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Major Greek contributions include astronomy, optics, and acoustics, along with major
advances in mathematics. Science in ancient Greece was based on logical thinking and
mathematics. The Greeks were very interested to know about the world, the heavens, and
themselves. Greek geniuses were lucid thinkers and bold reasoners.
The Greek philosophers were very much drawn to mathematics. They invented its
generality, analyzed its premises, and made notable discoveries of theorems by a rigid
adherence to deductive reasoning. Geometry became the basic instrument for measuring
all things. Plato examined the difference between the changing world of the senses and
that of the permanent truths that could only be found through rational thought. The
unchanging elements of geometry were the measures of this ideal, permanent thoughtworld. This union of logic with geometry laid the foundations of the Western way of life.
Euclid's "Elements," is a comprehensive treatise on geometry, proportions, and the theory
of numbers and is the most long-lived of all mathematical works. It includes the
Pythagorean Theorem, which states that the square on the hypotenuse of a right triangle
is equal to the sum of the square on the other two sides.
Pythagoras studied geometry, and discovered the general proof of the theorem about
right-angled triangles. He insisted on generality in reasoning. He is said to have taught
that the mathematical entities, such as numbers and shapes, were the ultimate stuff out of
which the real entities that we perceive are constructed. He asked, "what is the status of
mathematical entities, such as numbers for example, in the realm of things?" He
discovered the importance of dealing with abstractions; and in particular directed the
attention of number as characterizing the periodicity of notes of music. His followers
made important contributions to medicine and astronomy and were among the first to
teach that the earth was a spherical planet, revolving about a fixed point.
Archimedes is famous for his works on buoyancy, or floating bodies. The famous
'Eureka' incident where water overflowed in his bath led him to discover the principle of
displacement. His works showed how the behavior of objects in various media might be
shown to follow rules of behavior, which could be measured using geometric means.
Archimedes shifted the emphasis from mysterious "qualities" which objects were thought
to possess to quantifiable matters such as weight, centers of gravity, balance, and so on.
He invented ingenious machines of war, calculated the value of "fnof;à, and devised a
mathematical exponential system to express extremely large numbers. His best known
invention was a machine for raising water called Archimedes screw.
Greek philosophers and scientists developed a number of important astronomical ideas.
Thales is credited with introducing geometrical ideas into astronomy. Greek approach to
astronomy was geometric and schematic, best suited for complete cosmological models.
The early Greek astronomers knew many of the geometrical relationships of the heavenly
bodies. There are well preserved accurately illustrated zodiacal signs, a major source of
Greek astronomy.
Thales taught that everything in nature is composed of one basic thing, which he believed
to be water. He and two generations of followers are credited with the invention of
philosophy. They asked questions about how the universe worked and looked to
naturalistic explanations for the origin of the world and everything in it. He is believed to
have proven that a circle is bisected by its diameter, that the base angles of an isosceles
triangle are equal and that opposing angles of intersecting lines are equal.
Hipparchus is the first systematic astronomer of whom there are records. He made his
observations chiefly on the island of Rhodes. He founded trigonometry and scientific
geography. He discovered precession of equinoxes and invented methods of fixing
terrestrial positions by circles of latitude and longitude. He located 850 stars and divided
the stars that he could see into classes of apparent brightness. Hipparchus estimated the
size and distance of the moon, found a way to predict eclipses, as well as calculated the
length of the year to within 6 and 1/2 minutes.
Greek view of nature was dramatic. They believed there was an end to each thing. The
center of the universe was the end of motion for those things that were heavy and the
celestial spheres were the end of motion for those things whose nature lead them
upwards. Each thing in nature had its own role. There was an order to everything.
Pythagoras argued that the earth was round. He developed an early system of cosmology.
He also tried to explain the nature and structure for the universe as a whole. Pythagoras
imagined the universe as a series of concentric spheres in which each of the seven
"wanderers" (the sun, the moon, and the five known planets) were embedded. Euxodus
had developed a mechanical system to explain the motions of the planets. Euxodus
developed the idea of rotating spheres by introducing extra spheres for each of the
planets. He taught that the planets, sun, the moon, and the stars revolved around the
earth. Aristotle incorporated this earth centered, or geocentric theory into his philosophic
system.
Aristotle developed a common-sense view of the universe. To an ordinary observer the
sky seems to move. The stars, whose positions never change, wheel past every night. At
the pole they never disappear, circling round the North Star. Among the fixed stars five
wandering lights can be seen. These are planets. The moon circles the earth, as does the
sun. Aristotle explained this system with eight crystalline spheres on which the sun,
moon, planets and stars were each fixed. These spheres rolled eternally round the earth,
which did not move. He believed that the sky was perfect and unchanging while the
earth was not. Earthly things decayed and died. Eternal circular motion was heavenly.
All motion on earth was straight-line motion. Aristotle also believed that creation had
taken place before the beginning of time and once that act had taken place certain events
inevitably followed.
Ancient Greek philosophers were amazed with volcanoes and earthquakes. Aristotle
speculated that earthquakes resulted from winds within the Earth caused by the Earth's
own heat and heat from the sun. Volcanoes, he thought, marked the points at which these
winds finally escaped from inside the Earth into the atmosphere.
Ptolemy expanded upon Aristotle's and Hipparchus' theories. He published a book called
the Almagest, in which he presented his ideas and summarized those of his predecessors.
This work is our main source of knowledge of Greek astronomy.
Aristotle studied under Plato. He placed great emphasis on direct observation of nature,
and in science he taught that theory must follow fact. Logic for Aristotle was the
necessary tool of any inquiry, and the syllogism was the sequence that all logical thought
followed. Aristotle developed the use of syllogisms to draw conclusions. He advocated
the use of logical empirical observation to investigate nature.
Syllogisms were dialectical, structured in three parts: a major premise, a minor premise
and a conclusion. The purpose of a syllogism was to use two known facts to produce a
third previously unknown fact. This technique was of particular use in the investigation
of the natural world because it produced conclusions, which were logically necessary
even if not themselves directly observable.
Greek biologists were interested in how living things began, how they developed, how
they functioned, and where they were found. They observed, described, and categorized
the various forms of plants and animals. They also discovered the system of natural
selection.
Hero, also known as Heron of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician and inventor
known for his study of mechanics and pneumatics. He invented many contrivances
operated by water, steam, or compressed air; these include a fountain, a fire engine,
siphons, and an engine in which the recoil of steam revolves a ball or a wheel.
Anaximander believed that marine life was the first life on earth and that changes
occurred when animals moved to dry land. Aristotle believed that there was a purpose
behind the way nature works. Lucretius believed that evolution was based on chance
combinations and heredity, and that sexual reproduction entered only after earth itself had
developed.
From 1130 until the end of the twelfth century Greek science and logic flooded into
Europe. There were Greek texts about medicine, astronomy, astrology, pharmacology,
psychology, zoology, biology, botany, mineralogy, optics, chemistry, physics,
mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, music, meteorology, geography,
mechanics, hydrostatics, navigation, and history. For hundreds of years European science
was based on the early theories of the Greeks.
Keywords:
major greek contributions include astronomy optics acoustics along with major advances
mathematics science ancient greece based logical thinking mathematics greeks were very
interested know about world heavens themselves greek geniuses were lucid thinkers bold
reasoners greek philosophers were very much drawn mathematics they invented
generality analyzed premises made notable discoveries theorems rigid adherence
deductive reasoning geometry became basic instrument measuring things plato examined
difference between changing world senses that permanent truths that could only found
through rational thought unchanging elements geometry measures this ideal permanent
thought world this union logic with geometry laid foundations western life euclid
elements comprehensive treatise proportions theory numbers most long lived
mathematical works includes pythagorean theorem which states that square hypotenuse
right triangle equal square other sides pythagoras studied discovered general proof
theorem about right angled triangles insisted generality reasoning said have taught
mathematical entities such numbers shapes ultimate stuff which real entities perceive
constructed asked what status mathematical entities such numbers example realm things
discovered importance dealing with abstractions particular directed attention number
characterizing periodicity notes music followers made important contributions medicine
astronomy among first teach earth spherical planet revolving about fixed point
archimedes famous works buoyancy floating bodies famous eureka incident where water
overflowed bath discover principle displacement works showed behavior objects various
media might shown follow rules behavior which could measured using geometric means
archimedes shifted emphasis from mysterious qualities objects thought possess
quantifiable matters such weight centers gravity balance invented ingenious machines
calculated value fnof devised exponential system express extremely large best known
invention machine raising water called archimedes screw philosophers scientists
developed number important astronomical ideas thales credited introducing geometrical
ideas into astronomy approach geometric schematic best suited complete cosmological
models early astronomers knew many geometrical relationships heavenly bodies there
well preserved accurately illustrated zodiacal signs major source thales taught everything
nature composed basic thing believed water generations followers credited invention
philosophy they asked questions universe worked looked naturalistic explanations origin
everything believed have proven circle bisected diameter base angles isosceles triangle
equal opposing angles intersecting lines equal hipparchus first systematic astronomer
whom there records made observations chiefly island rhodes founded trigonometry
scientific geography discovered precession equinoxes invented methods fixing terrestrial
positions circles latitude longitude located stars divided stars could into classes apparent
brightness hipparchus estimated size distance moon found predict eclipses well calculated
length year within minutes view nature dramatic they believed there each thing center
universe motion those things heavy celestial spheres motion those whose nature lead
them upwards each thing role order everything pythagoras argued earth round developed
early system cosmology also tried explain structure universe whole pythagoras imagined
series concentric spheres each seven wanderers moon five known planets embedded
euxodus developed mechanical system explain motions planets euxodus idea rotating
spheres introducing extra planets taught moon stars revolved around earth aristotle
incorporated this centered geocentric theory into philosophic aristotle common sense
view ordinary observer seems move whose positions never change wheel past every night
pole never disappear circling round north star among fixed five wandering lights seen
these circles does aristotle explained eight crystalline fixed these rolled eternally round
move perfect unchanging while earthly decayed died eternal circular motion heavenly
straight line also creation taken place before beginning time once taken place certain
events inevitably followed ancient philosophers amazed volcanoes earthquakes
speculated earthquakes resulted from winds within caused heat heat from volcanoes
marked points these winds finally escaped inside atmosphere ptolemy expanded upon
hipparchus theories published book called almagest presented ideas summarized those
predecessors work main source knowledge studied under plato placed great emphasis
direct observation science theory must follow fact logic necessary tool inquiry syllogism
sequence logical followed syllogisms draw conclusions advocated logical empirical
observation investigate syllogisms dialectical structured three parts premise minor
premise conclusion purpose syllogism known facts produce third previously unknown
fact technique particular investigation natural because produced conclusions logically
necessary even themselves directly observable biologists interested living began
functioned where found observed described categorized various forms plants animals also
natural selection hero heron alexandria mathematician inventor study mechanics
pneumatics many contrivances operated steam compressed include fountain fire engine
siphons engine recoil steam revolves ball wheel anaximander marine life first life
changes occurred when animals moved land purpose behind lucretius evolution based
chance combinations heredity sexual reproduction entered only after itself until twelfth
century science logic flooded europe texts medicine astrology pharmacology psychology
zoology biology botany mineralogy optics chemistry physics algebra trigonometry music
meteorology geography mechanics hydrostatics navigation history hundreds years
european based early theories greeks
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