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TIMELINE / 1830 to 1840
Date
Country
Theme
1830
Tunisia
Political Context
With the capture of Algiers, France ousts the Ottoman Empire and asserts its claim to the western
Mediterranean. The beys and the regency’s elite then become aware of the dangers posed by the
Europeans.
1830
Romania
Migrations
The beginning of Greek immigration into Brăila. Many Greeks emigrate to Wallachia and settle in the
Romanian ports on the Danube after the liberalisation of commerce on the Danube and Black Sea
(1828).
1830
France
Migrations
Polish intellectuals arrive in Paris, which becomes the capital of exiled Poland.
1830
France
Travelling
From 1830, among artists and intellectuals of the 19th century the journey to the ‘Orient’ to discover
ancient civilisations becomes a kind of ritual.
1830 - 1840
Jordan
Political Context
Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria, including Jordan) is under Ibrahim Pasha who is ruling on behalf of his
father, Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha is forced to retreat to Egypt through Transjordan where
the Egyptian army suffers severe casualties on its way back to Egypt.
1830s
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis pioneer the urban redevelopment of Athens, initially under
Ioannis Kapodistrias. They produce topographical plans of Athens and, in doing so, lay the foundations
for the new capital.
1830s
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The development of steam power in the early 19th century also applies to marine transport. Steamships
shorten distances, but they also require fuelling stations. In 1839, Britain acquires Aden as one fuelling
station on the route to India. Before construction of the Suez Canal, travellers sailed to Alexandria and
continued overland to Suez, picking up a steamer there.
1830s
United Kingdom
Migrations
With the new Kingdom of Greece, guaranteed by Britain, some Greeks migrate to Athens and the new
state, while others migrate from Greece to Constantinople, which has a huge Greek community.
Relations between Turks and Greeks suffer during the 19th century, leading to a slow cantonisation of
the region, culminating with the exchange of populations (Greeks from Turkey to Greece and Turks from
Greece to Turkey) after World War I.
From the same period, expansion of the old Hellenic port of Alexandria witnesses a mass migration of
Greeks, mostly from the Aegean islands to the city, making them, by the end of the century, the
wealthiest and most influential community in Alexandria.
1830
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
From the 1830s onwards the Moorish or Alhambresque style is popular in Europe, especially in Spain, but
also in England, Austria, Russia, Germany and the USA. This style is found not only in applied arts but
also in architecture and interior decoration including the well-known “Moorish” smoking or retiring rooms.
1830
Spain
Migrations
From 1830 onwards many Spaniards emigrate to North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), coinciding with the
French occupation of Algiers and as a consequence of the economic crises in Spain. The emigrants are
mostly from the Mediterranean regions such as Alicante, Almería and the Balearic Islands.
1830
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
Fernando VII has no sons, only daughters, so abolishes under Pragmática Sanción, the Salic Law,
introduced by the Spanish branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which forbids women to reign. After the death
of Fernando VII in 1833, his eldest daughter becomes Queen of Spain as Isabel II.
1830
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Battle of Hernani, a drama by Victor Hugo.
1830
France
Political Context
June–July: the invasion of Algiers.
1830
France
Political Context
27–29 July: the Second French Revolution of July 1830 results in the fall of Charles X, who is succeeded
by his cousin Louis-Philippe.
1830
France
Political Context
The July Monarchy: Louis-Philippe becomes “Citizen-King”, and economic growth is joined by increased
poverty.
1830 - 1840
Germany
Economy And Trade
Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution.
1830
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The French July Revolution strengthens the power of the Besitzbürgertum (the landed gentry).
Revolutions in central and north Germany enforce constitutional state reforms.
1831
France
Rediscovering The Past
The Chair in Egyptology at the Collège de France is created by a decree made by King Louis-Philippe of
France on 12 March.
1831
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
The population of Sharjah rises to 13,900 inhabitants, its urban features are now much more substantial
in terms of its domestic, commercial and official architecture.
1831 - 1835
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Once Rossini has left the stage, his place is taken by Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848) and Vincenzo Bellini
(1801–1835). They introduce the new romantic spirit into melodrama and establish a tighter link
between words and music. Their style is characterised by greater attention to the psychology of the
different characters.
1831
Italy
Political Context
Giuseppe Mazzini founds the republican movement for national unification, Giovine Italia (Young Italy).
1831
Greece
Political Context
The First Governor of Greece, Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, is assassinated.
1831
Spain
Economy And Trade
Foundation of the Madrid stock exchange (Bolsa de Madrid), driven by the state's need to raise funds to
cover, among other things, debts arising from the Carlist wars.
1831
Lebanon
Political Context
Bashir II breaks away from the Ottoman Empire, allies with Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt and assists
his son Ibrahim Pasha in a siege of Acre. This siege lasts seven months before the fall of the city on 27
May 1832. They also conquer Damascus on 14 June 1832.
1831
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
George Sand (Amantine Aurore Dupin) writes Indiana, a novel about a woman’s emotional journey.
1831
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
11 November: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish, Takvim-I Vekayi, published by the state.
1832
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
Gheorghe Asachi founds in Iaşi a lithographic printing press called Institutul Albinei (The Bee Institute).
1832
France
Travelling
Like many artists, the painter Eugène Delacroix travelled to North Africa, Morocco and Algeria, returning
with many paintings and sources for inspiration.
1832
Spain
Economy And Trade
Mechanisation of the textile industry in Catalonia with the introduction of steam-powered machines.
Progress in the textile industry continues in Catalonia until the 1920 crisis.
1832
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra, a collection of essays, verbal sketches and
stories that Irving began to write while he was staying in the Alhambra in Granada. The book is
influenced by Romanticism and includes Spanish legends and traditions.
1832 - 1834
Portugal
Political Context
Civil war. Pedro returns to Portugal as Regent to defend his daughter’s rights. He launches military
operations from Azores and Porto against the absolutist faction of Prince Miguel favored by the Quadruple
Alliance. After the Miguelists’ defeat, peace terms depend on the Évora-Monte Convention and Prince
Miguel’s exile.
1832
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Statesman and jurist José Mouzinho da Silveira (1780–1851) abolishes old taxes over real estate income,
privileges and immunities detrimental to the kingdom’s economy. He creates the Tribunal do Tesouro
Público for tax collection and Treasury administration. He defines the powers of the Minister of Finance
and regulates Customs administration, among other reforms.
1832
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
La Sylphide is a Romantic ballet by Fillippo Taglioni in which his daughter, Marie, danced en pointe in the
title role.
1832
Germany
Political Context
From 27 to 30 May an apparently non-political country fair, the “Hambacher Fest”, was held by a German
national democratic assembly, demanding freedom, national entity and popular sovereignty.
1832
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The “Hambacher Fest” demonstrates the liberal, democratic and national opposition in Germany.
1833
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
Copou, one of the first public gardens in Romania, is laid out in Iaşi, Moldavia, at the initiative of Prince
Mihail Sturdza.
1833
Spain
Political Context
Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain. The Salic Law forbidding women to reign had been abolished in 1830
because Fernando VII's only heirs were female. His brother, Carlos de Borbón, asserts his claim to the
throne against his niece (first Carlist War, 1836–39); two further Carlist wars will follow (1846–49,
1872–76).
1833 - 1835
Portugal
Economy And Trade
18 September: The first Commercial Code by jurist José Ferreira Borges grants free trade and
distribution of goods, abolishing monopolies, privileges and real estate transfer taxes. Article 2 defines a
commercial act and the nature of intervening actors.
1833
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The death of Luísa Todi (b. 1753), the most celebrated mezzo-soprano opera singer in Portugal. Luísa
began her musical career when she was 14 years old. She performed in major European cities and was
invited to perform in the courts of Catherine of Russia and Frederick William of Prussia.
1833
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First communication by telegram.
1833
Turkey
Political Context
8 April: Treaty of Kütahya with Egypt. The Ottomans recognise Syria, Palestine and Lebanon as within
the sphere of the Egyptian control.
1833
Turkey
Political Context
8 July: Defensive Treaty of Hünkar İskelesi with Russia establishes Russian naval superiority in the Black
Sea.
1834
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
Athens becomes the capital of the newly established state.
1834
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
In October, King Otto issues a decree for reconstruction of the city of Sparta. Over the ancient city
Bavarian city-planners, headed by Fr. Staufert, design a city for 100,000 inhabitants based on the
Ippodamia system, with wide roads and many squares.
1834
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
The Numismatic Museum is established. In 1843, it is amalgamated with the National Library and housed
in a room at the University of Athens.
1834
United Kingdom
Travelling
A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the best known of the many travel books to the East. William M. Thackeray,
Benjamin Disraeli and Anthony Trollope all travel to the Near East, others wander around Asia Minor and
the Levant recording their impressions, often in search of classical inscriptions.
1834
United Kingdom
Political Context
The development of steam power brings increased trade and travel to the eastern Mediterranean. This
leads to the publication of travel literature and an interest in the archaeology of the Bible. A. W.
Kinglake’s Eothen is the most widely read of the travel books.
1834
Serbia
Political Context
In Vienna in 1813 Dimitrije Davidović, politician, diplomat, author of the Candlemas Constitution and one
of the founders of journalism in Serbia, launches Novine Serbske, Serbia’s first daily newspaper. The
newspapers are printed in Serbia for the first time in 1834.
1834
Egypt
Economy And Trade
A Khedival Decree promulgates the issue of an Egyptian currency consisting of a bi-metallic base of gold
and silver. The Egyptian pound, known as the geneih is introduced, which replaces the Egyptian piastre
(ersh) as the main unit of currency.
1834
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
During his Grand Tour, after visiting Italy, Greece and Egypt, Owen Jones visits Granada and the
Alhambra. His six month stay in the Alhambra is very important in the development of his ideas about
polychromy and design.
1834
Spain
Political Context
Estatuto Real signed by the Queen Regent, María Cristina de Borbón, as a royal charter similar to the one
under the French King Louis XVIII. There is no constitution, but it has two chambers (similar to the
British House of Lords and House of Commons) and a government, with a president and ministers.
1834
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth in Ohrid of Kuzman Shapkarev (1834–1909), eminent Macedonian folklorist, ethnographer,
educator and author of textbooks. Owing to his collecting activities a great deal of Macedonian intangible
heritage was spared from oblivion. He was a teacher in Ohrid, Bitola, Prilep and Kukush. Later he worked
and lived in Sofia. Although his collections of oral folk literature were published as Bulgarian, most of his
works originated from Macedonia.
1834 - 1836
Portugal
Political Context
Queen Maria II (1819–53) regains the crown after her father’s death and the liberals’ victory. The Queen
has to cope with the transition from absolutism to constitutionalism and disputes between opposing
factions, conservatives on one side (Cartismo supporters of the 1826 Charter) and radicals on the other
(Vintismo defenders of the Constitution of 1822).
1834
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
May: Religious orders are abolished and expropriated by decree; some of the assets of the crown, the
Queen’s household and the absolutist aristocracy are nationalised. Monasteries are closed immediately
and their buildings adapted, but women's convents remain open until the departure or death of the last
nun.
1834
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Standardisation of the Abitur (equivalent to the A-Level system used elsewhere) which allows students to
enter German universities.
1834
Germany
Travelling
The Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam is connected to Berlin by rail, one of the first electrified railway sections
in Old Germany. Since 1911, the Palace has been used as a film location (i.e. The Blue Angel, 1930).
1835
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
The British impose a Treaty to prohibit maritime warfare among the Arab littoral sheikhdoms during the
pearling season from May to November with Britain as enforcer of the peace. The British now term the
lands of the signatory sheikhdoms as “The Trucial Coast” or “Trucial Oman”. The Treaty is renewed
regularly until 1853, when a Perpetual Treaty is put into place.
1835 - 1837
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
For the first time, a cholera epidemic hits Italy, killing more than 140,000 (26,000 in Palermo and 19,600
in Naples). Its causes remain unknown until the 1880s. Its spread is favoured by poor sanitation in urban
centres. Cholera epidemics hit poor people especially and often occasion social unrest.
1835
Serbia
Political Context
The First Constitution of the Principality of Serbia (the Candlemas Constitution) is prompted by the
autocratic rule of Miloš Obrenović, founder of the Obrenović Dynasty and Serbian Prince (1815–39;
1858–60). It is signed in 1835 in the city of Kragujevac, with the intention to limit the absolute power of
Miloš, but under pressure from the Porte (Turkish Government), Austria and Russia the Constitution is
abolished as early as the following year.
1835
Egypt
Opening of shipping routes between Alexandria and Marseille.
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
1835
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The premiere of Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino by the Duke of Rivas marks the beginnings of Spanish
Romanticism in the theatre, especially tragedy, further developed in Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla.
All the Romantic plays have elements from poetry and novels and some have a historical background.
1835
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
The buildings and portable heritage collected from the confiscations are sold in public auction to an
emergent new aristocracy and a newly empowered upper middle class and the proceeds used to fund
part of the state deficit.
1835
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Le Père Goriot by Honoré de Balzac tells the tragic story of a father’s love for his two daughters.
1835
Turkey
Political Context
Reorganisation of the bureaucracy and introduction of a new system of rank.
1835
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
The daguerreotype process.
1835 - 1838
The first section of railway is established between Nürnberg and Fürth (6 km); the building of the longhaul between Leipzig and Dresden is finished in 1838.
1835
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
1 July: The War Academy is founded.
1835
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Bureaucracy is reorganised and a new rank system is introduced.
1836
Lebanon
Travelling
The discovery of the Jeita Grotto, credited to Reverend William Thomson. Further expeditions reveal the
depth and the importance of the cave.
1836
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Austrian Lloyd, the main steamship company on the Mediterranean, with headquarters in Trieste, is
established.
1836
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
A stretch of the Northern Railway between Floridsdorf and Deutsch-Wagram comes into operation using
steam-powered locomotives.
1836
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
Rifa’a al-Rafi’ al-Tahtawi founds the School of Languages to educate and train professional interpreters
and translators.
1836
Spain
Political Context
The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812 Constitution after a military coup
(pronunciamiento) in order to get support from the liberals in the First Carlist War. Under the
Desamortización de Mendizábal Church properties are disentailed to fund the war. General Espartero
takes over the Regency from the Queen in 1841.
1836
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
The slave trade is prohibited in possessions south of the Equator by a law introduced by Marquis of Sá da
Bandeira (1795–1876) for philanthropic and economic reasons. The loss of Brazil, and British pressure,
persuades the rulers to endorse abolition to retain in Africa the African labour needed to develop the
colonies there. In 1869, King Louis I (1838–89) decrees abolition.
1837 - 1840
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Foundation of the Polytechnic or military school of Bardo, responsible for the education of executives of
the army and public administration. The School provides education in the art of military strategy,
scientific disciplines, foreign languages, literature and religion.
1837
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
Two peasants find a Gothic hoard (4th–5th centuries AD) – the Pietroasa Treasure – near a village from
Buzău county (Wallachia). Unfortunately, only 12 of the 22 golden pieces – jewellery and vases – were
preserved.
1837
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
Based on the Organic Regulations adopted in 1831, the National Assembly of Wallachia includes for the
first time, apart from its traditional categories (the clergy and the aristocracy), representatives of the
middle classes.
1837
France
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Inauguration of the first passenger railway line in France to and from Paris and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
1837
Lebanon
Travelling
The Galilee earthquake. In the 17th century, Fakhr-al-Din II took over Beaufort castle, but was defeated
by the Ottomans who destroyed the upper portion. The earthquake causes further damage to the
structure and the ruins become a quarry and a shelter for sheep.
1837 - 1840
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Naples and Turin are the first Italian towns to have gas street lightning.
1837
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
Athens School of the Fine Arts is established with three departments: the School of Crafts, School of
Industrial Crafts and the School of Fine Arts.
1837
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
The Archaeological Society of Athens is established. Its aim is to encourage archaeological-excavation
management of antiquities in Greece.
1837
Greece
Reforms And Social Changes
The University of Athens opens. It is the first university to be established in the eastern Mediterranean.
1837
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
The year sees the founding of Egypt’s oldest commercial science study centre, when the School of
Account is established during Muhammad ‘Ali’s Era.
1837
Spain
Economy And Trade
The feudal system had been abolished under the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 but not completely enacted
until 1837.
1837
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
The first blueprints for a new Istanbul are prepared by Helmuth von Moltke, a general in the Ottoman
army working for its modernisation, under direct orders from Mustafa Reşid Paşa.
1838
Serbia
Founding of Belgrade University.
Political Context
1838
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Auto de Gil Vicente written by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854). The plot revives the 16th-century court of
King Manuel I where a play by Gil Vicente (founder of Portuguese modern theatre) is performed during
the celebrations for the marriage of his daughter Princess Beatriz.
1838
Portugal
Travelling
Building of Pena Palace in Sintra, close to Lisbon, begins. This eclectic summer residence, commissioned
by King Fernando II, combines Neo-Manueline, Neo-Islamic and Neo-Renaissance styles. The use of the
Islamic decorative influences in a royal palace contributes to the Portuguese society’s acknowledgement
of its Islamic past.
1838
Turkey
Political Context
Founding of the Ministry of Finance and formation of Sublime Council for Judicial Ordinances. The title
“grand vizier” becomes “prime minister".
1838
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
Sultan Mahmud II gave some parts of the bas reliefs of the temple of Assos to France and he also
authorises French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802–71) to take away parts of the frieze from the
temple of Artemis in Magnesia ad Meandrum.
1839
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First Italian railway line (Napoli–Portici, 8 km). In the following years, other railway lines are inaugurated
in other Italian states, e.g. Milano–Monza (1840), Pisa-Livorno (1844), Padova–Venezia (1846), Torino–
Moncalieri (1848). Political fragmentation is an obstacle to the construction of long railway lines.
1839
United Kingdom
Reforms And Social Changes
The British Ambassador in Constantinople, Stratford Canning, has been credited with influencing the
reforms in Turkey during the 19th century, in particular the decree of 1839, initiating a programme of
liberal reform in the Ottoman Empire. Some of the changes are superficial, but nonetheless highly visible,
such as the adoption of Western dress and titles. Other changes are seen in the culmination of social
transformations within the Empire.
1839
United Kingdom
Political Context
British control of India is driven by trade. Steamships require fuelling stations. To this purpose Aden is
occupied and controlled imperially from India for a century. Most British control of the Middle East is
indirect and informal. Aden becomes a Crown Colony, with partial control of the Hinterland.
1839
Portugal
Travelling
Silva Porto, born in poverty in Portugal, trader, farmer and explorer, settles in Bié, Angola, from where
he, with his pombeiros (long-distance trade agents), tours Central Africa between 1839 and 1890. The
descriptions of his travels that he sent to Lisbon became legendary and a precious source of data.
1839
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Jesuits come to Beirut and build a modest school.
1839
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
February: A plan for the modernisation of general education is approved.
1839
Turkey
Political Context
3 November: Mustafa Reşid Paşa declares the Imperial Rescript of Gülhane (the beginning of the
Tanzimat reforms), granting basic rights to Ottoman subjects and declaring a policy of state reform.
These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion”, the creation of a
system of "separate competences, religious and civil”, and the validity of non-Muslim testimony.
1840
Romania
Economy And Trade
Austrian engineers Karol and Rafael Hoffmann and Carol Maderspach initiate the extraction of coal in the
Jiu Valley (south Transylvania), which was and still is the main coal-mining region of Romania.
1840
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Top hats begin to be worn in the United Principalities, where they were called joben, from the name of
Jobin, the French merchant who first sold them in Bucharest.
1840s
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Western classical music penetrates the courtly circles of the Ottoman Empire. The imperial Ottoman
family includes composers, such as Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz who composes dance music. On a visit to London
in 1867, the band of the Grenadier Guards plays one of the Sultan’s own compositions at a reception for
him.
1840
Lebanon
Political Context
Conflicts between the Druze and the Maronite Christians explode. A Maronite revolt against the feudal
class erupts, lasting till 1858.
1840
Turkey
Political Context
After his term as governor in Samos, Kostaki Musurus Paşa, a Phanariot Greek becomes the first
Ottoman envoy to independent Athens (1840–47) followed by Vienna (1848) and London (1851–55).
1840
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
23 October: The Ottoman Ministry of Post is established in Istanbul.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
7 February: The tax system is reorganised.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
12 October: The Ministry of Post is established.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Official recognition of the Mâli Takvim (Rumi calendar) as the second calendar system alongside the Hijra
calendar.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
The first mixed courts are introduced to hear civil and criminal cases involving Muslims and non-Muslims.
1840
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
3 July: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish published by a private individual, Cerîde-I Havâdis
(Journal of News), begins to appear in İstanbul as a weekly, published by an English journalist, William
Churchill.