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WORD FORMATION
AND
MORPHOLOGY
PREPARED BY:
FATIN AMIRAH BINTI AG MOHD ALI
(2015154979)
FATIMAH MARDHIAH BINTI OMAR
(2015149957)
WORD FORMATION
NEOLOGISM
MULTIPLE
PROCESSES
DERIVATION
1
ETOMOLOGY
9
3
BORROWING
*LOAN-TRANSLATION
4
8
COMPOUNDING
*BLENDING
*PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
*INFIXES
COINAGE
2
7
6
*ACRONYMS
CONVERSION
CLIPPING
*HYPOCORISMS
*BACKFORMATION
5
NEOLOGISM
A neologism is a newly coined word or term.
Some neologisms are formally accepted into everyday
language.
A neologism can be:
 A completely new word (ex, overshare)
 A new combination of existing words (ex, digital detox)
 A new meaning for an existing word (ex, sick)
Examples of Neologisms
Below is an example of neologism:

Sick: Good.
Examples of Old "Neologisms"
The following former neologisms have been formally accepted into
everyday language (this usually means appearing in a respectable
dictionary). As a result, they can no longer be classified as neologisms.

Wicked: Good or cool.

To Google: To look up information on the internet.
Examples of Neologisms under Transition
The following neologisms can be considered under transition. In other
words, they are still neologisms, but it is likely they will be accepted into
mainstream language soon.

Noob: A person new to an online gaming community.

Troll: A person who posts obnoxious comments to an online community.
ETYMOLOGY
Etymology is the study of the origin and
history of a word.
Etymology is a Latin word but has its origins
in:
Greek
(étymon [original form] + logia [study of])
ETYMOLOGY OF ‘EXAMPLE’
Latin
ex(Out)
Latin
emere
(take)
Latin
eximere
(take out)
The word ‘exemplum’
comes from an old French
word which later used to
form the word ‘example’.
Latin
exemplum
(take out)
Late Middle English
example
BORROWING
*Loan-translation
Borrowing is the taking over of words from other languages.
Examples of borrowing:

Jewel (French)

Piano (Italian)

Tycoon (Japanese)

Tattoo (Tahitian)
Examples of borrowed English words:

Supermarket (suupaamaaketto) Japanese

Typewriter (taipuraitaa) Japanese
Loan-translation
Loan translation is also known as calque (/ kælk /)
Loan translation is a direct translation of the elements of
a word into the borrowing language.
Loan-translation example for the word ‘skyscraper’
(English):

Wolkenkrabber (Dutch = cloud scratcher)

Wolkenkratzer (German = cloud scraper)
COMPOUNDING
Compounding is the joining of two separate words to produce a
single form.
Example for common English
compound (noun):
Examples for adjective compound:

Good-looking

Low-paid

Bookcase

Doorknob

Fingerprint

Sunburn
Examples for Adjective + Noun
compound:

Textbook

Fast-food

Full-time
Blending
Blending is the combination of two separate forms to
produce a single new term.
We typically take the beginning of one word and join it
to the end of the other word.
Blending examples:
 Smoke + fog = smog
 Breakfast + lunch = brunch
 Motor + hotel = motel
 Television + broadcast = telecast
 Spanish + English = Spanglish
CLIPPING
Clipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable
is reduced to a shorter form.
Examples of clipping:
 Facsimile = fax
 Gasoline = gas
 Advertisement = ad
 Brassiere = bra
 Condominium = condo
 Influenza = flu
Hypocorisms
Happens when a longer word is reduced to a
single syllable, then (-y) or (-ie) is added to the
end.
Hypocorisms examples:

Television = telly

Biscuit = bickie

Bookmarker = bookie

Breakfast = brekky

Handkerchief = hankie
Backformation
Backformation is the word of one type
(usually a noun) is reduced to form a word
of another type (usually a verb)
Backformation example:

Television(noun)-televise(verb)

Donation-donate

Babysitter-babysit

Option-opt

Worker-work
CONVERSION
Conversion also known as 'category change' and 'functional shift'
is a change in the function of a word.
Ex: a noun comes to be used as a verb
Ex: noun -verb
(without any reduction)
dust - Did you dust the living room?
Bottle - We bottled the home-brew last night.
glue - I'll have to glue it together.
butter- Have you buttered the toast?
referee - who will referee the game?
Chair - Someone has to chair the meeting.
water - Would you water my plants?
Vacation - They're vacationing in Florida.
Conversion can involve verbs becoming nouns.
Ex: verb - noun
guess - a guess
to cheat - He's a cheat.
must - a must
to doubt - They have some doubts
spy - a spy
to hand out - I didn't get a handout.
to hire - We have two new hires.
COINAGE
Coinage is the invention and general use of totally new terms.
Typical sources are trade names for commercial products that
become general terms (without capital letters) for any version of
that product.
Old example of coinage:

aspirin

nylon

vaseline

zipper

kleenex
Contemporary example of
coinage:

google (to use the internet to
find information)
Eponyms
Eponyms form new words based on name of
a person or a place.
Examples:

Jeans = the Italian city of Genoa where the
type of cloth was first made.

Sandwich = 4th Earl of Sandwich insisted on
having his salt beef between two slices of
toasted bread while gambling. His friends
apparently started to ask to have the same
as 'Sandwich‘.
Acronyms
Acronyms formed from initial
letter of a set of other words.
Examples:
 CD - compact disk
 Radar - radio detecting and ranging
 Scuba - Self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus
 ATM - Automatic Teller Machine
 PIN - Personal Identification Number
DERIVATION
Derivation is a word formation
process by means of a large
number of small ‘bits’ of English
language that are
not usually given separate listings in
dictionaries.
These small 'bits' are generally
described as affixes.
Affixes can be divided into two
types which are:
1.
Prefixes
2.
Suffixes
Some familiar examples are the
elements:

un- (unhappy)

mis- (misrepresent)

pre- (prejudge)

-ful (joyful)

-less (careless)

-ish (boyish)

-ism (terrorism)

-ness (sadness)
Prefixes and Suffixes
Prefixes are words that are added to the beginning of word as in:
 un- (unhappy)
 mis- (misrepresent)
 pre- (prejudge)
Suffixes are words that are added to the end of the word as in:
 -ful (joyful)
 -less (careless)
 -ish (boyish)
 -ism (terrorism)
 -ness (sadness)
Some words may contain both prefixes and suffixes or more than
one prefix or suffix. For example:
 Disrespectful (both prefix and suffix)
 Foolishness (two suffixes -ish and -ness)
Infixes
Infix is a third type of affix. It is not normally used in English but found in other
language.
In English speaking nature it is used in fortuitous or aggravating
circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers.
Example:

Hallebloodylujah!

Absogoddamlutely!
Better examples can be provided by Khmu (or Kamhmu), a lannguage
spoken in Laos, South-East Asia.
Verb
Noun
to drill
see
srnee
a drill
to chisel
toh
trnoh
a chisel
to eat with a spoon
hiip
hrniip
a spoon
to tie
hoom
hrnoom
a thing with which to tie
MULTIPLE PROCESSES
There are some words that employ more than one
process at work in the creation of a particular word.
Examples:

Deli - a borrowing word from ‘delicatessen’ (German) and then
clipping that borrowed form.

Waspish - As in 'waspish attitude' lost its capital letters and gain
suffix (-ish) in the derivation process.

Yuppie - Capital letters from 'young urban professional' plus the -ie
suffix.
MORPHOLOGY
Morphology

Greek words: morph (form/structure) and logy
(study)

Study of words, how they are structured and how
they are put together from smaller parts.

Provides rules called morphological rules that are
used to form all the words of a language, including
possible but non-occurring words.
- celeber, separ + ‘ate’ / ‘ation’
Morphemes

Smallest meaningful or significant units of
grammatical functions.

Units of grammatical function include forms
used to indicate past tense or plural.
Eg: walked  walk + ed
boys
 boy + s
Free and Bound Morphemes

Free morpheme can stand by itself independently
as single word without having to be attached to
other morphemes.
Eg: boy / walk / sleep

Bound morpheme cannot stand alone and has to
be attached to other morphemes before they can
function as a part of a word.
Eg: ‘-s’ / ‘-ed’

Bound morphemes are known as affixes; must be
attached or affixed to other morphemes.
Affixes
Prefixes
Attached to the
beginning of another
morphemes.
‘re’
‘un’
‘im’
Rewrite
Unhappy
Impolite
Suffixes
Attached to the end
of another
morphemes.
‘ize’
‘ist’
‘er’
Modernize
Typist
Singer
Infixes
Attached within
another morphemes.
Usually use in
exaggeration.
Not used in standard
English; slang.
‘bloody’
Fanbloodytastic
Lexical and Functional Morphemes

Lexical morphemes
-
Morphemes that carry the content or meaning of
the messages that we are conveying .
-
Set of ordinary nouns, verbs, adjective and
adverbs.
-
If this morpheme is absence, the message is not
conveyed.
-
Eg:
i) I study in UiTM.
ii) She is feeling happy.

Functional morphemes
-
Morphemes that do not carry the content
of the messages, but rather help the
grammar of the sentence function.
-
Set of functional words in language such
as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and
pronouns.
-
If this morpheme is absence, the message
can still be understood.
-
Eg: i) She is in a classroom.
ii) She cries because she fell down.
Derivational Morphemes

To make new words or to make words of a different
grammatical category.

If this morpheme is added, it would change the part of the
speech.

Examples of derivational morphemes are ‘-ful’, ‘-ness’, ‘-less’, ‘ly’, ‘-y’, ‘-ish’, ‘-ment’.
eg: slow+
ly
 slowly
(adjective)
slow
+
(adjective)
(adverb)
ness
 slowness
(noun)
Inflectional Morphemes
• Not used to produce new words but to
indicate aspects of grammatical function of
a word.
• Used to show if a word is singular or plural,
present or past tense, and if it is a
comparative or possessive form.
•English has only 8 inflectional morphemes.
(PLU) = plural Noun
-s
boys
(POSS) = possessive Noun
-’s
boy’s
(COMP) = comparative Adj
-er
older
(SUP) = superlative Adj
-est
oldest
(PRES) = present Verb
-s
walks
(PAST) past Verb
-ed
walked
(PAST PART) = past participle Verb
-en
driven
(PRES PART) = present participle
Verb
-ing
driving
Morphological Description
Inflectional morpheme
Derivational morpheme
Inflectional morphemes never
change the grammatical
category of a word.
Derivational morphemes can
change the grammatical
category of a word.
eg: old and older
eg: teach and teacher
- both are adjectives
- the ‘-er’ simply creates a
different version of the
adjective.
- the verb teach becomes the
noun teacher if we add the
derivational morpheme ‘-er’.
• Just because they look the same (-er) doesn’t mean that they do
the same kind of work.
• Suffix ‘-er’ can be an inflectional morpheme as a part of an
adjective and can be a derivational morpheme as a part of a
noun.
The teacher’s wildness shocked the girls’
parents.
Lexical
Free
Functional
Morphemes
Derivational
Bound
Inflectional
The
(func)
teacher
(lex)
-er
(der)
-’s
(inf)
wild
(lex)
-ness
(der)
shock
(lex)
-ed
(inf)
the
(func)
girl
(lex)
-’s
(inf)
parent
(lex)
-s
(inf)
Problem in Morphological Description

What is the inflectional morpheme that
makes men the plural of man, or women the
plural of woman?

What is the inflectional morpheme that
makes read the past tense of read, or went
the past tense of go?

These kind of words are clearly exceptions to
general patterns and have to be treated as
special cases.
Morphs and Allomorphs

Morphs is the actual forms used to realize
morphemes.

A morph is simply the phonetic
representation of a morpheme - how the
morpheme is said.

This distinction occurs because the
morpheme can remain the same, but the
pronunciation changes.

For example, the plural morpheme in English '-s'.
'-s' is the morpheme, but the morph changes in
different words:
eg: Cats '-s' morpheme is pronounced /s/
Dogs '-s' morpheme is pronounced /z/
Houses '-s' morpheme is pronounced /ɪz/

These various pronunciations are the morphs of the
morpheme '-s'.

Allomorphs are the varieties of a morpheme, which
is closely related to the morph. The morph is just
how you pronounce the morpheme, the allomorph
is the variation in pronunciation.

So, the morpheme '-s' (plural) has three allomorphs
with the morph /s/, /z/, and /ɪz/.
Quiz!

The teacher’s frankness shocked the boy’s parents.
Determine what type of morphemes are in the sentence.
There are 13 total morphemes.

How many morphemes do these words contain?
1. plays
play + s (2 morphemes)
2. replay
3. cheap
4. cheaply
5. cheaper
6. able
7. unable
8. brighten