923 to signify his anger at Germany's failure to pay the heavy
reparations imposed at Versailles. Nevertheless he failed to coerce Germany into making
payments.
At the election of May 1924 the conservatives suffered defeat, causing Poincare to resign;
he was replaced as prime minister by Edouard Herriot. He returned to the premiership in
July 1926 in the midst of a financial crisis. He dealt with this by initiating an extreme
deflationary policy, balancing the budget and stabilising the Franc at one fifth of its former
value, in 1928.
Poincare retired from office in July 1929 citing ill-health.
Raymond Poincare died on 15 October 1934 in Paris.
Who's Who: King Vittorio Emanuele III
Updated - Saturday, 18 September, 2004
King Vittorio Emanuele III's 46 year reign encompassed the First World
War, the conduct of which he largely left in the hands of his government
and military high command.
Born on 11 November 1869, Vittorio Emanuele became became king on
the assassination of his father, Umberto I, in 1900, at the age of 31.
The first years of his reign saw Italy enjoy rapid economic growth, although the outcome of
the Turkish war brought serious economic difficulties immediately before the Great War
broke out in August 1914.
Although Italy adopted an official policy of neutrality on 2 August 1914 the spread of war
was nevertheless effective in halting the spate of strikes and civil unrest in the country.
A shy, devious man, Vittorio Emanuele eventually came out in favour of entering the war
with the Allies as offering the best opportunities for Italian territorial gain. Although he
largely left national affairs to his government - then led by Prime Minister Salandra - he was
in this case instrumental in Italy's renunciation of her tentative alliance with the Central
Powers following the (from the Italian point of view) successful outcome of the secret April
1915 Treaty of London.
Theoretically Commander in Chief of the army, the king seldom interfered in military affairs,
leaving its management in the hands of the autocratic Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna. From
time to time however he did mediate=d in quarrels between his (generally incompetent)
army commanders.
The king played an important public steadying role in the wake of the Italian military
disaster at Caporetto in October 1917. His pugnacious reiteration of Italian determination
to continue the war impressed the British and French and helped convince them to send
substantial aid to the Italian front.
His reign after the war proved controversial. Under Mussolini's fascist regime he acquired
new titles: as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1936 and King of Albania in 1939. He was widely
criticised for signing Mussolini's 1938 race laws, which barred Jews from becoming teachers,
lawyers and journalists, and banned them from attending state schools and universities, as
well as forfeiting much of their property.
With the end of the Second World War a public referendum was conducted in 1946 on the
future of the monarchy. By a slim majority the public approved the monarchy's abolition.
Vittorio Emanuele, who had left the country in 1943, remained in exile in Alexandria, Egypt,
having never formally abdicated or renounced his rights.
He died on 28 December 1947 at the age of 78.
Who's Who: King Albert I
Updated - Sunday, 11 May, 2003
Albert I (1875-1934) was King of the Belgians throughout the war,
organising resistance to German occupation of much of Belgium.
He came to the throne in 1909, succeeding his uncle, Leopold II.
Belgium occupied the only open tract of land between France and
Germany, thus its stance as a neutral power was key to the balance of
power in pre-war Europe.
Belgium's neutrality not withstanding, Germany issued an ultimatum on 2 August 1914,
demanding that Belgium allow German forces access to its territory so that Germany could
gain ready access to French borders. Albert I resisted the demand and took personal
charge of his forces.
Germany therefore invaded Belgium on 4 August 1914, quickly overrunning the country's
small army (consisting of 43,000 men in 1914, with 115,000 reserve troops) and forcing
Albert I to move the Belgian government to Le Havre from where he continued to govern his
nation (although he himself continued to live in Belgium, firstly in De Panne and then in
Kasteel De Moeren).
On 22 November 1918, Albert I triumphantly re-entered Brussels having successfully
commanded the Belgian army in the autumn 1918 Courtrai offensive.
Albert I was killed in a climbing accident in 1934, and was succeeded by his son, Leopold
III.
Who's Who: Mikhail Rodzianko
Updated - Sunday, 16 June, 2002
Mikhail Vladimirovich Rodzianko (1859-1924) was President of the
Russia Duma from 1912 until the outbreak of revolution in 1917.
Rodzianko was born in Ekaterinoslav, on 9th March 1859, the son of a
wealthy landowner. After a career in the Russian Army he opted for a
political career.
Rodzianko was regarded as a moderate Octobrist deputy - a factor
which served to alienate him to both the Tsar, Nicholas II, and (moreover) to the Tsarina,
Alexandra. This was in spite of Rodzianko's evident patriotism and support for the
continuation of the monarchy.
During the First World War Rodzianko served on various War Industry Committees from
1915 onwards, in which he strived to find means of stimulating Russia's mordant industrial
economy in support of the country's war effort. In this he was hampered by the royal
family's unwillingness to consider social or political change which might prove helpful in
stimulating economic production.
Rodzianko further increased his unpopularity at court with his counsel - along with virtually
the entire Cabinet - that the Tsar refrain from personally leading his armies from the Front
in the summer of September 1915. Rodzianko further advised the Tsar that he regarded
the latter's 'special advisor' Grigory Rasputin as a German spy.
The outbreak of revolution in 1917 - which Rodzianko tried to stave off by repeatedly
advising the Tsar to implement sweeping changes to his Cabinet - and the Tsar's
consequent abdication (which Rodzianko belatedly recognised as essential) ironically
brought with it an end to Rodzianko's own career.
His moderate stance bore little credibility with the incoming Bolshevik government. He
therefore sought exile in Yugoslavia in 1920. He died in Belgrade on 24 January 1924 aged
64.
Who's Who: Arthur Zimmermann
Updated - Sunday, 9 June, 2002
Arthur Zimmermann (1854-1940) was responsible as German
Foreign Secretary for the Zimmermann Telegram which helped to
draw the United States into World War One against Germany in April
1917.
Zimmermann was appointed Germany's Foreign Secretary in
November 1916 and owed his political eminence to his unwavering
support for the Third Supreme Command, an effective military
dictatorship led by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff.
Towards the close of 1916 Zimmermann stated his full support for
the military high command's decision to impose a highly controversial policy of unrestricted
submarine warfare - the policy which eventually drew the U.S. into the war in April 1917.
However Zimmermann is best-known as the author of the infamous 'Zimmermann
Telegram' sent to the German Embassy in Mexico on 19 January 1917. The encrypted
telegram to von Eckhardt in Mexico effectively comprised an offer of German support for a
Mexican invasion of the U.S. The thinking behind the telegram suggested that the U.S.
would find itself too concerned with fighting a war with Mexico at home to direct its energies
to the conflict in Europe.
In perhaps the best-known example of cryptanalysis the British intercepted the telegram
and set its team of cryptographers ('Room 40') to decrypt the telegram. Using a captured
German diplomatic codebook the British team succeeded and passed the contents of the
plain-text telegram to the government who in turn sent details to U.S. President Woodrow
Wilson.
The inevitable publication of the telegram on 1 March (with Wilson's permission) was initially
met by stunned disbelief in American quarters, its contents widely considered implausible.
Unfortunately Zimmermann inexplicably confirmed the authenticity of the telegram shortly
afterwards. War between the U.S. and Germany drew ever nearer: within a month it would
become a fact.
Zimmermann himself chose 'retirement' in August 1917. He died in 1940.
Who's Who: John Pershing
Updated - Saturday, 11 August, 2001
John Joseph Pershing (1860-1948) was born on 13 September
1860 in Laclede, Missouri.
After a period spent as a schoolteacher at Prairie Mound, nine miles
from Laclede, Pershing (known as 'Black Jack Pershing') entered a
competitive examination for an appointment to West Point in spring
1882; his primary aim being to secure further education. Pershing won the exam and went
to West Point.
Although not an especially outstanding student (graduating 30th out of a class of 77) he was
noted early on by officers for his leadership qualities. He was elected president of the class
of 1886, and each year held the highest rank in the Cadet Battalion. Pershing commanded
the Corps of Cadets when it crossed the Hudson from West Point to Garrison to stand and
present arms while the funeral train of Ulysses S. Grant passed by.
Pershing took up duty as Professor of Military Science and Tactics at the University of
Nebraska in September 1891, a post he held for four years.
During his varied military career Pershing performed frontier duty against the Sioux and
Apache from 1886-90, where he won the Silver Star Medal; fought in the Cuban War in
1898; in the Philippines in 1903, cleaning up the Moro insurrectionists; and with the
Japanese army during the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5, as an observer. He was
promoted to Brigadier General in 1906. This was followed by the Mexican Punitive
Expedition (of 10,000 men) to capture Pancho Villa in Mexico in 1915.
Following the U.S. declaration of war against Germany in 1917, Pershing – now a General was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). At the time
of his appointment there was no expeditionary force available as such; the regular army
comprised 25,000 men at most, and no effective reserves. Pershing needed to recruit an
organised army and get it into the field; 500,000 men. Eventually the National Army grew over the period of a year and a half - to nearly 3 million men.
Pershing personally led the successful Meuse-Argonne offensive of 1918.
In 1921 Pershing became U.S. Army Chief of Staff. He retired from active duty in 1924 at
the age of 64, having been awarded the title ‘General of the Armies’ by Congress, a post
previously held only by George Washington (and only then retrospectively awarded in
1976).
His autobiography, My Experience of War, was published in 1931, winning the Pulitzer Prize
for history in 1932.
John Joseph Pershing died on 15 July 1948 in Washington, D.C.
Who's Who: Alvin C. York
Updated - Tuesday, 11 April, 2006
Alvin Cullum York (1887-1964) ended the First World War as one of
America's most famous soldiers, with fame and popular recognition
assured following a remarkable act of courage and coolness in
October 1918.
Having grown up in poverty the young York honed his skills as a crack
marksman, a useful talent for use in hunting food for himself and his family - and one put to
high effect during the war.
Despite his remarkable reputation for bravery and the win-at-all-costs attitude displayed
during his wartime service York was and remained a pacifist. Following a religious
conversion in 1911 - he became lay deacon of a local pacifist sect - he declared himself a
convinced pacifist.
Consequently with the U.S. entry into World War One York initially returned his draft papers
before they were summarily resent to him by the draft board, at which stage he was drafted
into 328th Regiment, 82nd Infantry. During training however he was convinced by his
battalion commander, Gonzalo Edward Buxton - a fellow Bible student - that the Bible
sanctioned active service.
Once in France the semi-literate York earned lifetime fame for his part in an attack in the
Argonne Forest against German machine gun positions on 8 October 1918. York, an acting
Corporal, led 17 men in action against a German stronghold, the aim being to secure the
position and return with German prisoners.
Initially successful without coming under fire, the small expedition took a number of
prisoners before the Germans launched a heavy counterattack. With 11 of York's men
guarding the captured prisoners (and with the other six killed) York resolved to proceed
alone and tackle the German gunners ranged against them.
Having shot some 17 gunners via sniping, York was charged by seven German soldiers who
realised that he was operating on his own. He killed them all with his pistol. With the aid of
a German Major captured earlier York brought in a total of 132 German prisoners, a
remarkable feat.
He was well rewarded however, receiving lavish press coverage at home and the
Congressional Medal of Honor, in addition to the French Croix de Guerre (and a fulsome
citation from Supreme Allied Commander Ferdinand Foch).
Returning home to a New York City parade, York was awarded a gift of a farm by his home
state, Tennessee. A film of his life was made in 1940, Sergeant York, starring Gary Cooper;
York used the fee he was paid for the film to fund a Bible college.
He died in 1964.
Who's Who: George Creel
Updated - Sunday, 17 March, 2002
George Creel (1876-1953) headed the U.S. propaganda effort during
World War One.
Born on 1 December 1876 in Lafayette County, Creel's career began
as a newspaper reporter in 1894 for the Kansas City World. Within
five years he was publishing his own newspaper, the Kansas City
Independent.
By the time the U.S. entered World War One in April 1917 Creel had begun to establish
something of a reputation as an investigative journalist (or 'muckraker' to some), having in
the interim acted as editor for the Rocky Mountain News (1911).
A firm and outspoken supporter of Woodrow Wilson during the presidential election
campaigns of 1912 and 1916 it was therefore unsurprising that Creel should be chosen to
head Wilson's Committee on Public Information (CPI) in 1917, although given his
outspokenness his selection was controversial among Wilson's Republican opponent (notably
Henry Cabot Lodge, Wilson's ongoing political nemesis).
While Creel acted to reduce the level of anti-German feeling in the country over the course
of the following two years with unbiased news reporting, he nevertheless devoted his not
inconsiderable energies to ensuring full public backing for the U.S. war effort.
To this end he extended the scope of his remit from Wilson to include all aspects of the U.S.
media, including film, posters, music, paintings and cartoons (in some ways reminiscent of
Charles Masterman's earlier efforts in Britain). Creel also arranged for the recruitment of
75,000 so-called 'Four Minute Men' - people who volunteered to speak for four minutes in
public locations around the country in favour of the war effort).
Both of President Wilson's post-Armistice visits to Europe were overseen by Creel's
department, with the result that Wilson was greeted with open adulation wherever he went.
Creel's efforts also ensured a high degree of popularity in Europe for Wilson's Fourteen
Points.
Domestically however Creel's irascible outspokenness ensured he found enemies among
Wilson's conservative opponents, including Lodge. If anything, Creel's aggressive
campaigning on behalf of Wilson for the latter's Fourteen Points galvanised U.S. home
opposition, and certainly contributed to the ultimate rejection in Congress of the Treaty of
Versailles.
Following the war he published his memoirs, accurately entitled How We Advertised America
in 1920, and went on to publish over a dozen more works.
He served with the San Francisco Regional Labor Board in 1933 and as chairman of the
National Advisory Board of the Works Progress Administration two years later.
In 1934 Creel stood - unsuccessfully - for the Democratic Party's nomination for governor of
California (the author Upton Sinclair instead received the nod), thereafter devoting much of
his time to writing. He died on 2 October 1953 in San Francisco at the age of 76.
Who's Who: Henry Cabot Lodge
Updated - Tuesday, 28 January, 2003
Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924), a conservative Republican politician,
proved a long-term adversary of Democratic President Woodrow
Wilson and, ultimately, his nemesis.
Born to a prominent Boston family on 12 May 1850, Lodge was
educated at Harvard from which he emerged with a Ph.D. in political
science in 1876, being admitted to the bar the same year.
Lodge acted as assistant editor, from 1873-76, of the North American Review, before
lecturing on U.S. history at Harvard from 1876-79. He co-edited the International Review
(with John Torrey Morse) between 1880-81. In 1880 Lodge was elected to the state
legislature (until 1881), and to the House of Representatives in 1887 (until 1893). He
subsequently served in the Senate from 1893 until his death in 1924. Lodge took time to
write a series of historical works and biographies in addition to carving out a growing
political career. His works included biographies of Daniel Webster (1883) and George
Washington (1889).
As a Senator Lodge formed a close alliance with Theodore Roosevelt. Despite his reputation
as a conservative Republican Lodge was by no means isolationist. In favour of war with
Spain in 1898, Lodge also favoured the acquisition of the Philippines.
Lodge firmly believed that America deserved (and should therefore be encouraged to
develop) a prominent role in international diplomacy. In order to achieve this he therefore
argued for ongoing development of an increased army and navy, military strength being a
pre-requisite to diplomatic power.
Conservative and conventional to the extent that he supported the gold standard and
protection, Lodge believed incoming 1912 President Woodrow Wilson to be one of the more
risky occupants of the Oval Office, with his arch-progressive notions that were anathema to
conservatives of Lodge's slant.
Suspicious and contemptuous of Wilson's peace policies, Lodge welcomed U.S. involvement
in the First World War, while remaining (as chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign
Relations) highly critical of Wilson's prosecution of the war.
A bitter opponent of Wilson (the feeling was mutual), Lodge's position was manifestly
strengthened with the election of a Republican majority in the November 1918 mid-term
elections. With this election victory Lodge became Senate Majority Leader.
Lodge used his powerful position to oppose Wilson's plan for U.S. participation in the League
of Nations. Proposing a series of amendments to Wilson's bill ratifying U.S. entry into the
League, Lodge succeeded in watering down U.S. involvement while simultaneously
encouraging popular opposition to Wilson.
Wilson, ignoring the advice of his closest advisors (including Colonel House) refused to
compromise with his Republican opponents; as a consequence Congress never ratified U.S.
entry into the League. In 1920 Lodge was one of a number of Senators who proposed (and
secured) Warren G. Harding's nomination for the U.S. presidency.
Henry Cabot Lodge died on 9 November 1924 at the age of 74.
Germany During World War One
Updated - Saturday, 11 August, 2001
Introduction
The Great War, World War One, consisted of two stages:
conventional warfare that lasted from 1914 to 1916, and a war of
desperate expedients, when both sides struggled for their own
existences, lasting until the end.
The two sides of the war consisted of the Allied Powers (France,
Great Britain, Russia, the United States, and other smaller counties)
and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
Turkey/Ottoman Empire, along with other smaller country support).
Though Germany turned out to be the Central Power most involved
in the war, there is little or no evidence that the Germans had planned for war. There are
several fundamental cause s that had brought the world to the brink of war: nationalism,
imperialist competition, militarism, and the build up of pre-war alliances. The growing
appearances of these factors perhaps inevitably led to what was called the Great War, World
War One.
June 22nd - Conflict Begins
The war began as a chain of events that revolved around
several alliances made between countries. These pre-war
alliances called for the defence of various countries under
attack, and all of the major players in the war had made
these alliances. These alliances combined with tensions
between militarily active countries set the world up for a
major war. The chain of events that led up to the war
began on June 22nd 1914, when a Serbian student named
Gavrilo Princip, who was part of the militant group called
the "Black Hand", assassinated Austrian archduke Frances Ferdinand and his wife. The
assassination was a result of the nationalism caused by the moulding of the Yugoslavian
provinces into a single state.
The Serbian government was implicated as being involved in the plot and naturally the
Austrians grew angry with them. Austria declared that they would go to war against
Yugoslavia, but they were hesitant to do so because Yugoslavia held a defensive treaty with
Russia. Germany had made a defensive treaty with Austria, so they promised that if Austria
went ahead and made a move against Yugoslavia, Germany would defend them from
Russia. Germany then told Austria to begin the war, and if it evolved into a larger conflict,
Germany would support them.
The Schlieffen Plan
Germany had been developing plans for invasions into every European country since the
time of Bismarck. One of these plans was called the Schlieffen Plan. The plan basically
called for quick, encircling movements that would surround and destroy the enemy.
This plan was used for the invasion of France and also for individual
conflicts like the Battle of Tannenberg. One of the key points of this
plan was that it was absolutely necessary to put all possible force
behind the invasion of France and not to hold any soldiers back in
reserve.
It was Germany's hope to end this war quickly by attacking France
immediately and overrunning it before Russia had a chance to
mobilize. The violation of this plan was what many consider to have
caused the Germans to lose the war.
Anyway, the plan involved attacking Belgium and then proceeding south into France.
Unfortunately for Germany, the Belgians didn't simply step aside for the Germans; they
fought back, making it much harder for Germany to carry out the Schlieffen Plan. Aside
from these war plans, Germany also tried to stop countries from getting involved in the war
by starting revolutions in them. As we shall see, it worked in Russia but all attempts to
start a revolt in Ireland failed.
A State Of Imminent War Danger
The Germans, in order to prevent England from entering the war,
tried to make it appear as if Russia had really started the war. They
announced that any conflict between Austria and Serbia was a local
conflict in which outside powers should not interfere. Of course, the
other European states saw right through this ruse and prepared
themselves for a war that would involve all of the great powers.
On July 30th, Moltke, Germany's military leader, announced a "state
of imminent war danger."2 The next day Russia completed its
mobilization, but they still maintained that they would not attack if
peace talks were to begin. Germany then replied that Russia must
demobilize within the next twelve hours. This short deadline shows
that Germany was really itching for a war and did not expect Russia
to comply in any way. Russia naturally declined to demobilize and Germany used this as an
excuse to declare war. On July 31st William II ordered Germany to fully mobilize its armies.
Moltke decided that a war would have to be fought and won on the western front before
they could defeat Russia. If the Schlieffen Plan worked, he could concentrate all of his army
on the Eastern Front. He went on to demand that Belgium allow him to cross through their
country and on into France unopposed. This refusal to comply was a key factor in the
defeat of Germany.
August 3rd, 1914 - World War One Begins
The war began on August 3rd when Germany declared war on France, saying that they had
infringed upon Germany's territory. The German army that took the field August 1914 has
been described as the most brilliant the world had ever seen. The day after the declaration
of war against France, Germany moved soldiers into Belgium, and the Belgians resisted.
Three days later the Germans captured the stronghold of Liege, and Belgium fell. As the
opening invasion into Belgium began, England sent an ultimatum to Germany saying that
they had to withdraw from Belgium or England would enter the war.
England effectively lost any element of surprise by announcing their attack beforehand. By
August 18th Germany had overrun all of Belgium and the German army was gathering on the
French border to begin the offensive. Two days later the attack began, and the French were
immediately driven out of Lorraine.
The Germans continued to advance until they hit France's frontier
fortifications. This offensive took the French completely by surprise
even though a German defector had already warned them. On August
22-25 the French tried to begin their own offensive but were soundly
defeated at the battles of Neuchateau and Longwy. Soon after this\
failed offensive, the Germans advanced into France from the north and
quickly defeated the French at the battle of Namur and the British at
the battle of Mans.
The Battle At Marne
By the end of the initial offensive, August 25th, Germany's front was uncontested by any of
the other powers. The Schlieffen plan had stated that the German army should have been
in France in 40 days and by the 32nd day the Germans were still 25 miles from the city.
This was Moltke's largest mistake- the mistake that would eventually lose the war for the
Germans. He saw that the Germans were doing well in France and therefore decided to
send divisions to stabilize the eastern front, which had been compromised by a quick
Russian mobilization.
On August 30th the Germans began their pursuit of the French
army that was retreating towards Paris. The armies were
directed to advance to two points near Paris. The emergence
of another French army caused Moltke to have to rethink his
plan. He ordered the southern armies to advance to the
northwest and the northern armies to advance to the
southeast. This action was intended to surround the French
army.
The complete turn to the west that the northern army made caused a gap to form in the
northern front. The English army advanced into this opening, thereby placing the Germans
in a weak position. The result of this battle, the Battle of Marne, was a major swing in the
German army's momentum as they were now moving backward for the first time.
"Its [Marne’s] loss by Germany meant the failure of the entire Schlieffen
plan; the end of any prospect of a short war."3
A short war was basically what the entire German military was counting on as the only way
to win the war. When this possibility was taken away, the prospect of winning began to
fade. Moltke’s lack of judgment in this matter can be attributed to the distance he was
away from the actual line of battle. He could not make decisions because he could not see
what was going on. The condition of the soldiers was also a factor as reported by a German
officer:
A War Of Attrition - The Trench Forms
On September 14th General Erich Falkenhayn replaced Moltke, and by
the 15th the western line had been stabilized. By this time the German
army was so hurt that even if they could have reached Paris, they could
never have taken it.
After the battle, the two lines entrenched themselves as close as 800
yards away from each other. Here was where the trench warfare that
caused so many losses began. The giant trench formed the western
front, and the battle in the west from then on became a war of
attrition.
Falkenhayn decided that there was no way to win a war against
England, France and Russia put together. He adopted the policy of attrition in order to tire
out the western powers. He planned to be merely defensive on the western front while
attacking the eastern front. On the days of October 17-30 the battle of Yser was fought, in
a last effort to assault the French.
The Germans committed all of their last resources to launch this attack on the French front
but the battle proved costly and ineffective. The attacks lasted until November 3rd, when
Falkenhayn was finally convinced that the west was hopeless and the only place a victory
could be won was in the east.
"Falkenhayn had to send into the holocaust thousands of half trained
volunteers straight from school or the university, commanded by elderly
officers. Enthusiastically singing "Deutschland Deutschland Uber Alles", the
youngsters were mowed down in swathes by the expert marksmen of the
B.E.F."
The Eastern Front
While the conflict in the west was developing, Russia was having success with driving the
Austrians back and also infringing on German territory. The Russians had mobilized more
speedily than the Germans expected and were therefore able to overrun most of East
Prussia before the Germans could react.
The German army performed a perfect Schlieffen plan manoeuvre and
encircled the Russian army. They captured 92,000 Russian soldiers
while overall 3/5ths of the Russian army was destroyed (at least those
in Prussia). The offensive ended at the battle of the Masurian Lakes
(September 9-10) wherein the Russians withdrew from the rest of
Germany without putting up a fight.
At the beginning of the war the Germans had not even told the
Austrians about the Schlieffen plan and their intentions to invade
France. This shows that the Germans did not really care about the
Austrians and what had initially caused the war. They acted like they
were fighting their own war despite the fact that the Austrians supposedly started it.
Hindenburg moved most of his forces into North Prussia where they could strike against the
unprotected northern front of the Russian army. He even got a promise from Falkenhayn of
six divisions to join in on the offensive. Unfortunately for Germany, Falkenhayn decided that
a withdrawal of western forces would be perceived as a retreat, so the divisions were never
sent. Falkenhayn then decided to continue the attack at Ypres and again was defeated. On
November 18th, the western army began to break off and slowly go to join the eastern
soldiers. The opportunity for Hindenburg’s flanking manoeuvre however, was lost.
1915 - Germany Slows Down
The situation at the beginning of 1915 was definitely not in
Germany's favour. The western front showed 90 German divisions
against 108.5 Allied. On the eastern front, there were 78.5
German divisions against 93.5 Russian.
Falkenhayn decided to leave only enough soldiers to hold the west
and to bring the rest over to the east, to fight the Russians. The
German army joined up with the Austrians and proceeded to break
the Russian line in Austria at the beginning of May.
While this was going on in the east, an Allied offensive had begun
to liberate France on September 25.
The German Navy - Why The United States
Entered World War One
The German navy was not very active during World War One. In fact, the only major battle,
the Battle of Jutland, was fought on May 31, 1916. Germany was the victor but was still
behind in terms of naval superiority. An Allied fleet in the North Sea blockaded Germany,
and as a result, Germany declared that they would sink any Allied ship that they find. The
Germans initially did not try to get out any further than the Baltic Sea due to an U.S.
ultimatum, but in 1917 they began to advance and sink various American ships carrying
munitions and reinforcements, thereby drawing the U.S. into the war.
1918 - Germany Makes a Treaty With The Bolsheviks
By 1917 and 1918 the German people had begun to lose faith in the war. The government
was torn between what the people wanted, a "status quo" peace, and what Hindenburg
wanted, a "fruits of victory" peace. On November 7-8, 1917, a German encouraged
revolution, the Bolshevik Revolution, began in Russia. After much conflict, the Communist
leader Lenin was appointed their new leader. He wanted peace with Germany because of
the instability of his position in the Russian government. On December 20, 1917 the central
leaders and Russia met to make a peace treaty. The talks lead to nothing and Germany
began its attacks on the Balkan states. Peace talks again resumed with Russia and by 1918
Germany had concluded a peace treaty with the Ukraine. By March 3rd, a treaty was made
with Russia. Germany quickly ignored previous treaties and marched straight into the
Ukraine, taking Kiev on March 1. From there they proceeded directly into Russia, despite
recent treaties.
The attack was so effective that the Germans had reached the Caspian Sea by September
1918. On August 27, 1918, the German government decided that they had enough land,
and they signed another peace treaty with Russia. At this point, Russia had pretty much
surrendered to the Germans. At that point, Germany also made an alliance with Finland
and deposited 150,000 soldiers in their country- soldiers that could have been used in the
actual war.
The German Army Is Defeated
By the summer of 1918 the Germans had concluded most
of their business in the east, so half of the eastern army
was sent to aid the west. The offensive began on May 27th
and the Germans were able to force back the French line.
By June 3rd the Germans had reached a point five miles
from Paris, but the Allies rallied and managed to stop the
German advance. Ludendorff began to plan yet another
offensive. In June of 1918 the first American soldiers
fought the Germans. The Allies pressed their advantage,
and on August 8, 1918, they began a huge offensive that completely broke the German's
strength.
This was the major turning point in the war, as the Germans not only lost their momentum
but also began to lose more and more ground. The offensive was renewed against the
German lines and the whole German army began to be pushed back.
An Immediate Armistice
Bulgaria (Germany's ally) collapsed in late September, and Austria-Hungary was soon to
collapse. With no other choice left, the Germans proposed the armistice on October 3rd.
The Allies declared that they would grant it only if Germany made no move to improve its
military strength. On October 26th Ludendorff resigned because he was unwilling to sign the
armistice. After his departure, the Germans amended the constitution to prevent people
like Ludendorff from becoming virtual dictators. Instead, the general was made to require
the support of the Reichstag. This shows that the Germans were not completely supportive
of the war. The armistice was given to Germany. It basically required that the Germans
retreat into their own borders and leave all of their weapons behind.
William fled the country and Prince Max was put on the throne just long enough to sign the
armistice. The German soldiers began to retreat into their own country and on November
11 the armistice was signed, officially ending the war.