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Sociology is the study of society and human social interaction.
Sociological research ranges from the analysis of short contacts between
anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social
processes. The field focuses on how and why people are organized in
society, either as individuals or as members of associations, groups, and
institutions. Someone working in the field of sociology is called a
sociologist. As an academic discipline, sociology is considered a social
science.
Sociological theories are complex theoretical frameworks that
sociologists use to explain and analyze variously how social action, social
processes, and social structures work. Sociological theories are
sometimes called social theories, though the later term generally refers to
interdisciplinary theory. In seeking to understand society, sociologists use
both sociological theory and interdisciplinary social theories to organize
social research. Sociology also invloves definitions of culture, society,
community and notions of Gemeinschaft and Gesselshaft. Gemeinschaft
(German pronunciation (help·info) IPA: [gəˈma͡ɪnʃaft]) and Gesellschaft
are sociological categories introduced by the German sociologist
Ferdinand Tönnies for two normal types of human association. (A normal
type as coined by Tönnies is a purely conceptual tool to be built up
logically, whereas an ideal type, as coined by Max Weber, is a concept
formed by accentuating main elements of a historic/social change.)
Gemeinschaft (often translated as community) is an association in which
individuals are oriented to the large association as much if not more than
to their own self interest. Furthermore, individuals in Gemeinschaft are
regulated by common mores, or beliefs about the appropriate behavior
and responsibility of members of the association, to each other and to the
association at large; associations marked by "unity of will" (Tönnies, 22).
Tönnies saw the family as the most perfect expression of Gemeinschaft;
however, he expected that Gemeinschaft could be based on shared place
and shared belief as well as kinship, and he included globally dispersed
religious communities as possible examples of Gemeinschaft.
Gemeinschafts are broadly characterized by a moderate division of
labour, strong personal relationships, strong families, and relatively
simple social institutions. In such societies there is seldom a need to
enforce social control externally, due to a collective sense of loyalty
individuals feel for society.
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Gesellschaft (often translated as society or civil society or 'association'), in
contrast, describes associations in which, for the individual, the larger
association never takes on more importance than individual self interest,
and lack the same level of shared mores. Gesellschaft is maintained
through individuals acting in their own self interest. A modern business is
a good example of Gesellschaft, the workers, managers, and owners may
have very little in terms of shared orientations or beliefs, they may not
care deeply for the product they are making, but it is in all their self
interest to come to work to make money, and thus the business continues.
Unlike Gemeinschaften, Gesellschaften emphasize secondary
relationships rather than familial or community ties, and there is generally
less individual loyalty to society. Social cohesion in Gesellschafts
People interact together on the basis of reciprocal and `whole person'
relationships which are to their mutual advantage. ... Members of
Gemeinschaft bodies follow collective sentiment.... But with the onset of
industrialism, the mutualism to be found in Gemeinschaft gives way to the
competitiveness of Gesellschaft society in which relationships are
fragmented, self-motivated and egocentric. ... If a future society based on
the Gaian principles of interdependence, mutuality and interrelatedness is
to be achieved, a reemergence of some form of Gemeinschaft is essential.
Source: bailiwick.lib.uiowa.edu/earth2/09gemeinschaft.html
typically derives from a more elaborate division of labor. Such societies
are considered more susceptible to class conflict as well as racial and
ethnic conflicts
Sociology can be seen to be divided into two core areas. They are:
1. Micro Sociology: social psychological view of human behavior,
choice and exchange, the effect of structure on the individual
2. Macro Sociology: structural view of human behavior, the context
in which behavior takes place, the structures of the society
The Hobbesian Qusetion
Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679 postulated what life would be like without
government, a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state,
each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world.
This inevitably leads to conflict, a "war of all against all" (bellum omnium
contra omnes), and thus lives that are "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and
short" (xiii).
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To escape this state of war, men in the state of nature accede to a social
contract. According to Hobbes, society is a population beneath a
sovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that society cede their
natural rights for the sake of protection. Any abuses of power by this
authority are to be accepted as the price of peace. In particular, the
doctrine of separation of powers is rejected:[3] the sovereign must control
civil, military, judicial and ecclesiastical powers. Source Wikipedia
The Sociological Imagination
C Wright Mills and Peter Berger describe sociological imagination
“…as a transformation of perspective which sees in a new light the
very world in which we have lived our lives, of finding the familiar
becoming transformed in its meaning. Sociological imagination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sociological imagination is a sociological term coined by the American
sociologist C. Wright Mills in 1959 describing the ability to connect
seemingly impersonal and remote historical forces to the incidents of an
individual’s life. It suggests that people look at their own personal
problems as social issues and, in general, try to connect their own
individual experiences with the workings of society. The sociological
imagination enables people to distinguish between personal troubles and
public issues. For example, people in poverty by this perspective might
stop to consider that they are not alone, and rather than blaming
themselves should criticise the social forces that directed them into their
present condition.
There are three key questions that constitute the core of Mills'
sociological imagination:
1. What is the structure of a particular society and how does it differ
from other varieties of social order?
2. Where does this society stand in human history and what are its
essential features?
3. What varieties of women and men live in this society and in this
period, and what is happening to them?
Mills argued that ‘nowadays men often feel that their private lives are a
series of traps’. Mills maintained that people are trapped because ‘their
visions and their powers are limited to the close-up scenes of job, family
[and] neighbourhood’1, and are not able to fully understand the greater
sociological patterns related to their private troubles. Underlying this
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feeling of being trapped are the seemingly uncontrollable and continuous
changes to society. Mills mentions unemployment, war, marriage and life
in the city as examples where tension between private trouble and public
issues becomes apparent.
The feeling that Mills identified in 1959 is still present today,
Macrosociology is a sociological approach that analyzes societies, social
systems or populations on a large scale or at a high level of abstraction.[1]
It is considered one of the main foundations of sociology, alongside
microsociology and mesosociology). Macrosociology can also be the the
analysis of large collectivities (eg. the city, the church). [2] Lenski [3]
defines macrosociology simply as "concerned with human societies".
Important representatives of macrosociological theories are:
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Karl Marx; who analyzed society from the perspective of class
conflict between workers and owners
Max Weber; who viewed society as rapidly modernizing and
looked at the effects of this process, such as bureaucratization
Emile Durkheim; who viewed individual issues as reflective of
greater social patterns, completing the first sociological study
(which linked suicide to societal trends
Sociology is the study of society and human social interaction.
Sociological research ranges from the analysis of short contacts between
anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social
processes. The field focuses on how and why people are organized in
society, either as individuals or as members of associations, groups, and
institutions. Someone working in the field of sociology is called a
sociologist. As an academic discipline, sociology is considered a social
science
Sociological theories are complex theoretical frameworks that
sociologists use to explain and analyze variously how social action, social
processes, and social structures work. Sociological theories are
sometimes called social theories, though the later term generally refers to
interdisciplinary theory. In seeking to understand society, sociologists use
both sociological theory and interdisciplinary social theories to organize
social research.
Sociological theories are based on certain basic core assumptions, or
basic metaphysical, epistemological and moral premises, about the nature
of the social world. Basic assumptions include positivism and
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antipositivism, materialism and idealism, determinism and free will
(related to the problem of structure and agency), and individualism and
collectivism.
Some social theories, such as neo-marxist theory, feminist theory and
variants of social constructionism, are often motivated by a strong sense
of social justice and concerned with liberation from oppression and
exploitation. Other social theories, such as structural functionalism and
systems theory, may be motivated by a concern with scientific objectivity
and seeming value neutrality (which may entail value commitments,
sometimes masked, such as to conformity or acceptance of the status quo
in a given society).
Another dimension of basic assumptions is about the nature of sociohistorical development and the current state of development of various
societies. Distinctions used about contemporary societies in sociological
theory include broad historical trends such as industrialization,
urbanization, underdevelopment, and globalization and stages of
development such as modernity, postindustrial, underdevelopment,
postmodernity, and the network society.
Some of the major general sociological theories (and their variants)
include:
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Conflict theory: focuses on the ability of some groups to dominate
others, or resistance to such domination.
Ethnomethodology:examines how people make sense out of social
life in the process of living it, as if each was a researcher engaged
in enquiry.
Feminist theory: focuses on how male dominance of society has
shaped social life.
Functionalism:A major theoretical perspective which focuses on
how elements of society need to work together to have a fully
functioning whole.
Interpretative sociology: This theoretical perspective, based in the
work of Max Weber, proposes that social, economic and historical
research can never be fully empirical or descriptive as one must
always approach it with a conceptual apparatus.
Social constructionism: is a sociological theory of knowledge that
considers how social phenomena develop in particular social
contexts.
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Social phenomenology: The social phenomenology of Alfred
Schütz influenced the development of the social constructionism
and ethnomethodology.
Social positivism: Social Positivists believe that social processes
should be studied in terms of cause and effect using 'the' scientific
method.
Structural functionalism: also known as a social systems paradigm
addresses what functions various elements of the social system
perform in regard to the entire system.
Symbolic interactionism: examines how shared meanings and
social patterns are developed in the course of social interactions.
o Dramaturgical perspective - a specialized symbolic
interactionism paradigm developed by Erving Goffman,
seeing life as a performance
Rational choice theory: models social behavior as the interaction of
utility maximizing individuals
Microsociology
mi·cro·so·ci·o·log·i·cal [ m krō sōssee ə lójjik'l ]
adjective
Definition:
studying small area of society: relating to the sociological study of
small groups and units within a larger society
Microsociology is one of the main branches of sociology (contrast with
macrosociology and mesosociology) which concerns itself with the nature
of everyday human social interactions on a small scale. At the micro
level, social statuses and social roles are the most important components
of social structure. It is usually based on observation rather than statistics.
It is based on the philosophy of phenomenology and includes symbolic
interactionism and ethnomethodology.
THEORY AND RESEARCH:
Approaches in Sociology
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General
In sociology there are two very broad ways of dividing sociological
knowledge: micro and macro. Micro sociology tends to focus upon the
action of individuals in groups, how the group affects us, our values,
beliefs and behaviors. Macro sociology focuses upon the scale and
structure of society, relationships among groups and structures. Sociology
is still in the early stage of theoretical development, sometimes called
schools of thought or paradigms.
A. Microsociology
Microsociology is concerned with the interactions, exchanges and choices
of people as affected by the social context in which the occur. The
approach in sociology is often referred to as Social Psychology and draws
upon two theoretical perspectives within this broad approach: Choice and
Symbolic interaction. These views have diverse philosophical roots that
are discussed fully in the Microsociology topic.
Macrosociology
Specific Macrosociological perspectives:
a. conflict
Essentially the conflict perspective sees the structures of society
producing conflicting expectations among the members of the society.
The net result is that there are groups produced by the structures that have
interests that run counter to other groups within the same structure or in a
different structural context. For example, the roles of men and women are
in a way complementary (i.e., different but necessary for one another). In
some instances the structures that these roles are imbedded in may
produce conflict between the two groups. The nature of the economic
system has placed men in positions of power where they make most of
the decisions. Modern technology and educational achievement of
women have increased the number of women who work. These changes
have in turn brought women into the work place and in that structure they
seek power that challenges that of men and places them in conflict with
the men. Out of the conflict will come changes in the roles of both men
and women.
Stark cites other examples of groups, their interests and the conflict that
will occur among them. (see Stark for details)
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b. functionalism
The functionalist view of the social system emphasizes connectedness
and equilibrium among the parts of the system. Each element affects
every other element in the system. Some theorists state it is the natural
tendency of a system to maintain a steady state (i.e., an equilibrium). The
classic example of this condition is the human body. There are built in
mechanisms that maintain body temperature within a relatively narrow
range (about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). If you exercise violently, you
increase the temperature and the body system responds by opening
vessels at the surface and increasing the sweating response -- all actions
designed to bring the temperature back toward the 'normal' value of 98.6.
Similarly, the idea is that the society is a system that is in equilibrium. If
a part of it gets out of whack (the family, for example), mechanisms will
come into play to move the part back into balance with the rest of the
society.
The Macrosociological approach is concerned with the discovery of
structure within the society as a whole, the examination of large scale
relationships in society, of the relationships among the structures within
the society. Structures set the tone for behavior, the context within which
behavior takes place. Two sub-perspectives occur within this broader
approach: conflict and functional
Structuralism as a term refers to various theories across the humanities,
social sciences, and economics, many of which share the assumption that
structural relationships between concepts vary between different
cultures/languages and that these relationships can be usefully exposed
and explored. According to structural theory in anthropology and social
anthropology, meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture
through various practices, phenomena and activities which serve as
systems of signification. A structuralist studies activities as diverse as
food preparation and serving rituals, religious rites, games, literary and
non-literary texts, and other forms of entertainment to discover the deep
structures by which meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture.
For example, an early and prominent practitioner of structuralism,
anthropologist and ethnographer Claude Lévi-Strauss in the 1950s,
analyzed cultural phenomena including mythology, kinship (the Alliance
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theory and the incest taboo), and food preparation (see also structural
anthropology).
Positivism is a philosophy that states that the only authentic knowledge is
scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from
positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method. It was
developed by Auguste Comte. Sociology is seen as a study of “social
facts’ and of the ways in which society influences the behaviour of
individuals. In Comte's lifetime, his work was sometimes viewed
skeptically because he had elevated Positivism to a religion and had
named himself the Pope of Positivism. He coined the term "sociology" to
denote the new science of society. He has been called the ‘father’
sociology.
Conflict/Consensus Theory
Consensus Conflict Perspectives in social theory
In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be classified into
'consensus' and 'conflict' perspectives. Let us first look at the definitions of
these two concepts of consensus and conflict. Consensus is a concept of
society in which the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of
society based on a general or widespread agreement among all members of a
particular society. Conflict is a disagreement or clash between opposing ideas,
principles, or people-this can be a covert or overt conflict.
Conflict theory, therefore, is a theory or collection of theories which places
emphasis on conflict in human society [Jary & Jary, 2000:105]. The discourse
of conflict theory or perspectives is on the emergence of conflict and what
causes conflict within a particular human society. Or we can say that conflict
theory deals with the incompatible aspects of human society. Conflict theory
emerged out of the sociology of conflict, crisis and social change. Consensus
theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or collection of
theories, in which social order and stability/social regulation forms the base of
emphasis. In other words consensus theory is concerned with the maintenance
or continuation of social order in society; in relation to accepted norms,
values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or collectively by the societyor within a particular society- itself. It Emerged out of the sociology of social
order and social stability/social regulation.
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Consensus Conflict Perspectives in social theory
In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be
classified into 'consensus' and 'conflict' perspectives. Let us first
look at the definitions of these two concepts of consensus and
conflict. Consensus is a concept of society in which the absence
of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a
general or widespread agreement among all members of a
particular society. Conflict is a disagreement or clash between
opposing ideas, principles, or people-this can be a covert or overt
conflict.
Conflict theory, therefore, is a theory or collection of theories
which places emphasis on conflict in human society [Jary & Jary,
2000:105]. The discourse of conflict theory or perspectives is on
the emergence of conflict and what causes conflict within a
particular human society. Or we can say that conflict theory deals
with the incompatible aspects of human society. Conflict theory
emerged out of the sociology of conflict, crisis and social change.
Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective
or collection of theories, in which social order and stability/social
regulation forms the base of emphasis. In other words consensus
theory is concerned with the maintenance or continuation of
social order in society; in relation to accepted norms, values, rules
and regulations as widely accepted or collectively by the societyor within a particular society- itself. It Emerged out of the
sociology of social order and social stability/social regulation.
Put these into perspective the consensus and conflict sociological
theories are reflected in the works of certain dominant social
theorists. Dominant Classical social theorists such as Karl Marx,
Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. And other prominent social
theorists such as Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton, Louis
Althusser & Ralph Dahrendorf and Herbert Mead & Herbert
Blumer. It is important to note that the conflict and consensus
perspectives of sociological theories have been divided into four
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categories or four paradigms-frame of reference in which human
beings see the world. These are Radical Humanism & Radical
Structuralism which fitted under conflict theory, Interpretive
Sociology & (Structural) Functionalism/Systems Analysis which
are classified under the consensus perspective. Each of the
classical and modern social theorists (and their theories) above
are slotted into one of the four categories or paradigms.
Well, first let us look at Karl Marx and Conflict theory; there are
two interpretations or paradigms of Marx's theory of conflict,
Radical Humanism & Radical Structuralism.
The works of Marx in his early years was interpreted by some
social theorists as emphasizing the role of human beings in social
conflict. They explained change as emerging from the crisis
between human beings and their society. They argued that Marx's
theory was a theory characterised by class conflicts or the conflict
between the bourgeoisie (rich, owners) and the proletariat (poor,
workers). What these people or Radical Humanists are stressing is
the human being's capacity to think and act against situations that
are not satisfactory to their existence: political, economic or
social situation unsatisfactory to them, therefore, they desire for a
radical change-force and struggle against all human impedimentsto take place.
According to this Marxist interpretation, change will only come
about by means of conflict between two classes of people. This is
in consequence of the suppression and domination by one
dominant class of people over another weaker class, social
conflict will emerge and change will take place. For instance, the
change from simple/primitive to slavery to feudalist to capitalist
and to socialist societies is characterized by conflict. For example,
the French revolution, whereby the bourgeoisie overthrew the
feudal system-which saw the ousting of the Monarchs-and gave
rise to a capitalist French society. According to another group of
social theorists pioneered by Louis Althusser argued that Karl
Marx's theoretical exposition in his later years was stressing the
role of social structures /institutions in conflict. Althusser
proposed a structuralist reading of Marxism. For him, society
consisted in a hierarchy of structures distinct from one another,
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each with its relative autonomy. In other words Althusser was
offering an anti-humanist reading of Marx's work. Thus,
according to the structuralists, conflict is naturally prevalent
within social structures/institutions in society. With time social
conflict will emerge. That is, conflict will emerge by itself
because of the incompatible relationship between the rules and
regulations of social structures/institutions. Therefore, change
will come. According to Althusser, he rejected any idea of human
involvement in instigating social conflict. But saw People as just
products of these structural conflicts or the inherent internal
differences contained within the social structures/institutions.
Now let us take for example the recent socio-political turmoil
(1998-2000) between the two ethnic groups, Guadalcanal and
Malaita, in Solomon Islands from both the humanist &
structuralist Marxist explanation. For the humanist Marxist-a
possible explanation of the conflict-the conflict was a result of the
Guadalcanal people's frustrations because of what they perceived
as domination by Malaitans over them. That is in terms of land
issues, land and resources acquisition, disrespect for the
indigenous people, their land and their customs [Kabutaulaka,
14th April 2002:4-7].
Whereas, a simple structural Marxist explanation would argue
that this socio-political conflict was determined by the existing
structures/institutions of social and political nature. One potential
illustration of structural Marxists would be branded on the
relationship between the introduced Westminster style of ruling
and the fragmented traditional forms of ruling as contrary to each
other. Thus, resulted in the conflict of principles or values
inherent within these two structures that overtime overt conflict
emerged by itself. Now let us look at the conservative Consensus
perspectives and the two paradigms or sociologies of social order
& social regulation; interpretive sociology (symbolic interaction)
and (Structural) Functionalism/Systems analysis. Firstly, let us
reflect on interpretive sociology or symbolic interactionism. The
foundation of this sociological explanation is rooted in the works
of social theorists such as George Herbert Mead, Max Weber,
Herbert Blumer and others. For Mead emphasized the natural
emergence of the self and mind within the social order-within the
social process of social human interaction [Baldwin, 1987:108,
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112]. Weber stressed the role of human beings as agents of the
social interpretation and rational understanding [Morrison,
1995:275-276]. Blumer highlights the meaning of social facts for
the individual actions [Jary & Jary, 2000:622-633].
Their analysis of society is quite similar to that of Humanist
Marxism (Radical Humanism) in that they both emphasized the
role of human beings in subjective social action. Interpretive
sociologists or symbolic interactionists presumed that human
beings are thinking beings and do not passively accept the rules
and regulations of society.
They further stressed that because of the human ability to think, it
provides human interpretations of the social or the norms and
values of society. These interpretations of the norms and values in
turn satisfy human beings and make them act accordingly.
Therefore, theoretically, it is these human abilities to think,
understand, interpret and act meaningfully according to the
collective rules and regulations of society that will bring about
social order and social stability.
On the other side is functionalism/structural functionalism which
objectively looks at society from a macro perspective.
Functionalism is based on the works of Emile Durkheim and
further expanded by Talcott Parsons. Whereby, they likened
society to biological organisms. Just like the internal organs of a
normal biological organism work together for the efficient
healthy (orderly) development function of the organism, so is the
society which has social organs/structures/institutions which are
there to maintain social order and stability in society in order to
progress [Plange, 1996:60]. Thus functionalism is similar to
Structuralist Marxism (Radical Structuralism) in that they are
concerned with structural/institutional analysis of society. But
different in terms of their emphasis. Functionalism emphasizes on
social order and social stability but not conflict. Functionalism
provides that society is made up of different institutions or
organizations that work together in co-operation-their orderly
relationship-to maintain social order and social stability. This
maintenance of society is extracted from the internal rules, norms,
values and regulations of these various ordered institutions. In
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light of these two conservative theoretical explanations the post
socio-political conflict in the Solomon Islands can be assessed
from an interpretive sociological explanation and a functionalist
point of view. The main focus of the post conflict situation in
Solomon Islands at the moment is to restore law and order, and
stability. Well, from a Functionalist perception it would be argued
that the desire to restore law and order is facilitated by certain
institutions in Solomon Islands. Such as the Churches, the police,
judiciary, the peace council and the government through their
respective functions and co-operative efforts. Whilst, the
interpretive sociologist would respond to this by saying that it is
the people of Solomon Islands themselves and not the institutions
who are working together for the restoration of law and order.
Both of these interpretations are relevant in this context. As such,
a student of sociology must not take for granted these theories or
conclude that one particular theory is relevant to society than
others. There are three things of significance needed to be
remembered. Firstly, is that, elements of each theories under the
consensus and conflict theories are present in society; the point is
no one particular theory can not explain society fully. Secondly,
there is an overlap of explanations between the theories. For
example, Talcott Parsons set out to synthesis Weber's and
Durkheim's work, but he tend to be more Durkheimian than
Weberian. Thirdly, these social theorists derived their theories
from the works of a predecessor social theorist like Parsons
himself, others before him and those who came later including
critics. Therefore, as we have seen from these four paradigms it is
clear why some sociological theories can be categorized
collectively as conflict theories and why other theories are
considered as consensus theories. To put it simply it is their
emphasis of explanation and interpretation by other social
theorists that made them so.
Bibliography Baldwin, John. D (1987) George Herbert Mead: A
Unifying Theory for Sociology, California: SAGE Publications.
Jary, David and Jary, Julia (2000) Collins Dictionary of
Sociology [3rd Edition, Glasgow: Harper Collins Publishers.
Kabutaulaka, Tarcisius Tara (14th April 2002) A Weak State and
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the Solomon Islands Peace Process In Pacific Islands
Development Series, Hawaii: East West Center.
Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft
Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
Morrison, Ken (1995) Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of
Modern Social Thought, London: SAGE Publications.
Plange, Nii. K (1996) The Science of Society: Exploring the
Links between Science, Ideology and Theories of Development,
Suva: Fiji Institute of Applied Studies in Association with the
Department of Sociology, University of the South Pacific.
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Structural Functionalism and Talcott Parsons
Classical and Contemporary Sociology
Beginning with Parsons and the functionalist approach to sociology we
leave the classical sociologists – Marx, Weber, and Durkheim – and
examine more recent sociological approaches. In Europe, Marx, Weber,
and Durkheim developed the major theoretical approaches to an analysis
of the social world. While they were not as comprehensive in their
analysis of the social world as is contemporary sociology, these classical
writers defined the discipline of sociology and developed models and
methods which contemporary sociologists must consider. Contemporary
sociologists have taken several lines of development. Some develop and
update the ideas of classical sociology, while others combine ideas from
several classical sociologists. Still others reject many of the classical
approaches, but even here the ideas of classical sociology serve as a point
of debate and departure.
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Parsons and the functionalist approach to sociology occupy an
intermediate position between classical and contemporary sociology.
Some new sociological approaches were developed in North America
before Parsons. But Parsons and the functional approach to sociology
became so dominant that by the late 1950s, sociology and functionalism
became more or less identical (Wallace and Wolf, p. 17). This meant that
sociology studied the roles of institutions and social behaviour in society,
the way these are related to other social features, and developed
explanations of society in social terms (Wallace and Wolf, p. 17).
Beginning around the time that functionalism became dominant, there
were many new developments in sociology. Microsociological
approaches such as symbolic interactionism and the study of individual
and small group interaction began, perhaps because these had not been
emphasized by earlier sociologists. Conflict approaches also developed,
partly in reaction to the consensus view of functionalists, and partly
because functionalism was not able to explain the new social movements
and developments in North America and the rest of the world.
By the late 1980s, functionalism and Parsons were more or less
discredited and abandoned, replaced with a variety of sociological models
that attempted to develop a variety of non-functionalist approaches to the
study of sociology. More recently, some sociologists have attempted to
revive functionalism, the most notable of these being Jeffrey Alexander
(Wallace and Wolf, pp. 58-61). At the same time, some of the alternative
approaches that were developed have functionalist aspects to them. As a
result, functionalist theory and the sociology of Talcott Parsons must be
studied in order to understand the development of sociological thought. In
addition, some of the ideas of Parsons have proved to be useful to the
study of the contemporary social world.
Functional analysis does not emphasize conflict, does not consider
conflict to be an integral part of the social world, and generally does not
consider change to be dramatic but rather to be evolutionary. While the
writers who take this approach often advocate reforms, these may be
minimal, thus providing support for existing structures. At the same time,
the structural functional approach is in the tradition of western liberalism
– arguing for equality of opportunity, a liberal democracy, and social
reforms that would encourage these. Politically, this approach has often
been used as a means of countering radical reforms, at other times it has
contributed to more modest reforms
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Unlike the other major theoretical approaches, the structural functional
model comes from a variety of authors. Usually it is associated with
Talcott Parsons, although the single most famous article is a short
summary article on social stratification by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore. Robert Merton is another well known sociologist who provided
some important structural functional theoretical statements. All of these
were sociologists who were from the United States and spent most of
their academic life there. As a result, this approach is often associated
with sociology in the United States.
Social Order. Much like Durkheim, Parsons was concerned with the
problem of social order, "how, if individuals were really separate entities
pursuing their self-interest, there could be any order at all: How could
there be anything but disorder?" (Johnson, p. 116). In practice, people do
cooperate, and there is a degree of social integration. For Parsons this
comes from the values of society and of social actors – the basis of social
action can be termed voluntarism. "People act on the basis of their values;
their actions are oriented and constrained by the values and norms of
people around them; and these norms and values are the basis of social
order" (Knapp, pp. 191-192)
Functionalism – Introduction
1. Overview. Many aspects of the functionalist approach to sociology are
similar to those of other sociological approaches, but with a particular
emphasis on function, interdependence, consensus, equilibrium, and
evolutionary change. Some of these aspects are:
a. Macro. The focus is macro-sociological, with institutions and
structures existing in the society as a whole. This is the origin of the
structure part of the structural functional approach.
b. Function. The different parts of each society contribute positively to
the operation or functioning of the system as a whole. This is the
functional part of the structural functional approach.
c. Interdependence and Equilibrium. Functionalism attempts to explain
the relationship of different parts of the system to each other, and to the
whole. These parts are usually work together in an orderly manner,
without great conflict. The different parts are usually in equilibrium, or
moving toward equilibrium, with consensus rather than conflict
governing the inter-relationships of the various parts.
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d. Evolutionary Change. While equilibrium, consensus, and static rather
than dynamic analysis is most common, there is some discussion of
change. Change tends to be orderly and evolutionary, rather than
revolutionary or with dramatic structural breaks. Conflicts or external
factors stimulate adjustment of the parts to move toward a new
equilibrium. As change occurs, the various parts of societies become
more differentiated, with these parts adapting to new needs and problems.
Societies become more complex, with new institutions and subsystems
developing that perform the new functions required to make the society
operate smoothly. Note the similiarity to Durkheim’s view of how the
division of labour develops.
2. Function. Each society has certain needs in that there are a number of
activities that must be carried out for social life to survive and develop.
Goods and services must be produced and distributed in order for people
to survive, there must be some administration of justice, a political
system must exist, and some family structure must operate so as to
provide a means to reproduce the population and maintain social life on a
daily basis. In the structural functional model, individuals carry out each
of these tasks in various institutions and roles that are consistent with the
structures and norms of the society.
One example of functionalism is inequality. Functionalists generally
argue that a certain degree of inequality is functional for the society as a
whole, and the society could not operate without a certain degree of
inequality. Rewards in the form of income, status, prestige, or power
must be provided in order to induce people to carry out the work required
of them and get them to prepare for and perform in roles required by
society. Recall that Durkheim argued that social inequalities should
represent natural inequalities, and if this occurs, the division of labour
performs well. Some types of Marxism also have a strong strain of
functionalism to them – for example, a Marxist may claim that the
function of the working class is to produce surplus value, or the state
functions in the interests of the bourgeoisie.
One question raised in a functional approach is to determine what is
functional and what is not, and for whom each of these activities and
institutions are functional. If there is no method to sort functional from
non-functional aspects of society, the functional model can become
tautological – without any explanatory power in that any activity is
regarded as functional.
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3. Structures. Functionalist analysis looks on social systems as having
certain needs, and society as a system of social structures (economic,
legal, educational, gender structures). If the needs are being met, then it is
the social structures that meet these needs. The structures are thus
functional in the sense that they help society to operate. Interconnections
exist within and among these structures, and individuals and groups are
constrained by these structures. Wallace and Wolf note that some
functionalists have abandoned the structural aspect and refer to
themselves merely as functionalists (p. 17).
4. Interdependence. Since society is composed of different parts, and the
proper operation of these parts is necessary to the smooth operation of
society as a whole, the interdependence of the parts is an important
feature of functional analysis. The roles taken on by people, and the
institutions and organizations of society are all interdependent. A change
in any one part affects others, requiring other parts to take account of the
changes, modify its actions, and adapt to any changes necessary. While
most sociological approaches recognize the interdependence of the
elements of a society, the functionalist approach tends to regard these
elements of society (individuals or institutions) as having particular
functions to perform. For example, Parsons argues that each individual
occupies a status or position within a structure. "Status and role tend to go
together in what Parsons calls the 'status-role bundle.'" (Grabb, p. 101).
These are the ways in which individuals fill the structures of society. So
long as roles are performed, the structures function smoothly, and it is
individuals carrying out their functions and roles within these structures
that make the structures work.
5. Equilibrium. Functionalists argue that societies are generally in a
normal state of affairs, with the different parts functioning smoothly to
contribute to the operation of the society. There may be disturbances from
this normal state of affairs – from outside the society, because the
different parts are not operating properly, or because of features such as
population or technical change – but these disturbances trigger
adjustments in the various parts of society that return the society to a state
of equilibrium. An example from economics is that when there are
shortages of a product, the price of the product rises, and this induces
producers to produce more of the product, thus eliminating the shortage.
When there is a disturbance in the social world, the various roles and
organizations have means to return the society to a more normal state of
affairs.
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6. Consensus – Norms and Values. The functional approach tends to
argue that there is consensus within the social system. Individual
behaviour is governed by social norms or rules that are generally
accepted and agreed upon. These are like Durkheim's social facts or
moral regulation in that they govern behaviour, and while they are
coercive, they are also generally agreed upon. These norms and values
are consistent with the equilibrium state of society, or normal state of
affairs. There are aspects of these norms that return the society to a
normal state of affairs in the case of a disturbance – for example,
sanctions, punishment, social approval, and social disapproval.
Functional analysis does not emphasize conflict, does not consider
conflict to be an integral part of the social world, and generally does not
consider change to be dramatic but rather to be evolutionary. While the
writers who take this approach often advocate reforms, these may be
minimal, thus providing support for existing structures. At the same time,
the structural functional approach is in the tradition of western liberalism
– arguing for equality of opportunity, a liberal democracy, and social
reforms that would encourage these. Politically, this approach has often
been used as a means of countering radical reforms, at other times it has
contributed to more modest reforms
Unlike the other major theoretical approaches, the structural functional
model comes from a variety of authors. Usually it is associated with
Talcott Parsons, although the single most famous article is a short
summary article on social stratification by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore. Robert Merton is another well known sociologist who provided
some important structural functional theoretical statements. All of these
were sociologists who were from the United States and spent most of
their academic life there. As a result, this approach is often associated
with sociology in the United States.
Social Order. Much like Durkheim, Parsons was concerned with the
problem of social order, "how, if individuals were really separate entities
pursuing their self-interest, there could be any order at all: How could
there be anything but disorder?" (Johnson, p. 116). In practice, people do
cooperate, and there is a degree of social integration. For Parsons this
comes from the values of society and of social actors – the basis of social
action can be termed voluntarism. "People act on the basis of their values;
their actions are oriented and constrained by the values and norms of
people around them; and these norms and values are the basis of social
order" (Knapp, pp. 191-192)
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MACROSOCIOLOGY
The relationship between individual and society
Social Action Theory
MAX WEBER
MAX WEBER: Basic Terms (The Fundamental Concepts of Sociology)
Definitions of Sociology and Social action:
Sociology is a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of
social action to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects.
Sociology seeks to formulate type concepts and generalized uniformities
of empirical processes. (History, on the other hand, is interested in the
causal analysis of particular events, actions or personalities.)
Action is human behavior to which the acting individual attaches
subjective meaning. It can be overt or inward and subjective. Action is
social when, by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by the
acting individual(s), it takes account of the behavior of others and is
thereby guided. Social action may be oriented to past, present, or
predicted future behavior of others. Others may be concrete people or
indefinite pluralities.
Not all action is social: if it ain't oriented to the behavior of others, it ain't
social. Also, it is not merely action participated in by a bunch of people
(crowd action) or action influenced by or imitative of others. Action can
be causally determined by the behavior of others, while still not
necessarily being meaningfully determined by the action of others. If I do
what you do because it's fashionable, or traditional, or leads to social
distinction, its meaningful. Obviously the lines are blurred (pp 113-114),
but it's important to make a conceptional distinction
Modes of Orientation of social action:
Uniformity of social action = action which is wide-spread, frequently
repeated by the same individual or simultaneously performed by many
individuals and which corresponds to a subjective meaning attributable to
the same actors.
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Usage: probability of a uniformity in the orientation of social action,
when the probability is determined by its actual practice ('it is done to
conform with the pattern).
Custom: usage when the actual performance of the action rests on long
familiarity. Non- conformance is sanctioned externally.
Action can also be uniform if the actor acts in his self-interests. The
uniformity rests insofar as behavior is determined by purely rational
actions of actors to similar ulterior expectations.
Types of Social Action, identified by mode of orientation:
1) rational orientation to a system of discrete individual ends. individuals
can choose and adjudicate between both means and ends, though these
considerations may be with reference to other absolute values.
2) rational orientation to an absolute value, involving conscious belief in
the absolute value entirely for its own sake and independent of prospects
for external success. Can choose b/t means, but only with relation to
absolute, fixed end. Absolute values are always irrational.
3) affectional orientation. If this is uncontrolled reaction to some
exceptional stimulus, it is not meaningful -- grey areas.
4) traditional orientation. If this is strict imitation, it is not meaningful -grey areas
MAX WEBER Class, Status, Party
All communities are arranged in a manner that goods, tangible and
intangible, symbolic and material are distributed. Such a distribution is
always unequal and necessarily involves power. ''Classes, status groups
and parties are phenomena of the distribution of power within a
community'' (927). Status groups makes up the social order, classes the
economic order, and parties the legal/political order. Each order affects
and is affected by the other.
Power
Power is the ''chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own
will in a social action even against the resistance of others who are
participating in the action'' (926).
Power may rest of a variety of bases, and can be of differing types.
''Economically conditioned power is not identical with power... The
emergence of economic power may be the consequence of power existing
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on other grounds. Man does not strive for power only to enrich himself
economically. Power, including economic power, may be valued for its
own sake. Very frequently the striving for power is conditioned by the
social honor it entails. Not all power entails honor.'' Power is not the only
basis of social honor, and social honor, or prestige, may be the basis of
economic power.
''Power, as well as honor, may be guaranteed by the legal order, but... [the
legal order] is not their primary source. The legal order is rather an
additional factor that enhances the chance to hold power or honor; but it
cannot always secure them'' (926-7).
Class
Class is defined in terms of market situation. A class exists when a
number of people have in common a specific casual component of their
life chances in the following sense: this component is represented
exclusively by economic interests in the possession of goods and
opportunities for income under conditions of the commodity or labor
markets.
When market conditions prevail (eg, capitalism), property and lack of
property are the basic categories of all class situations. However, the
concept of class-interest is ambiguous. Collective action based on class
situations is determined by the transparency of the connections between
the causes and the consequences of the class situation. If the contrast
between the life chances of different class situations is merely seen as an
acceptable absolute fact, no action will be taken to change the class
situation.
A class in and of itself does not constitute a group (Gemeinschaft). ''The
degree in which social action and possibly associations emerge from the
mass behavior of the members of a class is linked to general cultural
conditions, especially those of an intellectual sort'' (929). ''If classes as
such are not groups, class situations emerge only on the basis of social
action.''
The Types of Authority and Imperative Control/The Types of Legitimate
Domination (depends on your translation)
Basis of Legitimacy
Domination is defined as the probability that certain specific commands
(or all commands) will be obeyed by a given group of people. A certain
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minimum of voluntary submission is necessary; thus on the part of the
submitter there is an interest (whether based on ulterior motives or
genuine acceptance) in obedience.
- Not every claim protected by custom or law involves a relation of
authority. For instance, if I ask Charles to pay me for the work i do as
fulfillment of our contract, I am not exercising authority over him.
- The legitimacy of a system of authority may be treated sociologically
only as the probability that to a relevant degree the appropriate attitudes
will exist and the corresponding conduct ensue.
- Obedience means the action of the person 'obeying' follows a course
such that the content of the command can be taken as the reason for
his/her action.
3 Pure Types of Legitimate Authority
1. Rational/legal grounds. Belief in the legality of patterns of normative
rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue
commands. Authority held by legally established impersonal order,
extends to people only by virtue of offices they hold.
2. Traditional grounds. Established belief in the sanctity of immemorial
traditions and the legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority
under them. Authority held by person of the chief who occupies the
traditionally sanctioned position of authority; matter of personal
obligation and loyalty within the scope of tradition.
3. Charismatic grounds. Devotion to the specific and exceptional sanctity,
heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the
normative pattern or order revealed by him. Leader obeyed by personal
trust in him, his revelation, heroism, coolness, as far as those qualities fall
within the scope of the obeyers belief in his charisma.
Source: www.ssr1.uchicago.edu/PRELIMS/Theory/weber.html - 97k
Emile Durkheim
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) is by far one of the most important and
prolific sociologists in the history of the field. Durkheim himself is
credited with making sociology a science, as he used an empirical
methodology in his own studies, especially in regard to his study of
suicide rates and issues of European nations.
Durkheim coined the term "anomie," and shed light on the inner
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workings of society that his predecessors had overlooked. He showed
that all the aspects of human society work together much like the
parts of a machine, and this concept is referred to today as
sociological functionalism. This idea of functionalism--societal
organization playing the major role in the lives of humans--has
become the very paradigm of most sociological study today.
This site was created as a resource for undergraduate students of
sociology, and should be used accordingly. Durkheim's own words
are provided extensively in this archive, to best convey his ideas,
concepts, and theories.
Anomie Durkheim's Anomie
Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, introduced the concept of anomie
in his book The Division of Labour in Society, published in 1893. He used
anomie to describe a condition of deregulation that was occurring in
society. This meant that rules on how people ought to behave with each
other were breaking down and thus people did not know what to expect
from one another. Anomie, simply defined, is a state where norms
(expectations on behaviours) are confused, unclear or not present. It is
normlessness, Durkheim felt, that led to deviant behaviour. In 1897,
Durkheim used the term again in his study on Suicide, referring to a
morally deregulated condition. Durkheim was preoccupied with the
effects of social change. He best illustrated his concept of anomie not in a
discussion of crime but of suicide.
In The Division of Labour in Society, Durkheim proposed two concepts.
First, that societies evolved from a simple, non-specialised form, called
mechanical, toward a highly complex, specialised form, called organic. In
the former society people behave and think alike and more or less
perform the same work tasks and have the same group-oriented goals.
When societies become more complex, or organic, work also becomes
more complex. In this society, people are no longer tied to one another
and social bonds are impersonal.
Anomie thus refers to a breakdown of social norms and it a condition
where norms no longer control the activities of members in society.
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Individuals cannot find their place in society without clear rules to help
guide them. Changing conditions as well as adjustment of life leads to
dissatisfaction, conflict, and deviance. He observed that social periods of
disruption (economic depression, for instance) brought about greater
anomie and higher rates of crime, suicide, and deviance.
Durkheim felt that sudden change caused a state of anomie. The system
breaks down, either during a great prosperity or a great depression,
anomie is the same result. Social facts are very relevant concepts in
Durkheim’s analogy.
In positivist sociology, social facts are the social structures and cultural
norms and values that are external to the individual
Durkheim and Social Facts
Bookmark this page
Social facts were part of Durkheim's attempts to establish
society as an entity sui generis.
Such things as sleeping and eating are inherently
individual acts. If only these acts were present, then there
would be no room for sociology, because these acts would
come under the jurisdiction of biology and psychology.
However, argued Durkheim, there are other acts that are
inherently social, such as fulfilling one's duties as a
citizen, or protesting. These acts prove the existence of a
social reality in addition to an individual reality.
In order to qualify as a social fact, phenomena needed to
satisfy two criterion:


They must exist outside the individual
They must exist prior to the individual
They are therefore a new variety of phenomena, to which
the descriptor "social" must be applied.
The Importance of Social Facts
Social facts are crucial in challenging utilitarian thinking
and contemporary discussion from individual motives to
the laws of society. Furthermore, a necessary corollary of
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social facts is that individual actions derive from society.
Social Darwinism is incompatible with the existence of
social facts.
Characteristics of Social Facts
Social facts have three properties:



General - They are general throughout society.
They are diffused throughout the group.
External - Social facts exist outside the individual,
are prior to him, and exist indepently of their will.
Constraining - They often have some sort of
sanction, manifested in coercion of ostracism,
against any individual who resists them.
Observing Social Facts
Social facts, for Durkheim, are things, not ideas. Things
have reality, and can be observed. As things, then can be
studied in the same way that natural science can study
molecules.
Social facts are not produced by individual will, but by
external social coercion.
The problems with observing social facts is dealt with in
The Rules of the Sociological Method. One such problem
is trying to distinguish social facts from a priori
impressions (See Kant, Aristotle). In order to avoid the
confusion between the two, it is necessary to:



Avoid all preconceptions (so as to maintain
objectivity)
Define clearly what is to be investigated
Ensure that the group of phenomena being studied
are defined by their external characteristics
Source: www.revision-notes.co.uk/revision/973.html
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Social facts are facts with very distinctive characteristics: they consist of ways of acting, thinking, and
feeling, external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they control
him.
Social facts are produced by the collective actions of social groups and
they have a coercive function to ensure that members adhere to the
standards and conventions of that group. Thus, by studying social facts,
the sociologist is studying how and why that social group is constituted in
the manner it is and how it maintains its cohesion. It is important to
understand that social facts cannot be explained simply by reference to
the psychology of individuals, although that certainly plays a role.
Source:
atheism.about.com/library/glossary/general/bldef_durkheimemile.htm 28k
Marx and Weber and Alienation
Marx's theory of alienation (Entfremdung in German), as expressed in
the writings of young Karl Marx, refers to the separation of things that
naturally belong together, or to antagonism between things that are
properly in harmony. In the concept's most important use, it refers to the
alienation of people from aspects of their "human nature"
(Gattungswesen, usually translated as 'species-essence' or 'species-being').
He believed that alienation is a systematic result of capitalism. Source:
Wikipedia
Alienation in the labour process
Simply, Marx's Theory of Alienation is based upon his observation that,
in emerging industrial production - under capitalism - workers inevitably
lose control of their lives and selves in not having any control of their
work. Workers, thus, never become autonomous, self-realized human
beings in any significant sense (except the way the bourgeois wants the
worker to be realized).
Alienation in capitalist societies occurs because in work each contributes
to the common wealth, but can only express this fundamentally social
aspect of individuality through a production system that is not (publicly)
social, but privately owned, for which each individual functions as an
instrument, not as a social being:
Marx attributes four types of alienation in labour under capitalism:[1]

alienation of the worker from his or her ‘species essence’ as a
human being rather than a machine;
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


alienation between workers, since capitalism reduces labour to a
commodity to be traded on the market, rather than a social
relationship;
alienation of the worker from the product, since this is appropriated
by the capitalist class, and so escapes the worker's control;
alienation from the act of production itself, such that work comes
to be a meaningless activity, offering little or no intrinsic
satisfactions.
Applying alienation to current times
We live in a world where technological achievements unimaginable in
previous societies are within our grasp: this is the age of space travel, of
the internet, of genetic engineering. Yet never before have we felt so
helpless in the face of the forces we ourselves have created. Never before
have the fruits of our labour threatened our very existence: this is also the
age of nuclear disasters, global warming, and the arms race. For the first
time in history we can produce enough to satisfy the needs of everyone
on the planet. Yet millions of lives are stunted by poverty and destroyed
by disease. Despite our power to control the natural world, our society is
dominated by insecurity, as economic recession and military conflict
devastate lives with the apparently irresistible power of natural disasters.
The more densely populated our cities become, the more our lives are
characterised by feelings of isolation and loneliness. To Karl Marx these
contradictions were apparent when the system was still young. Marx
developed his theory of alienation to reveal the human activity that lies
Alienation: A Sense of isolation, powerlessness, and therefore frustration; a feeling of loss of control
over one's life; a sense of estrangement from society or even from oneself. As a concept it was
developed by German philosophers G W F Hegel and Karl Marx; the latter used it as a description
and criticism of the condition that developed among workers in capitalist society.
behind the seemingly impersonal forces dominating society. He showed
how, although aspects of the society we live in appear natural and
independent of us, they are the results of past.human actions. Source:
pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj79/cox.htm
www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0006436.html 38k.
The term has also been used by non-Marxist writers and sociologists (in
particular Emile Durkheim in his work Suicide 1897) to explain unrest in
factories and to describe the sense of powerlessness felt by groups such as
young people, black people, and women in Western industrial society.
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Marx, Sociability and the Social Animal – Zoon Politikon
Marx in Ritzer, G., Sociological theory McGraw-Hill 5th edition, 2000
pp53-54 ‘Another aspect of Marx’s image of human potential is the idea
that people are inherently social”. Marx and Engels talked of “ The need,
the necessity of intercourse with other males”. Marx also wrote “Men in
the most literal sense of the word are zoon politikon, not only a social
animal but an animal which can develop into an individual only in
society”.
Microsociology
A. Microsociology
Microsociology is concerned with the interactions, exchanges and choices
of people as affected by the social context in which the occur. The
approach in sociology is often referred to as Social Psychology and draws
upon two theoretical perspectives within this broad approach: Choice and
Symbolic interaction. Source:
carbon.cudenver.edu/public/sociology/introsoc/topics/UnitNotes/week02.
html
Early theory of Microsociology can be credited to Max Weber and his
social action theory. Weber is often regarded as the most important
classical sociological theorist since he investigated many areas and since
his approach and methods guide much later sociological analysis. Like
Marx, Weber had a wide ranging set of interests: politics, history,
language, religion, law, economics, and administration, in addition to
sociology. His historical and economic analysis does not provide as
elaborate or as systematic a model of capitalism and capitalist
development as does that of Marx. But the scope of his analysis ranges
more widely than that of Marx; is examines broad historical changes, the
origins of capitalism, the development of capitalism, political issues, the
nature of a future society, and concepts and approaches that Marx
downplayed – religion, ideas, values, meaning, and social action.
In the view of some, Weber may have "spent his life having a
posthumous dialogue with the ghost of Karl Marx." (Cuff, p. 97). Cuff, E.
C., W. W. Sharrock and D. W. Francis, Perspectives in Sociology, third
edition, London, Routledge, 1992. HM66 P36 1984. This dialogue
concerned (i) economic determinism or the extent to which developments
are rooted in the material base, and (ii) the extent to which economic
factors alone can be considered at the root of social structure. At the same
time, the differences between Weber and Marx should not be overstated.
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Weber's analysis had similar scope to that of Marx, and he came from a
similar historical, German tradition of thought, examining many of the
same topics as Marx. Many contemporary sociologists think of Weber as
complementing Marx, examining issues that Marx thought less important,
providing a way of thinking about the individual within a structural
approach, and laying out a sociological methodology. Weber's writing
had an influence on structural functionalism, critical theory, some of the
social interaction approaches, and much contemporary sociological
theory, including some Marxist approaches that use ideas from Weber.
Max Weber
Weber, it is often said, conceived of sociology as a comprehensive
science of social action. His initial theoretical focus is on the
subjective meaning that humans attach to their actions in their
interactions with one another within specific social contexts. In this
connection, Weber distinguishes between four major types of social
action:
1. zweckrational
2. wertrational
3. affective action
4. traditional action
Zweckrational can be roughly translated as "technocratic thinking."
It can be defined as action in which the means to attain a particular
goal are rationally chosen. It is exemplified by an engineer who
builds a bridge as the most efficient way to cross a river.
Wertrational, or value-oriented rationality, is characterised by
striving for a goal, which in itself may not be rational, but which is
pursued through rational means within an ethical, religious, or even
holistic context. An example would be an individual seeking
salvation through following the teachings of a prophet. Affective
action is anchored in the emotional state of the person rather than in
the rational weighing of means and ends. Traditional action is guided
by customary habits of thought, by reliance on what Weber called
"the eternal yesterday." This classification of types of action
provides a basis for his investigation of the course of western
historical development, as well as his theory of human societies
continued evolution.
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Weber was primarily concerned with modern western society, in
which, as he saw it, behaviour had come to be increasingly dominated
by goal-oriented rationality. He believed more and more of our
behaviour was being guided by zweckrational, less and less by
tradition, values, or emotions. His whole work attempts to identify
the social factors that have brought about this "rationalisation" of
the West.
While his sociology begins with the individual motivators of social
action, Weber does not stay exclusively focused on the micro level. In
modern society the efficient application of means to ends has come to
dominate and replace other springs of social behaviour. He proposed
that the basic distinguishing feature of modern society was best
viewed in terms of this characteristic shift in motivation. But he
believed that shift was based on structural and historical forces
The Protestant Ethic
Max Weber
Weber's concern with the meaning that people give to their actions
allowed him to understand the drift of historical change. He believed
that rational action within a system of rational-legal authority is at
the heart of modern society. His sociology was first and foremost an
attempt to explore and explain this shift from traditional to rational
action.
Weber believed that the rationalisation of action can only be realised
when traditional ways of life are abandoned. Modern people often
have a difficult time realising the hold of tradition on pre-industrial
peoples. Tradition was overpowering in pre-modern societies.
Weber's task was to uncover the forces in the West that caused
people to abandon their traditional religious value orientation and
encouraged them to develop a desire for acquiring goods and wealth.
After careful study, Weber came to the belief that the protestant
ethic broke the hold of tradition while it encouraged men to apply
themselves rationally to their work. Calvinism, he found, had
developed a set of beliefs around the concept of predestination. It
was believed by followers of Calvin that one could not do good works
or perform acts of faith to assure your place in heaven. You were
either among the "elect" (in which case you were in) or you were not.
However, wealth was taken as a sign (by you and your neighbours)
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that you were one of the God's elect, thereby providing
encouragement for people to acquire wealth. The protestant ethic
therefore provided religious sanctions that fostered a spirit of
rigorous discipline, encouraging men to apply themselves rationally
to acquire wealth.
Weber studied non-Western cultures as well. He found that several
of these pre-industrial societies had the technological infrastructure
and other necessary preconditions to begin capitalism and economic
expansion. The only force missing were the positive sanctions to
abandon traditional ways. While Weber does not believe that the
protestant ethic was the only cause of the rise of capitalism, he
believed it to be a powerful force in fostering its emergence
WEBER AND CLASS
To Max Weber, writing in the early 1900s, Marx's view was too simple he agreed that different classes exist, but he thought that "Status" or
"Social Prestige" was the key factor in deciding which group each one
of us belongs to. So, where we live, our manner of speech, our schooling,
our leisure habits, these, and many other factors, decide our social class he called these different aspects of the way we behave our "Life-Style".
Particularly important, he thought, was the way each person thinks about
his/her "Life-Chances" - if we feel that we can become a respected and
highly valued member of wider society, then this is likely to put us in a
higher social class than some others e.g. a child who goes to a Private
School, live in a large house, has parents who are "professional" people,
and has a "standard" BBC accent is likely (but not certain) to feel that
he/she has a greater chance of becoming generally respected than a child
who is educated in an inner city, crowded school, and who lives in a
Council Estate, and who speaks with a regional accent.
PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology has at least three main meanings in philosophical
history: one in the writings of G.W.F. Hegel, another in the writings of
Edmund Husserl in 1920, and a third, deriving from Husserl's work, in
the writings of his former research assistant Martin Heidegger in 1927:

For G.W.F. Hegel, phenomenology is an approach to philosophy
that begins with an exploration of phenomena (what presents itself
to us in conscious experience) as a means to finally grasp the
absolute, logical, ontological and metaphysical Spirit that is behind
phenomena. This has been called a "dialectical phenomenology".
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
For Edmund Husserl, phenomenology is "the reflective study of the
essence of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point
of view."[1] Phenomenology takes the intuitive experience of
phenomena (what presents itself to us in phenomenological
reflexion) as its starting point and tries to extract from it the
essential features of experiences and the essence of what we
experience. When generalized to the essential features of any
possible experience, this has been called "transcendental
phenomenology". Husserl's view was based on aspects of the work
of Franz Brentano and was developed further by philosophers such
as Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Max Scheler, Edith Stein, Dietrich von
Hildebrand and Emmanuel Levinas.

Martin Heidegger believed that Husserl's approach overlooked
basic structural features of both the subject and object of
experience (what he called their "being"), and expanded
phenomenological enquiry to encompass our understanding and
experience of Being itself, thus making phenomenology the
method (in the first phase of his career at least) of the study of
being: ontology
Where does phenomenology fit in with Sociology?
Social reality is constructed in the minds of social actors. Sociology is the
study of the ways in which individuals interpret and create their social
world. Phenomenology is a 20th century philosophical way of thinking
about the nature of reality which has influenced Sociology. The German
Philosopher Edmund Husserl is closely linked with phenomenology.
Phenomenology argues that the only 'PHENOMENA' that we can be sure
of is that we are 'conscious' thinking beings. Therefore we should study
any phenomena around us in terms of the way we consciously experience
them. This examination should be free of preconceptions and causal
ideas.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic interaction theory.
This approach to micro-sociology emphasizes the importance of symbols
and of interaction. The idea is that human beings generally interact with
one another in terms of symbols and meanings. Actions are not just
simply actions, they are given meaning. For example if I present you with
a balled, closed fist, this action has meaning to you, you interpret it and
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act accordingly. Of course your interpretation is based upon the context
(am I smiling, were we arguing, how well do you know and understand
my gestures). It is not just the gestures which are important (animals use
gestures -- wagging tails, body posture -- to indicate relationship and
states, see the work of Konrad Lorenz and other ethologists), it is the
meaning attached to them. Furthermore, we use symbols. That you are
able to participate in this course at all attests to our use of symbols. Each
letter is a symbol, the combinations are symbols and so on. The power of
these is that the combinations convey ideas about our reality. : ^ ) [Look
at the combination sideways -- you will see a smiley face. There is an
entire list of these that are used by computer geeks to communicate across
the network.] These are symbols, and they condition our interactions.
Next we turn to some people who developed these ideas in the United
States.
a. Cooley and Mead
are the early proponents of this approach to human interaction. Mead
(Mind, Self and Society) particularly stressed the importance of symbols
in the interaction, pointing to the meanings we attach to symbols, that
these symbols and meanings govern the pattern of interaction. Cooley
(Human Nature and the Social Order) emphasized the nature of
interaction.
b. Cooley: The looking glass self
Cooley suggests that we come to know ourselves in interaction, that
people reflect to us who, what we are, they are a mirror for us, reflecting
our actions. It is through this reflection we come to know who we are,
thus the idea of the looking glass self. I see myself in you, through
interaction and it is through this reflected image that I come to know who
I am.
c. Mead: self and interaction.
In Mead's formulation the emphasis is upon interaction, how people
attempt to influence one another in the exchange. Mead did not see the
participants as passive at all. For example, in interaction each of us
projects an idea of our self to an other. This is our action. The other sees,
hears feels this projection and reflects it to the actor. Actor in turn
evaluates the reflections and acts upon it. Actor may re-emphasize the
action to convince other s/he is what his/her action says s/he is or may
modify the behavior or action to make it consonant with what other has
reflected. Again, it is through this active exchange that we come to know
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who and what we are. Note that the view of Mead is much more active
and participatory than that presented by Cooley.
d. Individual self product of interaction
In both of these views, the interaction theorist see the individual self
(therefore the individual) to be a product of social interaction. Exchanges
between the individuals produce their idea of what the self is.
Other theorists in this realm look to the process of interaction, the
symbols and how they are used. For example, note that in most
conversations you will send signals, symbols as to the end of the
conversation. Sometimes these will be heeded, in others the person will
ignore them and keep on talking. This is particularly the case in phone
conversation.
Notice that some complete statements such as "Hi, how are you?" are
really a symbol in themselves. In this instance we are not actually asking
how the other person is, only greeting them. If you want have some fun
with others, actually tell the other person how you are!
Summary of Micro Sociological Approach to the Study of People
Micro-sociological theories of sociology focus upon the individual in a
social context. Although the focus is on the individual, it is the context
that is important. The social interactions that take place around us shape
us and our views of ourselves. We make choices about how to behave and
how not to behave based upon these social contexts. We also are involved
in the use of symbols to define ourselves and others. As you pursue the
topic of social psychology you will see how groups arise from these
exchanges and interactions, from the groups and inter-group relationships
arise societies and so on.
Macrosociology
Macrosociology implies that there is a system, an inter-relation of parts.
Each structure of the society has an effect upon other structures, if
changes take place in one part of the system it will affect other parts of
the society. For example, our economy requires a mobile labor force, one
in which the individuals must move all over the country. This has had the
effect of drastically reducing the size of the typical family and made the
extended family difficult to maintain. Each part of the society is a part of
this set of interrelations, some are quite direct, others may work across
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and through several other structures and parts, making the interrelation
indirect.
a. relationships, interdependence of parts
Specific Macrosociological perspectives:
a. conflict
Essentially the conflict perspective sees the structures of society
producing conflicting expectations among the members of the society.
The net result is that there are groups produced by the structures that have
interests that run counter to other groups within the same structure or in a
different structural context. For example, the roles of men and women are
in a way complementary (i.e., different but necessary for one another). In
some instances the structures that these roles are imbedded in may
produce conflict between the two groups. The nature of the economic
system has placed men in positions of power where they make most of
the decisions. Modern technology and educational achievement of
women have increased the number of women who work. These changes
have in turn brought women into the work place and in that structure they
seek power that challenges that of men and places them in conflict with
the men. Out of the conflict will come changes in the roles of both men
and women.
Stark cites other examples of groups, their interests and the conflict that
will occur among them. (see Stark for details)
b. functionalism
The functionalist view of the social system emphasizes connectedness
and equilibrium among the parts of the system. Each element affects
every other element in the system. Some theorists state it is the natural
tendency of a system to maintain a steady state (i.e., an equilibrium). The
classic example of this condition is the human body. There are built in
mechanisms that maintain body temperature within a relatively narrow
range (about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). If you exercise violently, you
increase the temperature and the body system responds by opening
vessels at the surface and increasing the sweating response -- all actions
designed to bring the temperature back toward the 'normal' value of 98.6.
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Similarly, the idea is that the society is a system that is in equilibrium. If
a part of it gets out of whack (the family, for example), mechanisms will
come into play to move the part back into balance with the rest of the
society.
While Goffman's symbolic interactionist orientation situates him well in
developing an understanding of microsociological function, it provides
only a cursory exploration of the larger institutions and processes of
society. Despite this emphasis, The Presentation of Self in Everyday
Life, is a work that lends itself well to a macrosociological reading. By
placing Goffman's work in the context of the writings of other thinkers, a
beneficial link between the micro- and macro-structures of society
becomes visible.
An important link may be made between Goffman and Durkheim may be
made in an inquiry into the concept of "spontaneity." In The Presentation
of Self, the importance of spontaneity emerges as an aspect of the
performance, as the actor seeks to create a front that does not appear to be
contrived. Spontaneity allows for the realization of the "true" self, an
idealized type of interaction that allows the individual to realize a desired
face. In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim describes a
macrosociological model of spontaneity, a "finely articulated organisation
in which each social value...is appreciated at its true worth" (313).
Durkheim, though primarily concerned with labor, describes a type of
social interaction that, like Goffman's model, reaffirms the existing social
environment through the notion of "truth." Each individual is bound to
the contemporary social organization, while attempting to realize a sense
of freedom in expressing truth.
Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony extends this relationship further,
establishing an ephemeral unconscious acceptance of existing social
institutions. Change in this state, for Gramsci, takes place via change in
human consciousness:
Since present control is internalized in the minds and hearts of workers
and peasants, a counter form of socialization, a counter form of selfidentity, is required to overthrow that control (Gramsci).
Through changes in consciousness, hegemony forms an "moving
equilibrium" (Hebdige 1979, 15) through an assimilation of the doctrinal
bases of the culture through "common sense" (9). In light of Goffman's
work, hegemony provides the definition of "idealized" performance and
the pressure to correspond to established definition. As a representation
of what Marx termed "the ideas of the ruling class" (Marx 1848, 172)
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hegemony provides the norms, mores, and laws to which stigma, line,
face, and Durkheim's anomie can be applied. In this sense, hegemony
provides a vital link between the macrostructure of social institutions and
the microsociological phenomena of face-to-face interaction. Source:
www.hewett.norfolk.sch.uk/curric/soc/T&M/phen.htm
George Mead
Mead also rooted the self’s “perception and meaning” deeply and
sociologically in "a common praxis of subjects" (Joas 1985: 166) found
specifically in social encounters. Understood as a combination of the 'I'
and the 'me', Mead’s self proves to be noticeably entwined within a
sociological existence: For Mead, existence in community comes before
individual consciousness. First one must participate in the different social
positions within society and only subsequently can one use that
experience to take the perspective of others and thus become selfconscious.
Mead writes in Mind, Self and Society that human beings begin their
understanding of the social world through "play" and "game". "Play"
comes first in the child's development. The child takes different roles
he/she observes in "adult" society, and plays them out to gain an
understanding of the different social roles. For instance, he first plays the
role of policeman and then the role of thief while playing "Cops and
Robbers," and plays the role of doctor and patient when playing "Doctor."
When more mature, the child can participate in the game, for instance the
game of baseball. In the game he has to relate to others and understand
the rules of the game. Through participating in the "game", he gains the
understanding that he has to relate to norms of behaviour in order to be
accepted as a player. Mead calls this the child's first encounter with "the
generalized other", which is one of the main concepts Mead proposes for
understanding the emergence of the (social) self in human beings. "The
generalized other" can be understood as the general norm within a social
group or setting. Through understanding "the generalized other" the
individual understands what kind of behaviour is expected, appropriate
and so on, in different social settings. The family, the baseball team,
school, and society are examples of social settings through which the
child develops gradual understanding of norms for behaviour. Mead
distinguishes between the "I" and the "me." The "me" is the accumulated
understanding of "the generalized other" i.e. norms, unconscious
opinions, patterns of social response etc. The "I" is the more personal
opinions, the reflecter or observer, the social struggler -- it is what creates
the individual's individuality. It is important when reading Mead to
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remember that he sees the human mind as something that can arise solely
through social experience. The thinking process, for instance, is for Mead
nothing but internalized communication.
References: Hebdige, Dick. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. Methuen:
New York, 1979
Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Doubleday:
Garden City, New York, 1959. Goffman, Erving. Stigma. Prentice-Hall:
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1963.
Durkheim, Emile. The Division of Labor in Society. Macmillan: New
York, New York, 1984 (1893).
Cooley and The Looking Glass Self
Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)
Cooley's theories were manifested in response to a three-fold necessity
that had developed within the realm of society. The first of which was the
necessity to create an understanding of societal phenomena that
highlighted the subjective mental processes of individuals yet realized
that these subjective processes were effects and causes of society's
processes. The second necessity examined the development of a social
dynamic conception that portrayed states of chaos as natural occurrences
which could provide opportunities for "adaptive innovation." Finally, a
need to manifest publics that were capable of exerting some form of
"informed moral control" over current problems and future directions.
In regards to these, aforementioned, dilemmas Cooley responded by
stating "society and individual denote not separable phenomena but
different aspects of the same thing, for a separate individual is an
abstraction unknown to experience, and so likewise is society when
regarded as something apart from individuals." From this, he resolved to
create a "Mental-Social" Complex of which he would term the "Lookingglass self."
The Looking-glass self is created through the imagination of how one's
self might be understood by another individual. This would later be
termed "Empathic Introspection." This theory applied not only to the
individual but to the macro-level economic issues of society and to those
macro-sociological conditions which are created over time
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In his attempt to illustrate the reflected character of the self, Cooley
compared it to a looking glass:
Each to each a looking-glass
Reflects the other that doth pass.
“As we see our
face, figure, and
dress in the
glass, and are
interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or otherwise with
them according as they do or do not answer to what we should like them
to be, so in imagination we perceive in another's mind some thought of
our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and so on, and
are variously affected by it."
The notion of the looking-glass self is composed of three principal
elements: "The imagination of our appearance to the other person, the
imagination his judgment of that appearance, and some sort of selffeeling, such as pride or mortification." The self arises in a social process
of communicative interchange as it is reflected in a person's
consciousness. As George H. Mead put it when discussing Cooley's
contribution, "By placing both phases of this social process in the same
consciousness, by regarding the self as the ideas entertained by others of
the self, and the other as the ideas entertained of him by the self, the
action of the others upon the self and of the self upon the others becomes
simply the interaction of ideas upon each other within mind." Source:
www.bolender.com/Sociological%20Theory/Cooley,%20Charles%20Ho
rton/cooley,_charles_horton.
Michael Foucault
Michel Foucault is best known for his critical studies of various social
institutions, most notably psychiatry, medicine, the human sciences, and
the prison system, as well as for his work on the history of human
sexuality. Foucault's work on power, and the relationships among power,
knowledge, and discourse, has been widely discussed and applied.
Sometimes described as postmodernist or post-structuralist, in the 1960s
he was more often associated with the structuralist movement. Foucault
later distanced himself from structuralism and always rejected the poststructuralist and postmodernist labels. Source: Wikipedia
An example of Michael Foucault’s Work
The medical gaze is a term coined by French philosopher and critic,
Michel Foucault in his 1963 book, The Birth of the Clinic (translated to
English in 1973), to denote the often-dehumanizing method by which
medical professionals separate the body from the person (see mind-body
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dualism). Foucault uses the term as part of a genealogy attempt to
describe the creation of a field of knowledge concerning the body.
According to him, the material and intellectual structures which gave rise
to the possibility of carrying on an analytic of the body was mixed with
power interests: entering the field of knowledge, the individual human
body also entered the field of power, becoming a possible target for
manipulation. The term was originally confined to postmodern and
poststructuralist academics, but is now frequently found in post
baccalaureate classes on medicine and social work.
Often described as difficult to define, the best summary description might simply be
something like - that which comes after modernism. Postmodernism has been variously
referred to as a cultural theory, a way of life, an expression of disenchantment with
modernism, a loosely bound collection of anti-modern ideas and as a social deconstruction
- just to name a few designations. Early postmodernists include Friedrich Nietzsche and
Martin Heidegger. Jean Francis Lyotard, Gillies Deleuze, Jacques Derrida and Michael
Foucault are contemporary postmodern thinkers. Convinced postmodernists (we will do
them the courtesy of not calling them theorists) often assert that post modernism is not
any of the aforementioned – not an explanatory system, or text of knowledge, at all.
Postmodernism involves a rejection of numerous rationalist and modernist ideas,
especially those of immutable knowledge and truth, essentialism, and discernable reality.
For the postmodernist, reality is a social construct, contextual to cultural conditions and
characteristics, and defined by communities or societies based on their language – their
common narrative
Postmodernism
.
Antonio Gramsci's Theory of Hegemony
The analysis of hegemony (or "rule") was formulated by Antonio
Gramsci to explain why predicted communist revolutions had not
occurred where they were most expected, in industrialized Europe. Marx
and his followers had advanced the theory that the rise of industrial
capitalism would create a huge working class and cyclical economic
recessions. These recessions and other contradictions of capitalism would
lead the overwhelming masses of people, the workers, to develop
organizations for self-defense, including labor unions and political
parties. Further recessions and contradictions would then spark the
working class to overthrow capitalism in a revolution, restructure the
economic, political, and social institutions on rational socialist models,
and begin the transition towards an eventual communist society. In
Marxian terms, the dialectically changing economic base of society
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would determine the cultural and political superstructure. Although Marx
and Engels had famously predicted this eschatological scenario in 1848,
many decades later the workers of the industrialized core still had not
carried out the mission.
Gramsci argued that the failure of the workers to make an anti-capitalist
revolution was due to the successful capture of the workers' ideology,
self-understanding, and organizations by the hegemonic (ruling) culture.
In other words, the perspective of the ruling class had been absorbed by
the masses of workers. In "advanced" industrial societies hegemonic
cultural innovations such as compulsory schooling, mass media, and
popular culture had indoctrinated workers to a false consciousness.
Instead of working towards a revolution that would truly serve their
collective needs, workers in "advanced" societies were listening to the
rhetoric of nationalist leaders, seeking consumer opportunities and
middle-class status, embracing an individualist ethos of success through
competition, and/or accepting the guidance of bourgeois religious leaders.
Source: Wikipedia
Instead, hegemony was portrayed as a complex layering of social
structures. Each of these structures have their own “mission” and internal
logic that allows its members to behave in a way that is different from
those in different structures. Yet, as with an army, each of these structures
assumes the existence of other structures and by virtue of their differing
missions, is able to coalesce and produce a larger structure that has a
larger overall mission. This larger mission usually is not exactly the same
as the mission for each smaller structure, but it assumes and subsumes
them. Hegemony works in the same manner. Each person lives their life
in a way that is meaningful in their immediate setting, and, to this person
the different parts of society may seem to have little in common with him.
Yet taken as a whole, each person’s life also contributes to the larger
hegemony of the society. Diversity, variation, and free will seem to exist
since most people see what they believe to be a plethora of different
circumstances, but they miss the larger pattern of hegemony created by
the coalescing of these circumstances. Through the existence of small and
different circumstances, a larger and layered hegemony is maintained yet
not fully recognized by many of the people who live within it.
In such a layered hegemony, individual common sense, which is
fragmented, is effective in helping people deal with small, everyday
activities. But common sense also inhibits their ability to grasp the larger
systemic nature of exploitation and hegemony. People focus on
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immediate concerns and problems rather than focusing upon more
fundamental sources of social oppression.
Feminism
Feminist theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or
philosophical, ground. It encompasses work done in a broad variety of
disciplines, prominently including the approaches to women's roles and
lives and feminist politics in anthropology and sociology, psychoanalysis,
economics, women's and gender studies, feminist literary criticism, and
philosophy especially Continental philosophy.[1]
Feminist theory aims to understand the nature of inequality and focuses
on gender politics, power relations and sexuality. While generally
providing a critique of social relations, much of feminist theory also
focuses on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women's
rights, interests, and issues. Themes explored in feminism include art
history [2]and contemporary art[3][4], aesthetics[5][6], discrimination,
stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification),
oppression, and patriarchy
In the immediate postwar period, Simone de Beauvoir stood in opposition
to an image of "the woman in the home". De Beauvoir provided an
existentialist dimension to feminism with the publication of Le Deuxième
Sexe (The Second Sex) in 1949.[14] As the title implies, the starting point
is the implicit inferiority of women, and the first question de Beauvoir
asks is "what is a woman"?.[15] Woman she realises is always perceived of
as "other", "she is defined and differentiated with reference to man and
not he with reference to her".
Feminism is the organized movement which promotes equality for men
and women in political, economic and social spheres. Feminists believe
that women are oppressed simple due to their sex based on the dominant
ideology of patriarchy. Ridding society of patriarchy will result in
liberation for women, men, minorities, and gays.
Patriarchy is the system which oppresses women through it's social,
economic and political institutions. Throughout history men have had
greater power in both the public and private spheres. To maintain this
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power, men have created boundaries and obstacles for women, thus
making it harder for women to hold power. There is an unequal access to
power. Patriarchy also includes the oppression of minorities and
homosexuals.
Feminism ideology can take many different forms. In the 1970's, women
started developing a theory which helped to explain their oppression.
Pockets of resistance began to organize and challenge patriarchy. By the
1980's, however, feminists started disagreeing on particular issues linked
to feminism. What was once one theory, began to branch out into many
theories that focused on different feminist issues. Today, there are as
many definitions of feminism as there are feminists. Each definition of
feminism depends on a number of factors including ones own beliefs,
history and culture
Advocates of Radical Feminism:
Mary Daly
Radical feminism promotes the basis for many of the ideas of feminism.
They usually clash with the ideals of the liberal feminist, because radical
feminists believe that society must be changed at its core in order to
dissolve patriarchy, not just through acts of legislation. Unfortunately,
this type of feminism also attracts a lot of negative media attention
creating a backlash of feminism. Radical feminists believe that the
domination of women is the oldest and worst kind of oppression in the
world. They believe this because it spans across the world oppressing
women of different races, ethnicities, classes and cultures. Radical
feminists want to free both men and women from the rigid gender roles
that society has imposed upon them. It is this sex-gender system that has
created oppression and radical feminist's mission is to overthrow this
system by any possible means. Sometimes radical feminists believe that
they must rage a war against men, patriarchy, and the gender system
which confines them to rigid social roles. They completely reject these
roles, all aspects of patriarchy, and in some cases, they reject men as well.
Radical feminists emphasize their difference from men. They form
groups that exclude males completely. This type of feminist highlights
the importance of individual feelings, experiences and relationships.
Radical feminists have divided into two groups with very different views.
Radical-Libertarian Feminism
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Radical-Libertarian feminists believe that femininity and reproduction
limit women's capacity to contribute to society. Women should
essentially be androgynous. Radical-Libertarian feminists like to violate
sexual norms and believe that women should control every aspect of their
sexuality. They also advocate artificial means of reproduction so that less
time is devoted to pregnancy and more time is devoted to worthwhile
things. They are strong promoters of abortion, contraceptives and other
forms of birth control.
Radical-Cultural Feminism
Radical-Cultural feminist views are dramatically different from RadicalLibertarian feminists views. The Radical-Cultural feminists believe that
women should encompass their femininity because it is better than
masculinity. Mary Daly advocates finding the “wild female within”. This
type of radical feminist sees sex and penetration as male dominated. They
see a link between sex, female subordination, porn, rape and abuse. These
must be eliminated, according to Cultural-Radical feminists. Yet another
opposing view is that reproduction is the source of power for women.
They believe that men are jealous of women, and that they try to control
reproduction through means of technology.
Advocate for Socialist Feminism:
Alison Jaggar
Socialist feminists believe that there is a direct link between class
structure and the oppression of women. Western society rewards working
men because they produce tangible, tradable goods. On the other hand,
women's work in the domestic sphere is not valued by western society
because women do not produce a tangible, tradable good. This gives men
power and control over women. Socialist feminists reject the idea that
biology predetermines ones gender. Social roles are not inherent and
women's status must change in both the public and private spheres.
Socialist feminists like to challenge the ideologies of capitalism and
patriarchy. Much like the views of radical feminists, socialist feminists
believe that although women are divided by class, race, ethnicity and
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religion, they all experience the same oppression simply for being a
woman. Socialist feminist believe that the way to end this oppression is to
put an end to class and gender. Women must work side by side men in the
political sphere. In order to get anything accomplished, women must
work with men, as opposed to ostracizing them. There must be a coalition
between the two and they must see each other as equals in all spheres of
life. In contrast to ideals of liberal feminism, which tend to focus on the
individual woman, the socialist feminist theory focuses on the broader
context of social relations in the community and includes aspects of race,
ethnicity and other differences.
Advocates of Liberal Feminism:
Betty Friedan
National Organization for Women
Liberal feminism was most popular in the 1950's and 1960's when many
civil rights movements were taking place. The main view of liberal
feminists are that all people are created equal by God and deserve equal
rights. These types of feminists believe that oppression exists because of
the way in which men and women are socialized, which supports
patriarchy and keeps men in power positions. Liberal feminists believe
that women have the same mental capacity as their male counterparts and
should be given the same opportunities in political, economic and social
spheres. Women should have the right to choose, not have their life
chosen for them because of their sex. Essentially, women must be like
men.
Liberal feminists create and support acts of legislation that remove the
barriers for women. These acts of legislation demand equal opportunities
and rights for women, including equal access to jobs and equal pay.
Liberal feminists believe that removing these barriers directly challenges
the ideologies of patriarchy, as well as liberates women.
Liberal feminists are responsible for many important acts of legislation
that have greatly increased the status of women, including reforms in
welfare, education and health. Unfortunately. Liberal feminism has been
known to only concentrate on the legislation aspect in the fight against
patriarchy. It has been criticized for not breaking down the deeper
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ideologies of society and patriarchy. Also, it has been criticized for
ignoring race and class issues
Advocate of Ecofeminism:
Vandana Shiva
Ecofeminists believe that patriarchy and male domination is harmful to
women, as well as the environment. There is a link between a male's
desire to dominate unruly women and wilderness. Men feel as though
they must tame and conquer both in order to have complete power.
Ecofeminists say that it is this desire that destroys both women and the
Earth.
Ecofeminists believe that women have a central role in preserving nature
because woman understand and are one with nature. There is a deep
connection that men cannot understand between the Earth and women,
hence the terms Mother Nature or Mother Earth. Women need to use their
superior insight to reveal how humans can live in harmony with each
other and with nature. Source:
www.colostate.edu/Depts/Speech/rccs/theory84.htm
Power-Control and Feminist Theories
Sociology of Deviant Behavior
Sociology 3200-Robert Keel, Instructor
One example of the impact of feminist thinking concerning deviance has
been the development of theoretical attempts to explain the differential
participation of women in traditional deviant behavior. Many of these
theories are rooted in a conflict/Marxist perspective which focuses on the
importance of social class a influential factor in predicting deviant
involvement. One problem, as Goode points out, is that as a powerless
group, a conflict perspective would expect women to be more represented
in traditional forms of deviance, this would be especially true for lower
and working class females. Power-control theory, developed by John
Hagan and his associates seeks to explain these differentials.
Hagan's view is that crime and delinquency rates are a function of two
factors: (1) class position (power) and (2) family function (control). The
link between these two variables is that within the family, parents
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reproduce the power relationships they hold in the workplace. (Siegel,
1992: 269)
Parent's class position, as defined through their work experiences,
influences the delinquent behavior of their children. When fathers occupy
the traditional role of sole breadwinner and mothers have only menial
jobs or remain at home to handle domestic affairs, the paternalistic or
patriarchal family is indicated. Here the father's experience of control
over others or being controlled is reproduced in the household. His focus
is directed outward towards his instrumental responsibilities, while the
mother is left in charge of the children, especially their daughters. Sons
are granted greater freedom as they are prepared for the traditional male
role symbolized by their fathers. Daughters are socialized into the cult of
domesticity under the close supervision of their mothers, preparing them
for lives oriented towards domestic labor and consumption; while sons
are encouraged and allowed to "experiment" and take risks. Daughters in
this scenario are closely monitored so that participation in deviant or
delinquent activity is unlikely.
The egalitarian family is characterized by little difference between the
mother's and father's work roles, so that responsibility for child rearing is
shared. Here neither child receives the close supervision present over
females in the paternalistic family. Middle class aspirations and values
dominate: mobility, success, autonomy, and risk taking. Daughter's
deviance now mirrors their brother's. This pattern seems to hold true for
single parent (female-headed) households; even within the working/lower
class. Here, without the presence of the father, the mother's supervision
over her children is not as intense as in the paternalistic family and, in
fact, children of both sexes may be encouraged to experiment with risk
taking, instrumental roles. In either case, the argument suggests:
...middle-class girls are the most likely to violate the law because they are
less closely controlled than their lower-class counterparts. And in homes
where both parents hold positions of power, girls are more likely to have
the same expectations of career success as their brothers. Consequently,
siblings of both sexes will be socialized to take risks and engage in other
behavior related to delinquency. Power-control theory, then, implies that
middle-class youth of both sexes will have higher crime rates than their
lower-class peers. (Siegel, 1992:270)
Comment
Hagan's theory has been criticized as being basically a fairly
straightforward adaptation of the "liberation hypothesis," as females
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experience upward mobility and status change, their access to deviant and
illicit behaviors expand. Morash and Chesney-Lind (1989, 1991) argue
that a better explanation of female deviance, especially their lower rates
of participation, would focus on nurturing relationship developed during
socialization, leading them towards more prosocial behaviors. Female
deviance becomes a product of the "sexual scripts" within patriarchal
families that make it more likely for them to become the victims of both
sexual and physical abuse. If they run away, the juvenile court supports
parental rights and returns them to the home, persistent violations lead to
incarceration and future trouble as official delinquents/deviants or life on
the street where survival depends on involvement in crime.
References
"The Class Structure and Delinquency: Toward a Power-Control Theory
of Common Delinquency." American Journal of Sociology, 90 (1985):
1151-78.
John Hagan, A. R. Gillis, and John Simpson, "Class in the Household: A
Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency," American Journal of
Sociology, 92 (1987): 788-816.
Meda Chesney-Lind, "Girl's Crime and Woman's Place: Toward a
Feminist Model of Female Delinquency," Crime and Delinquency, 35:529, 1989.
Merry Morash and Meda Chesney-Lind, "A Reformulation and Partial
Test of the Power Control Theory of Delinquency," Justice Quarterly,
8:347-377, 1991.
Larry Siegel, Criminology, 4th edition, West Publishing: St. Paul, MN,
1992.
Source: www.umsl.edu/~keelr/200/powcontr.html
Gender Inequality
(discrimination,
stereotyping, objectification
(especially sexual
objectification), oppression,
patriarchy
Concise description of
theory
1) Feminism: Feminism is a diverse,
competing, and often opposing collection of
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social theories, political movements, and
moral philosophies, largely motivated by or
concerning the experiences of women,
especially in terms of their social, political,
and economical inequalities. One
institutionally predominant type of feminism
focuses on limiting or eradicating gender
inequality to promote women's rights,
interests, and issues in society. Another
opposing type of modern feminism, with
deep historical roots, focuses on earning,
and establishing equity by and for women,
vis-a-vis men, to promote those same rights,
interests, and issues, regardless of gender
considerations. Thus, as with any ideology,
political movement or philosophy, there is
no single, universal form of feminism that
represents all feminists. The most wellknown types of feminism are: liberal
feminism, social feminism, radical
feminism, and post-modern feminism.
Liberal feminism seeks no special privileges
for women and simply demand that
everyone receive equal consideration
without discrimination on the basis of sex.
Liberal feminists would seek to remove
barriers that prevent equal access for women
to information technology jobs not only to
provide economic equality but to provide
access to higher-paying jobs for women.
In contrast to liberal feminism, socialist
feminism rejects individualism and
positivism. Social feminism believes that
technology and the social shaping of
technology have often been conceptualized
in terms of men, excluding women at all
levels. Socialist feminist reform suggests
that the allocation of resources for
technology development should be
determined by greatest benefit for the
common good. A growing use of cyber
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protests to disrupt capitalist enterprises such
as the World Bank might be seen by
socialists as an example of information
technology use for the common good.
Radical feminism maintains that women’s
oppression is the first, most widespread, and
deepest oppression. Radical feminism
rejects most scientific theories, data, and
experiment not only because they exclude
women but also because they are not
women-centered. Radical feminism suggests
that because men, masculinity, and
patriarchy have become completely
intertwined with technology and computer
systems in our society, no truly feminist
alternative to technology exists.
Postmodern feminist theories imply that no
universal research agenda or application of
technologies will be appropriate and that
various women will have different reactions
to technologies depending upon their own
class, race, sexuality, country, and other
factors. This definition of postmodern
feminism parallels the description of the
complex and diverse co-evolution of women
and computing. In contrast to liberal
feminism, postmodernism dissolves the
universal subject and the possibility that
women speak in a unified voice or that they
can be universally addressed. Wajcman's
(1991) thoughtful analysis of the social
constructivist perspective on gender and
technology reveals some of the issues
embedded in its assumptions. She points out
that there is no behavior or meaning which
is universally and cross-culturally associated
with either masculinity or femininity, that
what is considered masculine in some
societies is considered feminine or genderneutral in others. It is not that gender
difference does not exist but that it is
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manifested differently in different societies.
Therefore, addressing the gender gap in IT
employment based upon an assumed
"woman's perspective" is problematic. She
cites Harding (1986) in observing that there
are as many different "women's
experiences" as there are types of women.
2) Cyberfeminism: Cyberfeminism is a
woman-centered perspective that advocates
women’s use of new information and
communications technologies for
empowerment. Some cyberfeminists see
these technologies as inherently liberatory
and argue that their development will lead to
an end to male superiority because women
are uniquely suited to life in the digital age
(Millar, 1998). The term cyberfeminism,
which explicitly fuses gender and
information technology, arose in the late
1980s and early 1990s. Hawthorne and
Klein in their book, “Cyberfeminism”, state:
“Just as there are liberal, socialist, radical
and postmodern feminists, so too one finds
these positions reflected in the
interpretations of Cyberfeminism”
(Hawthorne & Klein, 1999).
Cyberfeminists saw the potential of the
Internet and computer science as
technologies to level the playing field and
open new avenues for job opportunities and
creativity for women where absence of
sexism, racism, and other oppression would
serve as major contrasts between the virtual
world and the real world.
Currently, there are not many clear and
explicit applications of feminism theory in
the context of Information System research.
However, the emerging area of
cyberfeminism can benefit from different
types of feminism in order to build
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cyberfeminist theories. Cyberfeminism uses
aspects of different feminist theories to
reflect many interactions among information
technologies, women, and feminism. Rosser
(2005) believes that Cyberfeminism appears
currently to pick and choose among aspects
of various feminist theories in a somewhat
uncritical fashion without developing a
coherent or successor theory. Therefore she
proposes a brief exploration of what each of
the feminist theories suggests for this less
developed theory of Cyberfeminism.
3) Feminist theory: Feminist theory is the
extension of feminism into theoretical, or
philosophical ground. It encompasses work
done in a broad variety of disciplines,
prominently including the approaches to
women's roles and lives and feminist politics
in anthropology and sociology, economics,
women's and gender studies, feminist
literary criticism, and philosophy (especially
Continental philosophy). Feminist theory
aims to understand the nature of inequality
and focuses on gender politics, power
relations and sexuality. While generally
providing a critique of social relations, much
of feminist theory also focuses on analyzing
gender inequality and the promotion of
women's rights, interests, and issues.
Themes explored in feminism include
discrimination, stereotyping, objectification
(especially sexual objectification),
oppression, and patriarchy.
Main Sources:
Rosser, S. V., (2005). Through the Lenses of
Feminist Theory: Focus on Women and
Information Technology, Frontiers - A
Journal of Women's Studies, 26
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism
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www.istheory.yorku.ca/Feminism.htm
Summary of Micro Sociological Approach to the Study of People
Micro-sociological theories of sociology focus upon the individual in a
social context. Although the focus is on the individual, it is the context
that is important. The social interactions that take place around us shape
us and our views of ourselves. We make choices about how to behave and
how not to behave based upon these social contexts. We also are involved
in the use of symbols to define ourselves and others. As you pursue the
topic of social psychology you will see how groups arise from these
exchanges and interactions, from the groups and inter-group relationships
arise societies and so on.
Macrosociology
Macrosociology implies that there is a system, an inter-relation of parts.
Each structure of the society has an effect upon other structures, if
changes take place in one part of the system it will affect other parts of
the society. For example, our economy requires a mobile labor force, one
in which the individuals must move all over the country. This has had the
effect of drastically reducing the size of the typical family and made the
extended family difficult to maintain. Each part of the society is a part of
this set of interrelations, some are quite direct, others may work across
and through several other structures and parts, making the interrelation
indirect.
a. relationships, interdependence of parts
Specific Macrosociological perspectives:
a. conflict
Essentially the conflict perspective sees the structures of society
producing conflicting expectations among the members of the society.
The net result is that there are groups produced by the structures that have
interests that run counter to other groups within the same structure or in a
different structural context. For example, the roles of men and women are
in a way complementary (i.e., different but necessary for one another). In
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some instances the structures that these roles are imbedded in may
produce conflict between the two groups. The nature of the economic
system has placed men in positions of power where they make most of
the decisions. Modern technology and educational achievement of
women have increased the number of women who work. These changes
have in turn brought women into the work place and in that structure they
seek power that challenges that of men and places them in conflict with
the men. Out of the conflict will come changes in the roles of both men
and women.
Stark cites other examples of groups, their interests and the conflict that
will occur among them. (see Stark for details)
b. functionalism
The functionalist view of the social system emphasizes connectedness
and equilibrium among the parts of the system. Each element affects
every other element in the system. Some theorists state it is the natural
tendency of a system to maintain a steady state (i.e., an equilibrium). The
classic example of this condition is the human body. There are built in
mechanisms that maintain body temperature within a relatively narrow
range (about 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). If you exercise violently, you
increase the temperature and the body system responds by opening
vessels at the surface and increasing the sweating response -- all actions
designed to bring the temperature back toward the 'normal' value of 98.6.
Similarly, the idea is that the society is a system that is in equilibrium. If
a part of it gets out of whack (the family, for example), mechanisms will
come into play to move the part back into balance with the rest of the
society.
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