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Chapter 3 Birth of Modern America – Section 1 Settling the West
The lure of mineral mining sent many people west. Placer mining, a hand
process involving picks, shovels and pans was quickly replaced with larger
quartz mining operations. Henery Comstock stacked a claim in Six-Mile Canyon
Nevada. When he found the mud to be full of silver ore, nearly 30,000 miners
arrived almost overnight in Virgina City, Nevada looking to strike it rich. Crime
became a big problem as there were little or no law enforcement to settle
disputes over claims, or punish thieves. One of the biggest strikes occurred in the
mining boomtown of Leadville Colorado, where deep deposits of lead were
found to contain much silver. Nearly 1 billion in silver and gold were
discovered. These discovers lead to the building of western railroads to assist in
transportation. In addition to miners, farmers began settling west as well.
At first, people did not believe ranching on the great plains was possible due to
scarce water. However, the Texas longhorn was a breed of cattle adapted to such
conditions. Ranching grew because of open range policies of the United States.
Ranches could graze their cattle on government owned grassland free of charge.
After the civil war the price of beef had gone up, due to shortages in the East and
the development of the railroad made it relatively easy to transport. As a result
ranches began rounding up the longhorns in Texas and began the “Long Drive”
and driving them north to Kansas and Missouri to be sold and sent East for over
10 times their value in Texas. In 1863 the government supported the growth of
the plains by passing the Homestead Act. For a $10 registration fee an individual
could claim up to 160 Acers of government land and receive a title to that land
after living their for 5 years. The lack of water, summer heat, and threat of
prairie fires made life on the plains difficult. However, those with resources
could make farming very profitable. The Great Plains was great for growing
Wheat and the U.S. became the worlds leading exporter in Wheat.
As a result of ranchers, miners and farmers moving into the Plains they deprived
Native Americans of hunting grounds, land gaurenteed through treaties and often
forced them to relocate. The native Americans began resisting and attacking
wagon trains and settlers. Congress formed and Indian Peace Commission which
created two reservations for the Native Americans to move to. By the 1870’s
most Native Americans left the reservations and resumed roaming the plains and
hunting Buffalo. However due to increased traffic many by 1889 few Buffalo
remained. The Sioux, led by chief Sitting Bull tried to organize resistance
against the reservations. In an attempt to arrest Sitting Bull, a gun battle broke
out and the chief was killed. Some wanted the Native Americans to assimilate
into U.S. culture. Congress passed the Dawes Act which gave 160 acres of
reservation land to families. Some succeded as farmers, but most disliked it. In
the end, assimilation was a failure as the Plains Indians were dependet on
Buffalo for their way of life and the Buffalo were disappearing.
Chapter 3 Birth of Modern America – Section 2 Industrialization
Though the industrial revolution had begun in the early 1800’s, after the civil
war the nation was still primarily a farming country. After the war industry
began to spread rapidly because of the abundance of natural resources found
here. The increasing population also created a large workforce as well as a
consumer base for new products. Due to large family sizes and a flood of
immigrants, the population tripled between 1860 and 1910. The free enterprise
system and laissez-faire attitude from the government allowed industrialization
to flourish.
New inventions began leading to new corporations, new jobs and more wealth
for Americas. In 1874 Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and
created Bell telephone company which has now become AT&T. Thomas Edison
invented the phonagraph, electric generator, motion picture and most
importantly the Light bulb. His company Edison General Electric Corporation is
now known as GE. Thaddeus Lowe invented the Ice machine, the basis for the
refrigerator. During this time, new inventions improved life and prices on other
products like food, shoes and clothes dropped due to industrialization.
In 1862 President Lincoln had signed the Pacific Railway Act, May 10,1869 a
gold spike was hammered into the final rails that created the transcontinental
railroad. The railroads provided an inexpensive way for goods to be transported
and opened up new markets to sell products. The cost in railroads was installing
the tracks, to help facilitate their growth, the government gave land to the
railroad companies, which they would sell to settlers to cover the costs, more
than 120 Million acres were giving to them. The wealth of many railroad
entrepeners led to accusations of the bribery, cheating and swindeling of
government officials, taxpayers and investors. As a result some were given the
title of Robber Barron.
Corporations began selling stock to raise money and invest in new technologies
and hire large labor forces. Some corporations like Andre Carneie’s steel
company pursued verticle integration, meaning they owned all levels of
production for a product. Carnagie also tried for horizontal integration by
combining all firms in the same industry and creating a monopoly. Some states
created laws against monopolies, but big corporations found ways around them.
Working conditions were poor in factories and workers began to organize in
unions. There were no laws that gave workers the right to organize in Unions
and often the courts often punished strike leaders with fines or jail time. Many
early attempts at organizing in unions ended in violence and bloodshed.
However, in 1886 The American Federation of Labor organized delegates from
20 major trade unions. They began negotiating with companies fighting for
collective bargaining rights, closed shop hiring, and an 8 hour work day. The
AFL was made up of only men, Women in industry often were paid less than
men for the same work.
Chapter 3 Birth of Modern America – Section 3 Immigration and Urbanization
In the late 1800’s European immigrants began arriving in the United States
throughout Ellis Island in New York. Most passed through Ellis Island in less
than a day, however some who did not pass inspection, were isolated and sent
back to Europe. Most of these immigrants headed for the big cities, New York,
Chicago, Milwaukee and Detroit. Generally, they lived in communities
distinguished by their ethnic group, like “Little Italy, where they spoke their
native language and recreated things from their homeland. 1 in 3 Immigrants
would later return to Europe.
Chinese Immigrants also began arriving in the United States via Angel Island in
the San Francisco Bay. Many of these immigrants were fleeing starvation and
unemployment in China. Unlike the processing at Ellis Island, people at Angel
Island could be held their for months before being allowed in to the United
States. Once here, the Chinese worked as laborers, servants, or in skilled trades.
Americans often kept the Chinese from being involved in business so some
started their own.
Immigration again spurred a sense of Nativism. Some feared that the Catholic
Irish immigrants would take power away from the predominantly protestant
United States. Unions also opposed immigration because immigrants worked for
lower wages and also would accept work as strike breakers. In 1882 laws began
appearing to limit immigration including the Chinese Exclusion Act. This law
prevented Chinese already in the country from becoming citizens and stopped
immigration for 10 years. This act was renewed 10 years later and made
permanent in 1902. It was not repealed until 1943.
Most immigrants arriving in the U.S. lacked money. They could not buy land to
farm, so most went to work in the city factories. It provided an opportunity to
rise from the working class to the middle class. Some immigrants even amassed
great wealth through hard work and a little luck. Farmers also began moving to
the city because they offered better paying jobs. Cities also provided plumbing,
bright lights running water and activites for people. As the price of land
increased, buildings began going upwards as opposed to outward. Mass transit
bega appearing including the cables car in San Francisco. In the cities the
wealthy and working class lived in different parts. As transportation increased
and the middle class grew, people began moving away from the centeral ciries.
However, the working class often lived in multi family apartments called
tenements.
Pollution in the big cities became a huge problem and as a result, political
machines began providing services for the poor in return for votes. City dwellers
who needed jobs, food, housing, heat or police protection looked to these
political machines or party bosses. In return they would be sure to vote for them
in the next election. Corruption was big as officials also took bribes from
contractors and sold permits for public utilities to friends. Some officials like
William M. “Boss” Tweed were sent to prison on corruption charges.
Chapter 3 Birth of Modern America - Section 4 Early Reforms in a Gilded Age
Though the industrial revolution improved the quality of life, beneath the surface
much corruption, poverty, crime and wealth disparities between rich and power
existed. However, many Americans still believed in Individalism, that they can
rise from poverty to gain wealth. This came from a belief in Social Darwinism
an idea proposed by Herbert Spencer. He applied Darwins theory on natural
selection to human society. This “survival of the fittest” ideal supported the
Laissez-faire attitude and opposed governments involvment in business. People
like John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnagie supported it whole heartedly.
Carnegie also believed in the Gospel of Wealth. It was a philosophy that helped
soften Social Darwinism through philanthropic activites. Carnegie himself ave
millions of dollars for social causes, specifically libraries around the country.
As life became less difficult for individuals and the standard of living increased
entertainment began to change. Spectator sports, amusment parks and leisure
activities were a few of the new changes. Art evolved as well and realism
became popular. Writers, painters, and other artists attempted to portray the
world the way they saw it, unlike the romanticized art that proceeded it.
The increase in industrialization and urbanization created debates on how to best
fix society. Many critics of Social Darwinism appeared. Lester Frank Ward
came up with the idea of Reform Darwinism, that people succeded in the world
because thaey had the ability to cooperate. He argued government should be
more involved in the economy. The Social Gospel movement attempted to use
Christian ideals of charity and justice to improve city conditions. Churches
began offering community functions like day care and helping the poor. They
YMCA was created to help industrial workers and the poor, through bible
studies, citizenship training and fitness activites. Dwight L. Moody, the
president of the Chicago YMCA rejected the Social Gospel theory and set out to
help the poor by redeeming their souls and reforming their character.
Education quickly became a priority in America. In 1870, 6,500,000 children
attended school. By 1900, 17,300,000 attended. For immigrant children, schools
provided an opportunity for Americanization, to assimilate in to American
culture. Students learned English, American History, and the responsibilities of
citizenship. Schools tried to instill a strong work ethic, values and discipline.
Some immigrant parents feared that through Americanization, their cildren
might lose their native identity. As students got older schools provided
vocational training preparing students for jobs in specific trades. Universities
also became popular. Not all people had equal access to schools. In rural areas,
not many existed. African Americans were also often denied equal education
opportunites. As a result, leaders like Booker T. Washington started schools for
African American Students, he founded the Tuskegee Institute in 1881.
Chapter 3 Birth of Modern America - Section 5 Politics and Reform
Going against the traditional spoil system, President Hayes removed officials
who owed their jobs to party bosses. This infuriated the bosses of the republican
political machines, called “Stalwarts.” As a result, the nomination for the next
election went to James Garfield and “Stalwart” Chester A. Arthur for vice
President. Garfield was assassinated several months later by a republican, who
was angry that he was not offered a job under the spoil system. Congress then
passed the Pendelton Act, which further moved the governmet away from the
spoil system.
Between 1877 and 1896 the country was evenly split between democrats and
republicans. Twice during that period, the winner of the popular vote lost the
election. 4 of the 6 elections in that period were won by republicans, however,
they often had a house full of democrats and a senate full of republicans. Federal
politics was at a dead lock. After years of powerful corporations exploiting the
public, pressure reached Washington to act. Congress passed the interstate
commerce act which was designed to regulate interstate commerce. In 1890 the
Sherman Antitrust Act declared it illegal for trusts and monopolies to regulate
commerce. However the courts rarely ruled against corporations .
In the 1890’s farmers were struggling due to an increased supply of crops and
tarrifs raising the cost of manufactured goods. The populism movement began
trying to increase farmers political power. As a result of the increased money
supply during the civil war inflation finaly caught up with the U.S. Congress
responded by stopping the printing of greenbacks and reducing the money
supply and a period of deflation became devastating for farmers. Many became
indebted to bankers. Farmers tried to organize and created the Grange. It was a
group of farmers who tried to increase prices by holding surpluses of food off
the market and tring to negotiate better rates with the railroad. However, The
Grange was too small to be effective. Western states tried to help grangers by
regulating rates railroads could charge. However, the supreme court limited the
states ability to do this in Wabash V. Illinois. Populsim continued to gain
momentum and in 1892 the first candidate from the populist party was
nominated for president of the United States. He was defeated by Grover
Cleavland.
Not long after Cleavlands innaguration, the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad
declared bankruptcy because they had expanded to quickly. The stockmarket
crashed the country fell into a severe recession with 18% of the workforce
unemployed. During the next election the country held democrats responsible for
the recession. Republican William McKinley defeated another Populist
candidate. Gold strikes in Alaska and South Africa increased the amount of gold
available and in 1900 The U.S. adopted a gold based currency and the populist
movement died.
Chapter 3 Birth of Modern America - Section 5 Politics and Reform
This period of highly contested elections led to the disnfranchisment of many
African American Voters in the South. Poll Taxes required a fee that most could
not afford in order to vote. Literacy tests required the voter to first pass a test
reading from the constitution, often the most difficult passages were picked for
African Americans. The grandfather clause only allowed one to vote if an
ancestor had been a registered voter, as slaves were not allowed to vote, their
was often no voter record of any African American ancestors. These were a few
ways states discriminated in the south. Discrimination did not just occur at the
polls, In the South Jim Crow Laws enforced segregation. The courts supported
segregation in the south ruling the 14th amendment only offered equal protection
from the states, not private organizations. In 1896 the suprmeme court ruled that
segregation was legal as long as African Americans were given “separate but
equal” facilities. This became the basis of legal segregation until 1954.
African Americans also faced man acts of violence in addition to segregation.
Mob lynchings increased in the 1890’s and executed many African Americans
with out any court proceedings. Ida B. Wells launched a crusade against
lynchings pointing out that most were not acts of racial prejudice but greed.
Booker T. Washington preached that African Americans should focus less on
civil rights and more on gaining economically. His views were opposed by the
new generation of African Americans led by W.E.B. Du Bois. He demanded that
African Americans be given back their civil rights that had been stripped from
them by Southern Whites, specifically the right to vote. This was the beginning
of a long struggle for African Americans.