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Florentine Beginnings
Although musical drama, such as The Play of Daniel (12th cent.), had previously existed,
it was in the year 1600 that opera came into being. It began in Florence, Italy, fostered by
the camerata [society], a group of scholars, philosophers, and amateur musicians that
included the librettist Ottavio Rinuccini (1562-1621) and the composers Vincenzo Galilei
, Emilio del Cavaliere (c.1550-1602), Jacopo Peri , and Giulio Caccini . It was their aim
to promote the principle of monodic musical declamation, i.e., a single melodic line with
modest accompaniment inspired by the example of ancient Greek drama; accordingly, the
earliest operas took their plots from mythology, the legend of Orpheus and Eurydice
being one of the most popular.
Because the story hinges on the expressive power of music and solo song, the early
composers referred to their work as dramma per musica [drama through music], and
operas of the 17th and 18th cent. used myth at first and plots about historical figures later.
It had both lofty and comic strains, which were in time separated into distinct genres, the
opera seria (serious opera) and the opera buffa (comic opera). Although fragments of
Jacopo Peri's Dafne (c.1597) exist, the same composer's Euridice (1600), set to verse by
Ottavio Rinuccini, is generally considered the first opera.
The Baroque in Rome and Venice
Development of earlier baroque opera occurred at Rome and Venice. The work that
established Roman opera, Sant' Alessio, by Stefano Landi (c.1590-c.1639), appeared in
1632; it had a libretto by Giulio Rospigliosi (later Pope Clement IX). Landi modified the
strict declamatory style of the Florentines with formal devices: the recitative and aria
became clearly differentiated, and more prominent use was made of choruses and
instrumental form. Also, the libretto included comic scenes, which had no part in earlier
operas.
However, it was not until the appearance of Claudio Monteverdi in Venice that baroque
opera reached its peak, and the art form that began as entertainment for the aristocracy
became available to popular audiences. In 1637 the first public opera house in the world
opened in Venice, and by 1700 at least 16 more theaters were built and hundreds of
operas produced. In Venice, two of Monteverdi's best-known works, the early La Favola
d'Orfeo ( The Tale of Orpheus, 1607) and L'Incoronazione di Poppea ( The Coronation of
Poppea, 1642), were performed. Monteverdi's influence was considerable, for he may be
said to be responsible for the introduction of bel canto and buffo styles. He also reflected
the moods and dramatic vividness of the libretto in his music, and his work became a
model for the operatic composers who followed.
With the next generation of Venetian composers, headed by Marcantonio Cesti (1623-69)
and Pietro Francesco Cavalli , an international style developed, and local schools
disappeared. The recitative diminished in musical interest in favor of the aria, the chorus
gave way to the virtuoso soloist, and the Renaissance interest in antiquities was
superseded by a trend toward lofty scenes punctuated by comedy and parody. Alessandro
Stradella , a forerunner of the 18th-century Neapolitan school, wrote operas in this style.
Early French Opera
Officially, French opera began in 1669 with the establishment of the Académie royale de
Musique, which was taken over by Jean Baptiste Lully in 1672 after the bankruptcy of its
founders. Italian opera, the pastoral, French classical tragedy, and the ballet de cour (see
ballet ) were the antecedents of French opera. Lully introduced his audience to grandscale entertainment: lavish stage settings and scenery in addition to ballets, choruses, and
long disquisitions on love and glory. His operas were divided into five acts and a
prologue. The operas of Jean Philippe Rameau followed the tradition established by
Lully, but were not as well received. Two of his works, however, Les Indes galantes (
The Gallant Indies, 1735) and Castor et Pollux (1737), have music surpassing their
librettos.
Italian Opera of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Italian opera seria continued to dominate the musical scene throughout the 17th and 18th
cent. The Neapolitans cultivated opera seria, notably in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti
. Musical and dramatic interest became focused on the grandiose, so-called da capo arias,
which make up the bulk of these operas. In the typical da capo aria, the principal emotion
is symbolized by a large opening main section, which is repeated, often in a heavily
ornamented fashion, after a contrasting "B" section. One of the most influential librettists
of this period was Pietro Metastasio , in whose works the separation of serious and comic
opera is complete.
Neapolitan opera became known as well for the importance it gave to comic opera as a
separate genre. Comedy had maintained its place in the opera house mainly in the form of
brief interludes, or intermezzi (see intermezzo ), that were played between the acts of
opera seria. Now it came into its own, with such works as Giovanni Battista Pergolesi 's
La serva padrona ( The Servant as Mistress, 1733), Giovanni Paisiello's (1740-1816) Il
Barbiere di Siviglia ( The Barber of Seville, 1782), and Domenico Cimarosa 's Il
matrimonio segreto ( The Secret Marriage, 1792). The characters were from commedia
dell'arte , the subject matter satirical and earthy, replacing the staid classical heroism of
earlier operas. There was no spoken dialogue.
The Development of English Opera
The first English opera was The Siege of Rhodes, with a text by poet laureate Sir William
D'Avenant , in 1656. The masque was the true antecedent of English opera, and John
Blow 's Venus and Adonis (c.1685) was actually an opera. The one great English opera of
the 17th cent. was Dido and Aeneas (1689) by Henry Purcell , after whose death England
succumbed completely to Italian opera.
The reigning "English" composer was a German who had completely absorbed the
Neapolitan Italian style, George Frideric Handel . Although best known as the composer
of the oratorio Messiah, Handel spent most of his musical energy between 1705 and 1738
in composing operas. His first opera in England was Rinaldo (1711), an instant success,
and among the many other operas he composed are Giulio Cesare (1724), Rodelinda
(1725), and Alcina (1735). Handel's operas featured castrati (see castrato ), who had great
popularity, and who dominated this period and type of opera, sometimes forcing
composers to write around them, adding music that had little or nothing to do with the
plot.
Coincident with Handel's efforts at establishing Italian opera in England were the
attempts of native talent to produce an English musical theatrical form. The result was
The Beggar's Opera (1728), with a libretto by the poet John Gay and music composed
partly by John Christopher Pepusch . The Beggar's Opera inaugurated the form of ballad
opera that satirized Italian opera and contemporary politics.
German and Austrian Opera in the Eighteenth Century
The ballad opera eventually led to the singspiel, the German comic opera with spoken
dialogue, which was to reach its highest development in the works of Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart . Although the early court opera of Germany showed preference for the Italian
schoolFrederick the Great is said to have compared German singing to the neighing of
horsesin the 18th cent. German composers began to turn their attention to singspiel.
Georg Philipp Telemann had anticipated the technique of Pergolesi's La serva padrona in
his Pimpione (1725), a comic opera with only two characters. In the same vein is Johann
Christian Standfuss's (?-1756) Der Teufel ist Los ( The Devil to Pay, 1752), an
unpretentious composition written in the simple style of folk melody. However, it was
Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail ( The Abduction from the Seraglio, 1782) that
fully established singspiel in Vienna, the international music capital. Singspiel had now
become fused with Italian aria-oriented opera.
The increasing taste of the 18th-century public for musical portrayal of emotion in a more
earnest manner and on a more human scale had its most significant impact on opera seria
in the works of Christoph Willibald von Gluck . In a letter to the Grand Duke Leopold of
Tuscany, Gluck stated his principal aim: "I sought to restrict music to its true function,
namely to serve poetry by means of expressionand the situations which make up the
plotwithout interrupting the action." He accomplished that aim with Orfeo ed Euridice
(1762) and Alceste (1767).
The unity of drama and music was continued by Mozart, through his explorations of and
expansions on the comic styles. His music manages to present characters familiar to
every age, with all the virtues and foibles of the human race. Goethe compared him with
Shakespeare. His major librettist was Lorenzo da Ponte (1749-1838), who produced texts
for three of Mozart's greatest works: Le Nozze di Figaro ( The Marriage of Figaro, 1786),
Don Giovanni (1787), and Così fan tutte ( Women Are Like That, 1790). In La clemenza
di Tito (1791) Mozart used the work of Pietro Metastasio for his libretto. The libretto for
Mozart's last great opera, Die Zauberflöte ( The Magic Flute, 1791) was written by
Emmanuel Schickaneder (1751-1812).
Keywords:
florentine beginnings although musical drama such play daniel cent previously existed
year that opera came into being began florence italy fostered camerata society group
scholars philosophers amateur musicians that included librettist ottavio rinuccini
composers vincenzo galilei emilio cavaliere jacopo peri giulio caccini their promote
principle monodic musical declamation single melodic line with modest accompaniment
inspired example ancient greek drama accordingly earliest operas took their plots from
mythology legend orpheus eurydice being most popular because story hinges expressive
power music solo song early composers referred their work dramma musica drama
through music operas cent used myth first plots about historical figures later both lofty
comic strains which were time separated into distinct genres opera seria serious opera
buffa comic although fragments jacopo peri dafne exist same composer euridice verse
ottavio rinuccini generally considered first baroque rome venice development earlier
baroque occurred rome venice work that established roman sant alessio stefano landi
appeared libretto giulio rospigliosi later pope clement landi modified strict declamatory
style florentines with formal devices recitative aria became clearly differentiated more
prominent made choruses instrumental form also libretto included comic scenes which
part earlier operas however until appearance claudio monteverdi venice baroque reached
peak form began entertainment aristocracy became available popular audiences first
public house world opened least more theaters were built hundreds produced monteverdi
best known works early favola orfeo tale orpheus incoronazione poppea coronation
poppea were performed monteverdi influence considerable said responsible introduction
canto buffo styles also reflected moods dramatic vividness libretto music work became
model operatic composers followed with next generation venetian headed marcantonio
cesti pietro francesco cavalli international style developed local schools disappeared
recitative diminished musical interest favor aria chorus gave virtuoso soloist renaissance
interest antiquities superseded trend toward lofty scenes punctuated comedy parody
alessandro stradella forerunner century neapolitan school wrote this style early french
officially french began establishment acad royale musique which taken over jean baptiste
lully after bankruptcy founders italian pastoral french classical tragedy ballet cour ballet
antecedents lully introduced audience grand scale entertainment lavish stage settings
scenery addition ballets choruses long disquisitions love glory divided into five acts
prologue jean philippe rameau followed tradition established lully well received works
however indes galantes gallant indies castor pollux have surpassing librettos italian
seventeenth eighteenth centuries italian seria continued dominate scene throughout cent
neapolitans cultivated seria notably works alessandro scarlatti dramatic interest focused
grandiose called capo arias make bulk these typical capo aria principal emotion
symbolized large opening main section repeated often heavily ornamented fashion after
contrasting section most influential librettists this period pietro metastasio whose
separation serious complete neapolitan known well importance gave separate genre
comedy maintained place house mainly form brief interludes intermezzi intermezzo
played between acts came such giovanni battista pergolesi serva padrona servant mistress
giovanni paisiello barbiere siviglia barber seville domenico cimarosa matrimonio segreto
secret marriage characters from commedia dell arte subject matter satirical earthy
replacing staid classical heroism earlier there spoken dialogue development english
english siege rhodes text poet laureate william avenant masque true antecedent english
john blow venus adonis actually great dido aeneas henry purcell after whose death
england succumbed completely reigning composer german completely absorbed
neapolitan george frideric handel although best known composer oratorio messiah handel
spent most energy between composing england rinaldo instant success among many other
composed giulio cesare rodelinda alcina handel featured castrati castrato great popularity
dominated this period type sometimes forcing write around them adding little nothing
plot coincident efforts establishing england attempts native talent produce theatrical result
beggar poet john composed partly john christopher pepusch beggar inaugurated ballad
satirized contemporary politics german austrian eighteenth century ballad eventually
singspiel german spoken dialogue reach highest development wolfgang amadeus mozart
court germany showed preference schoolfrederick great said have compared singing
neighing horsesin turn attention singspiel georg philipp telemann anticipated technique
pergolesi serva padrona pimpione only characters same vein johann christian standfuss
teufel devil unpretentious composition written simple folk melody however mozart entf
hrung serail abduction from seraglio fully established singspiel vienna international
capital become fused oriented increasing taste century public portrayal emotion more
earnest manner human scale significant impact christoph willibald gluck letter grand
duke leopold tuscany gluck stated principal sought restrict true function namely serve
poetry means expressionand situations make plotwithout interrupting action
accomplished orfeo euridice alceste unity continued mozart through explorations
expansions styles manages present characters familiar every virtues foibles human race
goethe compared shakespeare major librettist lorenzo ponte produced texts three greatest
nozze figaro marriage figaro giovanni tutte women like clemenza tito used pietro
metastasio last zauberfl magic flute written emmanuel schickaneder
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