Download Conceptualising Globalisation in the school

Globalisation and the English Secondary School Curriculum
Jane Evans
Institute of Education, University of London
This paper extends and adapts and an article entitled Globalisation, Qualifications
and Livelihoods: an introduction to the literature for the readers of Assessment in
Education, by Jane Evans previously published in the Journal of Assessment in
Education Volume 7, issue 3, November 2000. It also draws upon the author’s
contribution to a consultation paper presented to DfID in July 2000 entitled
Globalisation and Educational Development: Mapping the Issues (Authors Keith M
Lewin, Angela W Little and Jane Evans)
Introduction
From a vast and continuously expanding literature and commentary about
globalisation, four main concepts can be detected. I will first discuss each of these,
with brief examples.
Four Concepts of Globalisation
1. Globalisation Enthusiasts
Enthusiastic commentators who prescribe and recommend the benefits of
globalisation
For example, Kenichi Ohmae, a Japanese business and management consultant who
alerts corporations to the ways in which increased globalisation of the economy
should change the ways in which business is conducted locally.
His 1990 book The Borderless World: power and strategy in the global marketplace
is written in a very readable style and has been influential in the business world.
For Kenichi Ohmae, free, uninterrupted trade and innovation of goods, processes and
services is the answer to many of the world's social, economic and political problems.
Unsuccessful economies are hampered by a lack of choice and consumer freedom.
Efficient use of human capital is the route out of poverty for developing countries.
Ohmae predicts the development of an interlinked world economy, and analogises this
with a duty-free shop:
Duty -free shops are the precursor to what life will be like in a genuinely borderless
environment. The same goods cost the same amount of money no matter what country you are
in. In none are the prices higher because of duties or taxes.
Influential magazines like The Economist promote similarly, extremely enthusiastic
views of globalisation. Two Economist columnists have just produced a book A
Future Perfect, updating this positive view of globalisation. In the 10 years since
Ohmae wrote his book, it has become plain that not everyone gains from economic
globalisation. John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge acknowledge this, whilst
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still sanguinely claiming that “globalisation is a savage process, but also a beneficial
one in which the winners far outnumber the losers”. (p.ix)
2. Globalisation Sceptics
React sceptically about the causes, effects, scope or benefits of globalisation.
There are two types of sceptics. Globalisation sceptics may either be sceptical about
whether globalisation is happening at all, or they may be sceptical about the benefits
of globalisation. For some commentators, globalisation is entirely negative. Some
even going as far as to resist selected manifestations with violence, as in Seattle and
Prague recently. This latter form of scepticism often conflates globalisation with
capitalism, and tends to project the well-known flaws and failings of capitalism onto
globalisation.
Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson in their 1996 book Globalization in Question
provide an example of the first type of scepticism. As suggested by the title, their
thesis questions the extent of globalisation in the world economy. They argue that
there is nothing new about the current internationalisation of trade and that this has
been going on for centuries. They also question the benefits of globalisation, (in so
far as they acknowledge its existence) for the poorer countries of the world. They
believe that those countries that benefit from globalisation will not seek to spread the
benefits, but will protect their own position and thus act to increase inequity in the
world.
Hans-Peter Martin and Harald Schumann are writers who see globalisation as a
manifestation of free-market capitalism. In their book The Global Trap they describe
a world of increasing inequality. They favour increased economic nationalism
combined with further European integration.
John Gray is another writer who sees globalisation as little more than American freemarket capitalism exported to ill effect. In his book False Dawn: Delusions Of
Global Capitalism he predicts the results will be an increase in social exclusion,
political corruption and ultimately political instability.
3. Globalisation Realists
These writers observe a de facto increase in the interconnectedness of the global
economy. They describe the results and effects for different groups with little political
bias or rhetoric.
Peter Dicken is one such writer. His textbook Global Shift: Transforming the Global
Economy has had several editions. It surveys the effects of economic globalisation on
patterns of trade, industrialisation and employment. The uneven effects of
globalisation are well examined. He uses case studies from four different economic
sectors and examines changes in ways of working and the effects of globalisation on
employment. There are both advantages and disadvantages for workers in the
developing world. On the one hand there is exposure to expertise, knowledge and
new technologies through contact with Transnational corporations, and investment is
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increased, but on the other hand, international firms can impose unfavourable terms
on weak bidders desperate for employment and investment.
4. Cosmopolitans
Believe that increased global interconnectedness and interdependence is an
opportunity for greater harmony and co-operation in the world, especially through the
use or reform of International Institutions like the UN. Institutions can be made more
accountable and democratic, human rights extended and inequities eradicated.
David Held's 1995 book Democracy and the Global Order: From Modern State to
Cosmopolitan Governance posited an almost utopian view of the possibilities of
greater political interconnection and the creation of a cosmopolitan democratic order.
Perhaps the recent ratification of the 1998 Human Rights Act by the UK supports
some of this optimism, but only in European countries and then, not without frequent
contention. Worldwide, there continues to be considerable political intransigence
over which the UN seemingly has little influence.
Conceptualising Globalisation in the school curriculum
Globalisation is a present reality. It increasingly affects social, political, economic
and cultural life. As such, it is starting to be reflected in the school curriculum and
different bodies have an interest in presenting different concepts of globalisation to
pupils. In the second half of this presentation I will show how each of the five
concepts of globalisation is presented in a variety of curriculum materials, asking how
these materials serve the learners.
1. Global Enthusiasts
Wooldridge and Micklethwait observe that “the devil has the best tunes” when it
comes to globalisation. For them this means that the benefits of globalisation, as they
see them, are less often discussed than the disadvantages. This imbalance is also
found in educational materials about globalisation. There is much on the anticapitalist, sceptical side, but despite thorough searching, this writer has found little on
the enthusiast side. Students might of course visit web sites belonging to The
Economist or the IMF, but these are not the same as specially constructed educational
materials. Transnationals appear to be very conscious of their negative image with
globalisation sceptics, and the wider public. Some, therefore, are engaging with
educational activities in a way that is probably mainly directed at damage limitation.
The Coca-Cola Company for example, has an educational foundation, which is
concerned with promoting global understanding and global citizenship. This makes
use of the utopian position and hopeful outlook of cosmopolitans, rather than
demonstrating Coca-Cola’s enthusiasm for the economic benefits of globalisation.
School exchanges are organised around the world, educational projects in poor
countries are funded, and, in the States, they fund programmes for low achievers and
pupils with behavioural difficulties. The UK based Hanson group uses its quarrying
arm to fund and promote environmental awareness and activities at school level.
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Some major oil companies (for example, Conoco) similarly promote environmental
educational materials.
2.Globalisation Sceptics
Globalisation sceptics prevail in non-formal resources prepared for use in schools and
in policy inputs to curriculum development processes. They are in the second
category of sceptic- those that equate globalisation with capitalism and therefore a bad
thing. There is additionally a tendency to see globalisation as culturally
homogenising to the particular detriment of non-western cultures.
An example of a sceptical point of view is contained in materials prepared by the
Development Education Association and its associated Development Education
Councils. One DEC provides an extensive web site resource for teachers on the
subject of globalisation using the topic of World Cup football. The concept of
globalisation portrayed by this wealth of study material is that it is inherently unfair
and exclusively negative in its effects on developing countries. The benefits of
globalisation are portrayed as being enjoyed uniquely by the extremely rich,
especially Transnational Corporations, which shamelessly exploit the poor who work
in their factories and also have Governments and International Organisations in their
thrall. A diagram provided for pupils describes a process that "provides a context for
globalisation and who controls it" (emphasis added). Heading this process diagram
is the "Fantasy world of finance". Amongst the key concepts taught is that with
globalisation "poly-culture becomes the mono-culture, consumerism rules, local
identity [is] reduced". One of the educational outcomes is stated as "Hope and belief
that something can be done to control/improve globalisation process with particular
reference to TNCs" A mass of detailed information about named transnationals,
including the salaries of their chief executives, is provided. Training shoe
manufacturers and broadcasting companies are “named and shamed” in detail in this
resource.
3. Globalisation Realists
This position is reflected in the materials on globalisation prepared as part of the new
National Curriculum. The main subject in which ideas about globalisation are taught
is Geography, but it is developed in other subject areas as well. (For example,
citizenship and MFL) Globalisation is seen to be about increased interdependence in
the world, and one of the aims of the Geography curriculum is to help pupils "realise
how nations rely on each other".
The National curriculum also offers a module for year 7 on the subject of the World
Cup. This contrasts with the Development Education Council module in that it
encourages the pupils to find out a great deal for themselves. Far less material is
presented ready-made. The objectives, activities and outcomes suggested, encourage
the children to investigate for themselves the economic relationships of football, both
locally and in the world, by mapping the events of the World Cup and comparing
success in football with economic factors such as GDP. For older pupils there is a
study of the global fashion industry, an area which is often presented as widely
exploitative, although textile production forms an important component of the
economy in many countries. The National Curriculum does not, as some educational
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resources do, focus on particular high street names and their employment practices.
Instead pupils are asked to study a wide range of concepts associated with economic
globalisation and development and then produce a “synthesising piece of formal
objective writing”, which “ explains what globalisation is and what its effects are
[and] considers the extent to which effects are good or bad”
Globalisation is covered in other subjects of the National Curriculum as well as
geography. Citizenship will become a forum for greater understanding of global
interdependence. The requirements for knowledge and understanding of this subject
at Key stage 3 state that “pupils should be taught about...the world as a global
community and the political, economic, environmental and social implications of this,
and the role of the European Union, the Commonwealth and the United Nations.” At
key stage 4 (when Citizenship will still be a compulsory subject, unlike Geography)
pupils should cover “the wider issues and challenges of global interdependence and
responsibility, including sustainable development and Local Agenda 21”
Cosmopolitans.
This view is presented in learning and campaigning materials produced by Oxfam
who have produced a Curriculum for Global Citizenship. In this curriculum the idea
of a global citizen would underpin all learning. It is not primarily concerned with
learning about globalisation and interdependence, although this is included as
knowledge and understanding that pupils need to acquire. It is also concerned with
developing values and attitudes to enable participation, and active citizenship as well
as developing skills of critical thinking, effective argument, co-operation and conflict
resolution and the ability to challenge injustice and inequality. Knowledge,
understanding and values are described across all the Key Stages and gradually
increase in complexity, each building on the previous level. Sustainable development
is also an important concept and Agenda 21 is used. The concept of a “global
footprint”- the impact of an individual upon resources and consumption patterns, is
used as an underlying principle of good global citizenship. This means that the UK
pupil has quite a lot of learning to do to become a good global citizen. Children in the
South, however, “may already be good Global Citizens both through the contribution
they make to their local communities, and through making only a minute ecological
footprint, even though they may not have an understanding of how the wider world
works”. A particular view of development is implicit in this material, which places
the children in the rich countries in the world in the position of helping people in the
South.
This week Oxfam have opened a new web site for teachers on the global citizenship
theme. It encourages teachers to share good practice, and whilst it is still under
construction some activities are present which demonstrate ideas about development
and globalisation in a particular way. One is an activity on fashion and trade, for year
9 pupils. This contrasts with the global fashion scheme of work in the National
Curriculum in its simplicity and the extremely straightforward way in which ideas
about globalisation and development are presented. Although Oxfam’s proposal for a
Global Citizenship curriculum emphasises building up self esteem, this particular
scheme of work contains some discussion ideas aimed at shaming and embarrassing
year 9 pupils about their clothes buying activities. Nineteen lesson ideas are given.
Lessons 7 to 12 are set aside for pupils’ own detailed research on India. Lessons 17,
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18 and 19 deal with fair trade and the plan for these leads with the statement “There is
a choice: fair trade or not fair trade. Develop debate supported by written material for
and against fair trade” (emphasis added). These lesson plans are really an extension
on development education, presenting a particular view of development with some
straightforward ideas about globalisation and trade added on.
Conclusion
This paper examines a very small selection of the materials that are rapidly becoming
available to teachers wishing to include work about globalisation in the secondary
school curriculum. It can be seen nonetheless that there are different ways of
conceptualising globalisation and that this has an effect on the quality of the materials
produced and on the resulting teaching and learning. Materials from the National
Curriculum encourage pupils to think critically and argue objectively. They present
pupils with some of the complexities about globalisation and its effects and allow a
heuristic approach to learning. There are other approaches, however. First, those that
present some very simple ideas and statements about globalisation and trade, but do
so in such a way that a young person may find the conceptualisation difficult to argue
with. Which 14-year-old girl is going to mount an argument against fair trade,
although invited to by Oxfam’s scheme of work? A second approach provides such a
bulk and detail of material that it is difficult to see what learning pupils will do for
themselves. The detail may also be concealing the fact that only one
conceptualisation of globalisation is being dealt with. A third approach is for
transnational corporations to use a presence in education as a marketing exercise.
Rather than expressing the obvious global enthusiasts’ position, they fund
environmental education projects or arrange global education exchange visits for
disadvantaged children.
Although globalisation is a new topic in the school curriculum, dealing with partial
resource materials is not a new experience for teachers. It is to be hoped that they will
use their experience to select from and use the range of resources available to enable
pupils to develop skills of critical thinking and discrimination to discover for
themselves about globalisation.
References
DEC Birmingham (Current web sites) Globalisation and the World Cup ’98
http://www.tidec.org/Globalisation/globapproaches/html
DfEE (1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in
England, Key Stages 3 and 4. The Stationery Office, London and www.nc.uk.net
Dicken, P. (1998) Global Shift: Transforming the World Economy Paul Chapman
London
Gray, J. (1998) False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism London, Granta
Held, D. (1995) Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to
Cosmopolitan Governance Polity, Cambridge
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Hirst,P & Grahame Thompson (1996) Globalization in Question Polity, Cambridge
Martin, H-P and Harald Schumann, (1997) The Global Trap: Globalization and the
Assault on Democracy and Prosperity London and New York, Zed
Micklethwait, J and Adrian Wooldridge (2000) A Future perfect: the Challenge and
Hidden Promise of Globalisation, William Heinemann, London
Ohmae, K (1990) The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Global
Marketplace London, Harpercollins
Oxfam (1997) A curriculum for Global Citizenship: Oxfam’s development Education
Programme. Oxford
And http://www.globalcitizenhip.org.uk/global/globalcitizenship/staffroom/
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