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15.
Mutation - change of a vowel under the influence of a vowel in the following
syllable.
Palatal mutation (6th -7ih century, effected all Germanic languages except
Gothic) fronting and rising of vowels under she influence of sounds [i, j| in
the following syllable.
λ
o
e
Baddi-bedd
ǽ
ā→ǽ
dails→dǽlon (dead)
ō/ǒ → ē/ĕ
motjan→metan (meet)
ū/ŭ (OE new sound) → ŷ
Fulljan –fylan (fill)
Ēā/ĕă → īē/ĭĕ
Ealdira – ieldra (elder)
Ēō/ĕǒ→ īē/ĭĕ
Consequences. 5) [I, j] disappeared but caused the doubling of the
consonant. 2) New vowels appeared; y, īē/ĭĕ. Traces of I-Umlaut in Modem
English. Irregular plural of nouns (man - men, tooth - teeth). - Irregular verbs
and adjectives (told - tell, sold - sell, old - elder). 3) Word formation (long length, strong - strength, blood - Weed), New diphthongs: [Ie] —> [I] OE ex:
liehtung —ME lights. [eÞ] -» [e] OE ex: heate -» herte (ME) [e۸.] —[ǽ] OE
ex: east — eest (ME)
12
26.
The OE noun had the grammatical categories of Number and Case which, were distinguished in an elaborate system
of declensions. homonymous forms in the OE noun paradigms neutralised some of the grammatical oppositions; similar
endings employed in different declensions — as well as the influence of some types upon other types — disrupted the
grouping Of nouns into morphological classes, increased variation of die noun forms in the late 10th c. and especial ly in
the 11th and 12th c. testifies to impending changes and to a strong tendency toward a rearrangement and simplification of the
declensions. The number of variants of grammatical forms in the 11th and 12th c. was twice as high as in the preceding
centuries. Among the variant forms there were direct descendants of OE forms with phonetically weakened endings and
also numerous analogical forms taken over from other parts of the same paradigms and from more influential
morphological classes.
The new variants of grammatical forms obliterated the distinction between the forms within the paradigms and the
differences between the declensions.
The most numerous OE morphological classes of nouns were a-stems, o- and n-. Even m Tate OE the endings used in this
types were added by analogy to other kinds of nouns, especially if they belonged to the same gender. That is how the noun
declensions tended to be rearranged on the basis of gender.
The decline of the OE declension system lasted over three hundred years and revealed considerable dialectal differences. It started in
the North of England and gradually spread southwards. The decay of inflectional endings in the Northern dialects began
as early as the 10th c. and was virtually completed in the 11th, Sirs the Midlands the process extended over the 12* c, white in
the Southern dialects it lasted till the end of the 13th.
on stem-suffix.
Class S; suffix -j, most verbs with front vowels,
derived from nouns and
adj. (ex. styrian(mf), styrede(past), styred(PII))
Class 2: suffix -oja, most numerous, back vowel
(locain, locoed, locod)
Class 3: habban; sec3an; libban(inf), iifde(past),
lifd(PIl). This class
disappeared in ME {merged with Class I)
Weak verbs were productive, so all borrowed verbs
used weak models of
form-building (ex. skate (Scandinavian) - skated,
charm (French) charmed, decorate (Latin) - decorated)
Some weak verbs turned into strong (rare): wear
(wore-won»), ring (rangrung), hide (hid-hidden).
21.
14.
24.
Palatal mutation/ I - Umlaut
Historically adjective is a younger class of words as compared to
noun & it has borrowed many inflections from nouns & pronouns.
Declensions (unlike nouns adjectives could be declined both ways):
1. strong A-sterm, O-stemi
when adjective was used attributeliy without any determined (articles,
demonstrative & possesive pronouns) when used predicatevely
2. weak N-sterm
when an adjective was preceded by demonstrative pronoun or genitive case
Old english period
N blind blind N blinde blindan
G blindes blindra G
blindan blindra
D blindum blindum D
bliindan blindum
Ac blind
blind Ac blinde blindan
Inst blinde blindum inst blindan blindum
Middle english period
Blind blinde blinde blinde
Some adjectives were declined always strong: call, , oper; others always
weak: ilca (=some).
The endings of adjectives showed agreement between noun &. adjective.
There were a lot of anonimous forms -> inflections were lost & adjective
became an unchangeable part of speech.
Gender- first cathegory to disappear (1 r1 century)
Cases
1.instrumental ease fell together with dative (end ofOE)
2. all other cases disappeared by the end of 13th century
23.
The rise of the articles is English
Causes:
1.loss of strong & weak declensions of adjectives - articles were
employed to show definiteness & indefiniteness.
2.word order: It is a book. The book is interesting.
Definite articles -> mascul, singular "se"
Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral). It had 5 case declension -> in
Middle English cases were lost, 13th century an > oon/one -> a/an
Demonstrative Pronouns
§ 178. There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of NE
that, which distinguished three genders in the sg and had one form for all the
genders in the pl. and the prototype of this with the same subdivisions: Þes
Masc, Þeos Fern., Þis Neut. and Þas pi. They were declined like adjectives
according to a five-case system: Norn., Gen., Dat., Ace, and Instr. (the latter
having a special form only in the Masc. and Neut. sg).
103
Vocalisation and major vowel changes in NE
Vocalization of [r] (XVX-XVIII th cent) vocalized when stood after vowels, change to [ә].
Consequences: 1} Diphthongs [e ә], [iә]» [uә]: their, here, sure,
2) triphthongs [auә], [aiә]: shower, shire.
3) lengthening: arm, for.
Modern Germanic languages
East Germanic
Gothic (4th c.)
Vandalic
Burgundian
No living languages
North Germanic
Old Norse or Old
Scandinavian
(2nd-3rd c.)
Old Icelandic
(12th c.)
Old Norwegian
(13th c.)
Old Danish
(13th c.)
Old Swedish
(13th c.)
Icelandic
Norwegian
Danish
Swedish
Faroese
The verb-predicate agreed with the
subject of the sentence in two grammatical
categories: number and person. Its specifically verbal categories were mood and tense. Finite forms
regularly distinguished between two numbers: sg
and pl. The category of Person was made up of three
forms: the 1st, the 2nd and the 3rd. Unlike number,
person distinctions were neutralised in many
positions. Person was consistently shown only in the
Pres. Tense of the Ind. Mood sg. In the Past Tense
sg of the Ind. Mood the forms of the 1st and 3rd p.
coincided and only the 2nd p. had a distinct form.
Person was not distinguished in the pi; nor was it
shown in the Subj. Mood.
The category of Mood was constituted by the
Indicative, Imperative and Subjunctive. The
category of Tense in OE consisted of two categorial
forms, Pres. and Past. The tenses were formally
distinguished by all the verbs in the Ind. and Subj.
Moods, there being practically no instances of
neutralisation of the tense opposition.
Strong: seven classes with different gradation seies
Weak: Three classes with different stem-suffixes
Minor groups: Preterite-presents, suppletive,
anomalous.
The Great Vowd Shift {14-18 cc)
affected all long monophthongs and all they were: -diphthongized, -narrow, -both;
ME
NE
[i:] – [ai]
Time[i]-time[ai]
[e:]-[i:]
Kepen [e]-keep[i:]
[a:]-[ei]
Maken[a:] – make [ei]
[o:]-[ou]
Stohe
[o:]-[u]
Moon
[u:]-[au]
Mous – mouse
[au]-[o:]
cause
This shift was not reflected in spelling. Short vowels.
[a] - [ǽ] ME
NE
- [o] that [Өλt] [Ө ǽt]
[o] after w: was [wλs]—[woz]
[u] – [λ] hut [hut] – [hλt]
Old Germanic
languages
(with dates
of the earliest records)
The division into three classes depended
West Germanic
Anglian, Frisian, Jutish, Saxon, Franconian, High German (Alemanic,
Thiiringian, Swavian, Bavarian)
Old English (7th c.)
Old Saxon (9th c.)
Old High German
(8th. c.)
Old Dutch (12th c.)
English
German
Netherlandish
Afrikaans
Yiddish Frisian
25.
Some strong verbs turned into weak. NE -
only 70 out of 300 strong verbs left (ex. climb, dive,
help, swallow, wash)
2. 7 classes (depending on a type of a bloud) (ex.
write-wrote-written, drive-drove-drivers, put-putput).
Best surviving in Mod E -1 (write - wrotewritten),3(find-found-found),6(shake-shokeshaken).
inf.
Past
Past pi.
PH
sing
OK
writan
wrat
writon
writen
ME
writen
wrot
writen
wnten
NE
write
wrote
written
Conclussion 1. an,on,en - on (ME) - -n is last in the
inf. but left in PII (NE); 2. Past sing, and Past
pi.=united(usually sing, form taken)
. In addition to the three main sources — Greek, Latin and French, English
speakers of the NE period borrowed freely from many other languages. It has
been estimated that even in the 17th c. the English vocabulary contained
words derived from no less than fifty foreign tongues. The main contributors
to the vocabulary were Italian, Dutch, Spanish, German, Portuguese and
Russian.' A number of words were adopted from languages of other countries
and continents, which came into contact with English: Persian, Chinese,
Hungarian, Turkish, Malayan, Polynesian, the native languages of India and
America.
§ 586. English owes the greatest number of foreign words to Italian, though
many of them, like Latin loan-words, entered the English language through
French. A few early borrowings pertain to commercial and military affairs
while the vast majority of words are related to art, music and literature.
In the 14th c. English imported the Italian words ducato, million, florin,
pistol,Examples of musical terms adopt-ed in English are: aria, bass, cello.
The Italian loan-words balcony, cameo the priority of the Italians in certain
spheres of culture. The loans replica, sonnet, stanza indicate new concepts in
literature.
Many words in general use do not differ from English words either in sounds
or spelling and cannot be distinguished from native words without a special
study:, cash, canteen, escort, laundry, manage,; these borrowings were
probably imported at an earlier date and have lost their foreign flavour.
Borrowings from Spanish came as a result of contacts with Spain in the
military, commercial and political fields, due to the rivalry of England and
Spain in foreign trade and colonial expansion: barricade, cannibal, cargo,.
Many loan-words indicated new objects and concepts encountered in the
colonies: banana, canoe, chocolate, cocoa.
Borrowings from Germanic languages are of special interest as English is a
Germanic language too. The influence of Scandinavian in Early ME has
certainly remained unsurpassed and the unique conditions of close language
contacts were never repeated. By the 15th— 16th c. the Germanic languages
had driven far apart;
Dutch made abundant contribution to English, particularly in the 15th and
16th c, when commercial relations between England and the Netherlands
were at their peak. They specialised in wool weaving and brewing, which is
reflected in the Dutch loan-words: pack, scour, spool, stripe (terms of
weaving); hops, tub, scum. Extensive borrowing is found in nautical
terminology: bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, freight, keel, skipper. The
flourishing of art in the Netherlands accounts for some Dutch loan-words
relating to art: easel, landscape, sketch.
The earliest Russian loan-words entered the English language as far back as
the I6th c, when the English trade company (the Moskovy Company)
established the first trade relations with Russia. English borrowings adopted
from the 16th till the 19th c. indicate articles of trade and specific features of
life in Russia, observed by the English:, beluga, intelligentsia, muzhik,
rouble, samovar, troika, tsar, vodka.
The loan-words adopted after 1917 reflect the new social relations and
political institutions in the USSR: bolshevik, Komsomol, Soviet. Some of the
new words are translation-loans: collective farm, Five-Year-Plan, wall
newspaper.
22.
32.
Norn (he) = hē
(she) = hēo/hīe
<it> = hit
(they) = hēo/hīe
Middle English,
cases.
Genetive - turned into new class of pronouns (possesive pronouns)
Dative & Accusative felt together & formed objective case (I-me)
number
dual forms dissapeared
3. 3rd person
(he)hē - he (далее b he)
(she) hēo/hīe - he (далее b she - demonstrative pronoun seo)
(they)hēo/ hīe - he/hi (далее B they - Scandinavian borrowing)
2""* person
OE
ME
NE
Sing.
Þu
thou
ēow (you)
The alphabetic way of writing was originally based on a phonetic principle: it was designed to give an accurate graphic
representation of pronunciation by using letters to indicate sounds.
Mod E spelling displays many deviations from this principle. The reasons are to be found in the history of English
sounds.
OE spelling was phonetic: They attempted to use a separate letter for each distinct sound; the sound values of the letters
were for the most part the same as in Latin. Their spellings, however, were not absolutely consistent, for some letters
indicated two or more sounds: the letter 3 stood for four different phonemes, c — for two; f, ძ, Þ and s indicated two
allophones each (which developed into phonemes later).
ME spelling innovations incorporated many sound changes which had taken place since the 9th—10th c, and spelling
become more ambiguous and conventional. In many instances ; the one-to-one correspondence of letter and sound had
been lost. Morel letters than before had two sound values: 0 stood for o], [u], long o and [0:]; c — for [s] and [k]; g —
for [g] and [dз], etc.; u could even indicate three sounds — the vowels [u] and [y] and the consonant [v]. One and the
same sound was commonly shown by different means: [dз] could be indicated by g, j or dg, [k] — by k, c and q, etc.
The digraphs introduced in ME look familiar to the modern reader, since many of them are still in use, but their
application in ME was rather contradictory. For instance, both ou and ow were used for [u:] and [oul; double 0 stood for
the open and close long [o:] and [0:] alongside 0; long [e:l and [έ:] were shown indiscriminately by ie, double e and the
single letter e. The conventional principle of spelling was later reinforced by the fixation of the written form of the word
in printing and by extensive sound changes.
The phoneticians and spelling reformers of the 16th c. strove to restrict the freedom of variation and to improve English
orthography by a more consistent use of letters and digraphs, and by the introduction of new symbols.
They insisted upon a strict distinction between u and v when used to indicate a vowel and a consonant: [u] and [v], e.g.
Early NE loue, selues, vnripe, unshaken later spelt as love, selves, unripe, unshaken; They introduced new digraphs to
show the difference between some open and close vowels, namely the digraph ea for [έ: ] as distinguished from e, ee, and
ie used for the closed [e: ], and the digraph oa alongside 0 in open syllables for [o:], as contrasted to 00 showing a long
closed [0:]. The use of double consonants became less frequent, except in traditional spellings like kiss, sell, but double
letters were sometimes employed to show that the preceding vowel was short/
§ 415. The activities of the scholars in the period of normalisation — late 17th and the 18th c. — had a stabilising effect
on the development of English spelling. The dictionaries and grammars fixed the written forms of the words as obligatory
standards.
only a few innovations were made: a few new digraphs were adopted with borrowed words, such as ph, ps — NE
photograph, psychology, ch — NE chemistry, scheme and machine, g — genre.
In the 18th c. the sound changes slowed down. Standard pronunciation (later known as RP — Received Pronunciation)
and standard spelling were firmly established,
PL
3ē
Ye[ji:] (we)
ēow
Participle I - suffix -ende (ex. OE berende, ME bering. NE
bearing)
PII - suffix -en{strong verbs) and -t,-d (weak verbs) and commonly
marked by prefix -3e.
in OE: active voice (ex. segan) and passive voice (ex.seboren)
PI and PII were used predicatively and attributively (like adj.) and
agreed with noun in number, Gender, case. PI and PII lost number,
Gender, case in ME.
Inf. loss of dative case (ME) (ex. OE Nomin.: writan, Dative: to
writanne; ME: to written, NE: to write, ("to” is a formal sign))
Gerund appears in the 12th century OE verbal noun with suffix —unз,
-inз and PI overlapped; verbal noun later turned into Gerund and could
1) take direct object (ex. buying the book) - verbal feature; 2) preceded
by article or possessive pronoun - nominal feature.
27.
28.
Among the verbs of the minor groups there
were several anomalous verbs with irregular forms.
OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of
volition and desire; it resembled the preteritepresents in meaning and function, as it indicated an
attitude to an action and was often followed by an
Infinitive. Cf.:Þa Se willaძ mines forsides fǽзnian
'those who wish to rejoice in my death' and hyt
moten habban eall 'all could have it'.
Willan had a Past tense form wolde, built like
sceolde, the Past tense of the preterite-present
sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal
verb, like the surviving preterite-presents, and,
together with sculan developed into an auxiliary (NE
shall, will, should, would).
Some verbs combined the features of weak and
strong verbs. OE don formed a weak Past tense with
a vowel interchange: and a Participle in -n: don —
dyde — зe-don (NE do). OE buan 'live' had a weak
Past — bude and Participle II, ending in -n, ie-bun
like a strong verb.
1)their present Tense forms resembled the Past
Tense forms, 2) they
expressed attitude and where followed by inf.
OE 12 verbs (in Mod E only 6 survived; must, may, shall,
dare, can, ought
to/own)
Present was formed like past Tense of strong verbs (ex.
sculan(inf); I sceal.
You scealt, S/HE,IT sceal, pl. sculon)
Pat like Past Tense of weak verbs (ex. scufan(inf); I
sceolde, YOU
sceoldest S/He, it sceolde, pi. sceoldon)
ME changes: 1) verbal forms lost, 2) distinctions between
number and
mood were lost.
NE Paradigm was reduced to two or even one form (ex.
can-could)
44.
time: Since the 9& century (Scandinavian
envasion), embrased late OE & early ME
number: 1.000
area: Came to E from North &. North-Easter dialects.
ways: As a result of verbal communication.
Assimilation: S. borrowings were easier to adopt (both
E & S dialects
belong to the Germanic group).
semantics:
Everyday life: cake, skirt, rout, window, take, fellow
Military & legal matters: fleet, law, knife, husband
Pronouns, they, them, there, their, both, though, same
Prepositions: for
Adjectives: happy, ill, weak, wrong
Verbs: kill, cast, scare
Recognition in Modern English: S borrowings were
hard to distinguish from native words.
- sk: sky, skirt, skill contributions:
Some borrowings disappeared or remained only in
dialects
Some borrowings replaced native words: they,t.
Synonims: blossom - bloom, wish - want, heaven - sky
45.
OE:
43.
time'. Since the 11 century < 1066 - Norman conquest.
48.
Main Peculiarities of OE poetry
Latin has been the most long-lasting donor of borrowings to English,
because its influence started before the 5* century AD & continued up to
present day.
usually Latin borrowings in OE are Subdivided into 3 layers:
1. continental borrowings - words West Germanic tribes borrowed from Latin while
they still lived On the continent
- house-called things: cup, pillow
- food; cheese, butter
- animals: turtle, mull
- measure unities: mile, inch, pound
2.borrowings after the Roman invasion of the British Isles (thorough Romanized
Celts)
- trade:
- building: chalk, tile, copper
- domestic life: dish, cattle
- military affairs: walk, street, pale
- place names: with -castra (Chester, Lancaster), with -wich (Norwich, Sandwich),
with - port (Devonport)
3. borrowings after the introductory of Christianity
religia: idol, angel, pope, psalm (some words came from Greek through Latin:
bishop, candel, apostol)
- learning: school, scholar, grammar, master
- everyday vocabulary: plant, pine, cap, sock
4.translation loans: Monday = moon+day;
Old Latin borrowings in OE imdenveni assimilation:
1. their spelling was changed
2.phonetic changes
3.they were used in derivation & compounding
4.they acuaried grammatical cathegories of English words
Middle E
After the Norman conquest the main spheres of the Latin language were church,
law, academic activities, the surge of interest in classic in the age of the Renaissance
led to the new way of borrowings from the Latin & Greek. Latin borrowings:
— abstract consepts: anticipate, exact, espians, iact, dislocate, accomodation
affixes: de- (demolish), ex- (exctracl), re- (retell rewrite), -ate (decorate), -ct
(correct, perfect), -ent (apparent).
number: 10.000
area: Started to penetrate from the South & spread Northwards.
ways: Through oral & written speech,
assimilation F borrowings were more difficult to assimilate (French —
Romans language, English - Germanic language). Consequently they
assymilated in some essentual features (word stress, vocalic system),
semantics:
Government £ administration: authority, office, nation, council
Feudal system: noble, duke, countess, baron
Military: army, force, battle, defeat
Lug: crime, cort, jury, justice
Church: abbey, clergy, bible
Art/architecture: palace, chimney, colour, design
Entertainment: pleasure, sport, dance, cards
Adress; madam, sir, mister recognition In Modern English; F
borrowings are often recognisable due to some phonetic, orthographic
& word building peculiarities:
- oi, oy: point, join
— initual v: very, village
-age; village, eaffage, laggage
- c [s]: city, piece contributions:
- F borrowings enlarged E vocabulary (new words)
- Some F borrowings replaced E words: very, river, peace, easy
- Synonims: hide - eonsil, wish - desire, smell - odour Affixes: sub-,
dis-, -ment, -ish, -able
1. Old Germanic alliterative verse.
2. The Sines are not rhymed.
3.
The number of the syllables to a line is free, but the
number of stressed syllables is fixed.
4. Each line is divided intoo 2 halves and each half
begins with one and the same sound.
5. There are at least 2 stressed syllables in a line, one
in each half.
6.
Metaphorical phrases.
41.
29.
33.
In OE vocabulary mainly grew by means of word formation. The words
Many markers of the grammatical forms of the verb were
were divided into 3 main types.
1. simple words
2. derived words
3. compound words
Ways of formation
Word derivation (словообразование)
1. sound interchange - frequent, but never used aione (+suffixation)
Sources of sound interchange:
-ablaut: ride (verb) - ride (noun)
-palatal mutation: noun & verb(food - feed), adjective & verb (full-fill), noun &
adjective (long-length)
-consonant interchange: dead - death
2. word stress - not frrequenf, it held to differentiate between parts of speech & was
used together with other meanings: andswary - andswar
3. prefixalion:
- indoeuropean prefixes: un
- germanic prefixes: mis-, be-(begin), ofter (mod. Over)
- prefixation was widely used with verbs: 3an, a- ("go away"), be- (“ go round),
fore- ("precede")
- grammatical prefixes:3e3an (Participle II)
4. suffixation - most productive, mostly applied to nouns & adjectives, seldom to
verbs classification of suffixes:
-suffixes of agent nouns: -end (friend), -ere(fiscere)
-suffixes of abstract nouns: -t (sight), -nes(brightness), -ing(earning)
-new suffixes derived from noun root morphemes: -dom(freedorn), hood(childhood), -ship(friendship)
-adjective suffixes: -i3(hali3=holy), -ede(cooked, backed)
-new suffixes derived from adjectives root morphemes: -ful(careful), -less(lifeless)
Word compounding - highly productive
1. nouns
-noun + noun (seaman)
-syntactical compounds( forget-me-not, days+eye=daysy)
-noun + adjective (mod+ceari3=sorrowful)
- adjective +noun (mildheord=merciful)
reduced in ME and Early NE.
ME forms of the verb are represented by numerous variants, which
reflect dialectal differences. Number distinctions were in the 15th c. —they were neutralized in most positions. In the 13th and 14th c. the
ending -en – the main marker of the pl forms of the verb. The ending –
en was missed out in the late 14th c and was dropped in the 15th, the
Past tense stems of the strong verbs merged in one form. All number
distinctions were thus with the exception of the 2nd and 3rd person
In the Past tense of strong verbs the difference between the moods in
the sg could be shown by means of a root-vowel interchange. When, in
the 15th c. the two Past tense stems of the strong verbs merged, all the
forms of the moods in the Past tense fell together with the exception of
the verb to be, which retained a distinct form of the Subjunctive in the
Past sg — were as opposed to was
The main trends of their evolution in ME and NE can be defined as
gradual loss of most nominal features (except syntactical functions) and
growth of verbal features.
The simplifying changes in the verb paradigm, and the decay of the OE
inflectional system account for the first of these trends — loss of case
distinctions in the infinitive and of forms of agreement in the
Participles. The Late ME period witnessed the growth of a new verbal the Gerund
Most verbs have adopted the way of form-building of the weak verbs:
the dental suffix. The strict classification of the strong verb degenerate.
In the system of strong verbs the reduction in the number of stem from
four to three. Early NE PII doesn’t differ from the Past.
46.
38.
There are very few Celtic loan-words in the OE vocabulary, for there
must have been little intermixture between the Germanic settlers and the Celtic in
Britain. Abundant borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The
OE kingdoms Kent, Deira and Bernicia derive their names from the names of Celtic
tribes. The name of York, the Downs and perhaps London have been traced to Celtic
sources (Celtic dun meant 'hill'). Various Celtic designations of 'river' and 'water'
were understood by the Germanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Exe, Esk, Usk,
Avon, Evan go back to Celtic amhuin 'river', uisge 'water'; Thames, Stour, Dover
also come from Celtic.. Many place-names with Celtic elements are hybrids; the
Celtic component, combined with a Latin or a Germanic component, make a
compound place-name; e.g.
Celtic plus Latin Celtic plus Germanic
Man-chester
York-shire
Win-chester
Corn-wall1
Devon-port
Devon-shire
Lan-caster
Canter-bury
. Outside of place-names Celtic borrowings in OE were very few: no more than a
dozen. Examples of common nouns are: OE binn (NE bin 'crib'), cradol (NE
cradle), bratt 'cloak', dun (NE dun 'dark coloured'), dan 'hill', cross (NE cross),
probably through Celtic from the L crux. A few words must have entered OE from
Celtic due to the activities of Irish missionaries in spreading Christianity. In later
ages some of the Celtic borrowings have died out or have-survived only in dialects.
34.
Some OE adverbs are primary, that is, they have not been derived from
any other part of speech, while others are secondary, derived from some other part
of speech.
Among the primary adverbs there are many pronominal words, such as ponne 'then'.
Much more numerous are the secondary adverbs, derived from substantives or
adjectives.
Thus, the following adverbs originated from case forms of substantives: hwllum
'sometimes' (from the dative plural of the substantive hwll 'while'.
An entire category of adverbs, those in -e, originated from the instrumental singular
neuter, strong declension; the -e became a derivative suffix. Here belong such
adverbs as wide 'widely', deope 'deeply'.
In OE there was an adjective suffix -lic (coming from a substantive lie 'body'), a
number of adjectives were derived by means of this suffix: e.g. luflic 'loving'. In
some cases there existed parallel_variants of an adjective with the suffix -lic and
without it.
Adverbs whose meaning admits of degrees of comparison derive them by means of
the same suffixes that are used as degrees of comparison of adjectives, viz., -r for
the comparative, and -st for the superlative. These suffixes are preceded by the
vowel -0-:
Some adverbs derive their comparative without any suffix, by means of mutation of
the root vowel:
ME – some adverbs derived in OE from adjectives by means of the suffix –e are still
in use.
At the same time a new way of deriving adverbs, which had arisen in OE, by means
of the suffix –ly.
Degrees of comparison of adverbs were derived by the same suffixes that were used
for adjectives.
In ME phrases of the type more, most + adverb appear.
In the MnE the suffix –ly became the ony productive adverbforming suffix. In the
formation of degrees of comparison no change occurred in MnE as against ME.
The noun had 4 cases: Nom, Gen, Dat, Accusative. The
formal distinction of cases was less consistent than that of numbers.
The Nom. can be loosely defined as the case of the active agent, for it
was the case of the subject mainly used with verbs denoting activity; the
Nom. could also indicate the subject characterised by a certain quality
or state; could serve as a predicative and as the case of address, there
being no special Vocative case
The Gen. case was primarily the case of nouns and pronouns
serving as attributes to other nouns. The meanings of the Gen. were
very complex and can only roughly be grouped under the headings
"Subjective" and "Objective" Gen. Subjective Gen. is associated with
the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin
Objective Gen. is associated with what is termed "partitive meaning" as
in sum hund scipa 'a hundred of ships', husa selest 'best of the houses'.
The use of the Gen. as an object to verbs and adjectives was not
infrequent, though the verbs which regularly took a Gen. object often
interchanged it with other cases
Dat. was the chief case used with prepositions
The Ace. case, above all, was the form that indicated a relationship to a
verb. Being a direct object it denoted the recipient of an action, the
result of the action and other meanings.
Besides these substantival functions the oblique cases of OE nouns,
especially the Ace. case, could be used in some adverbial meanings, e.g.
to indicate time or distance
Numerals from 1 to 3 are declined
From 4 to 19 are invariable, but they are declined if they
are used without a substantive. The numeral an is
declined as a strong adjective.
The ordinal numerals, with the exception of oÞer
“second”(as a strong) are declined as weak verbs.
ME cardinal numerals developed from OE: 1 – on (an), 2
– two (twa). There appeared in ME the word millioun, of
Fench Origin. Ordinal numerals, with the exception of
second (from French), are developed from OE . 13-19 end
in –tenthe, they are derived from corresponding cardinals,
20-90 – tinthe.
MnE numerals developed from ME without any particular
changes, in according with phonetics laws of the period.
30, 31
In OE there were no analytical
forms; they appeared in ME in all Germanic
langs and consisted of two elements; 1) a*v'erb of broad
semantics {to be, to
have) and high frequency; 2) non-finite forms (inf.,
PI/II)
They are Perfect Passive. Future, Cont, Do-forms
The rise of Perfect forms
i. habbant (transitive verb)/ beon (intransiuve verb) +PII
beon in ME ceased to be used not to confuse Perfect
with Passive
2. in ME also inf. and Participle acquired Perfect forms
The rise of Passive forms
1.
beon/werthen(died out in ME) +PII
2.
Passive constructions were often used with
prepositions by/with to show the doer of the action and
the instrument
The rise of the Future forms
1. Analytical Future Tense forms developed from OE
verbs Sculan/willan"+ inf.
2. 13-14 cent. — Future Tense forms became very
common "willan/scullan were completely
interchangeable.
3.17lb cent. John Wales established rule - 'shall" – first
person, will" - 2/3 person
4.present day tendency "witt* is used with ail persons
The rise of the Continuous Forms
OE "beon" +PI - denoted a quality of a lasting state of
the subject
ME in ME this form fell into disuse
NE hi the NE there were two forms to show continuous
aspect (be+PI/ be +
preposition "on")
In the 18* cent. Cont. forms were well established
19th cent - Cont. forms appear in Passive*, before this
time such forms were
considered clumsy and agrammatical.
The rise of the do-forms
1. do-forms (do-periphrasis) appeared in Past and
Present in Indicative Mood
2. do-forms were used in negative, affirmative and
interrogative sents and freely interchanged with simple
forms - without do (16-17 cent) (ex. Did you hear this/
Heard you this? don't know/ I know not; I do like ice cream/ I like ice-cream)
3. 17 cent, do-forms only in negative and interrogative
sents.