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Chapter1
Summary
The fundamental lessons about individual decisionmaking are that people face tradeoffs
among alternative goals, that the cost of any action is measured in terms of forgone
opportunities, that rational people make decisions by comparing marginal costs and
marginal benefits, and that people change their behavior in response to the incentives
they face.
The fundamental lessons about interactions among people are that trade can be
mutually beneficial, that markets are usually a good way of coordinating trade among
people, and that the government can potentially improve market outcomes if there is
some market failure of if the market outcome is inequitable.
The fundamental lessons about the economy as a whole are that productivity is the
ultimate source of living standards, that money growth is the ultimate source of
inflation, and that society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and
unemployment.
Key concepts
Scarcity, economics, efficiency, equity, opportunity cost, marginal changes, market
economy, market failure, externality, market power, productivity, inflation, Phillips
curve, business cycle,
Chapter2
Summary
Economists try to address their subject with a scientist’s objectivity. Like all scientists,
they make appropriate assumptions and build simplified models in order to understand
the models are the circular-flow diagram and the production possibilities frontier.
The
field
of economics
is
divided
into two subfields: microeconomics
and
macroeconomics. Microeconomists study decisionmaking by households and firms and
the interaction among households and firms in the marketplace. Macroeconomists
study the forces and trends that affect the economy as a whole.
A positive statement is an assertion about how the world is. A normative statement is
an assertion about how the world ought to be. When economists make normative
statements, they are acting more as policy advisers than scientists.
Economists who advise policymakers offer conflicting advice either because of
differences in scientific judgments or because of differences in values. At other times,
economists are united in the advice they offer, but policymakers may choose to ignore it.
Key concepts
Circular-flow diagram, microeconomics, normative statements, production possibilities
frontier, macroeconomics, positive statements,
Chapter3
Summary
Each person consumes goods and services produced by many other people both in our
country and around the world. Interdependence and trade are desirable because they
allow everyone to enjoy a greater quantity and variety of goods and services.
They are two ways to compare the ability of two people in producing a good. The person
who can produce the good with the smaller quantity of inputs is said to have an absolute
advantage in producing the good. The person who has the smaller opportunity cost of
producing the good is said to have a comparative advantage.
Trade makes everyone better off because it allows people to specialize in those activities
in which they have a comparative advantage.
The principle of comparative advantage applies to countries as well as to people.
Economists use the principle of comparative advantage to advocate free trade among
countries.
Key concepts
Absolute advantage, opportunity cost, comparative advantage, imports, exports,
Chapter4
Summary
Economists use the model of supply and demand to analyze competitive markets. In a
competitive market, there are many buyers and sellers, each of whom has little or no
influence on the market price.
The demand curve shows how the quantity of a good demanded depends on the price.
According to the law of demand, as the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded rises.
Therefore, the demand curve slopes downward.
In addition to price, other determinants of how much consumers want to buy include
income, the prices of substitutes and complements, tastes, expectations, and the
number of buyers. If one of these factors changes, the demand curve shifts.
The supply curve shows how the quantity of a good supplied depends on the price.
According to the law pf supply, as the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied rises.
Therefore, the supply curve slopes upward.
In addition to price, other determinants of how much producers want to sell include
input prices, technology, expectations, and the number of sellers. If one these factors
changes, the supply curve shifts.
The intersection of the supply and demand curves determines the market equilibrium.
At the equilibrium price, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.
The behavior of buyers and sellers naturally drives markets toward their equilibrium.
When the market price is above the equilibrium price, there is a surplus of the good,
which causes the market price to fall. When the market price is below the equilibrium
price, there is a shortage, which causes the market price to rise.
To analyze how any event influences a market, we use the supply-and-demand diagram
to examine how the event affects the equilibrium price and quantity. To do this we
follow three steps. First, we decide whether the event shifts the supply curve or the
demand curve (or both). Second, we decide which direction the curve shifts. Third, we
compare the new equilibrium.
In market economies, prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and thereby
allocate scarce resources. For every good in the economy, the price ensures that supply
and demand are in balance. The equilibrium price then determines how much of the
good buyers choose to purchase and how much sellers choose to produce.
Key concepts
Market, competitive market, quantity demanded, law of demand, demand schedule,
demand curve, normal good, inferior good, substitutes, complements, quantity supplied,
law of supply, supply schedule, supply curve, equilibrium, equilibrium price,
equilibrium quantity, surplus, shortage, law of supply and demand,
Chapter5
Summary
The price elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded responds to
changes in the price. Demand tends to be more elastic if close substitutes are available,
if the good is a luxury rather than a necessity, if the market is narrowly defined, or if
buyers have substantial time to react to a price change.
The price elasticity of demand is calculated as the percentage change in quantity
demanded divided by the percentage change in price. If the elasticity is less than 1, so
that quantity demanded moves proportionately less than the price, demand is said to be
inelastic. If the elasticity is greater than 1, so that quantity demanded moves
proportionately more than the price, demand is said to be elastic.
Total revenue, the total amount paid for a good, equals the price of the good times the
quantity sold. For inelastic demand curves, total revenue rises as price rises. For elastic
demand curves, total revenue falls as price rises.
The income elasticity of demand measures how much the quantity demanded responds
to changes in consumers’ income. The cross-price elasticity of demand measures how
much the quantity demanded of one good responds to changes in the price of another
good.
The price elasticity of supply measures how much the quantity supplied responds to
changes in the price. This elasticity often depends on the time horizon under
consideration. In most markets, supply is more elastic in the long run that in the short
run.
The price elasticity of supply is calculated as the percentage change in quantity
supplied as the percentage change in price. If the elasticity is less than 1, so that
quantity supplied moves proportionately less than the price, supply is said to be
inelastic. If the elasticity is greater than 1, so that quantity supplied moves
proportionately more than the price, supply is said to be elastic.
The tools of supply and demand can be applied in many different kinds of markets. This
chapter uses them to analyze the market for wheat, the market for oil, and the market
for illegal drugs.
Key concepts
Elasticity, price elasticity, demand, total revenue, income elasticity of demand,
cross-price elasticity of demand, price elasticity of supply,
Chapter6
Summary
A price ceiling is a legal maximum on the price of a good or service. An example is rent
control. If the price ceiling is below the equilibrium price, the quantity demanded
exceeds the quantity supplied. Because of the resulting shortage, sellers must in some
way ration the good or service among buyers.
A price floor is a legal minimum on the price of a good or service. An example is the
minimum wage. If the price floor is above the equilibrium price, the quantity supplied
exceeds the quantity demanded. Because of the good or service must in some way be
rationed among sellers.
When the government levies a tax on a good, the equilibrium quantity of the good falls.
That is, a tax on a market shrinks the size of the market.
A tax on a good places a wedge between the price paid by buyers and the price received
by sellers. When the market moves to the new equilibrium, buyers pay more for the
good and sellers receive less for it. In this sense, buyers and sellers share the tax burden.
The incidence of a tax (that is, the division of the tax burden) does not depend on
whether the tax is levies on buyers or sellers.
The incidence of a tax depends on the price elasticities of supply and demand. The
burden tends to fall on the side of the market that is less elastic because that side of the
market can respond less easily to the tax by changing the quantity bought or sold.
Key concepts
Price ceiling, price floor, tax incidence,
Chapter7
Summary
Consumer surplus equals buyer’s willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they
actually pay for it, measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market.
Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and
above the price.
Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of
production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market.
Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the
supply curve.
An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is
said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the
equity, of economic outcomes.
The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer
surplus. That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to
allocate resources efficiently.
Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as
market power or externalities.
Key concepts
Welfare economics, willingness to pay, consumer surplus, cost, producer surplus,
efficiency, equity,
Chapter8
Summary
A tax on a good reduces the welfare of buyers and sellers of the good, and the reduction
in consumer and producer surplus usually exceeds the revenue raised by the
government. The fall in total surplus --- the sum of consumer surplus, producer surplus,
and tax revenue --- is called the deadweight loss of the tax.
Taxes have deadweight losses because they cause buyers to consume less and sellers to
produce less, and this change in behavior shrinks the size of the market below the level
that maximizes total surplus. Because the elasticities of supply and demand measure
how much market participants respond to market conditions, larger elasticities imply
larger deadweight losses.
As a tax grows larger, it distorts incentives more, and its deadweight loss grows larger.
Tax revenue first rises with the size of a tax. Eventually, however, a larger tax reduces
tax revenue because it reduces the size of the market.
Key concepts
Deadweight loss,
Chapter9
Summary
The effects of free trade can be determined by comparing the domestic price without
trade to the world price. A low domestic price indicates that the country has a
comparative advantage in producing the good and that the country will become an
exporter. A high domestic price indicates that the rest of the world has a comparative
advantage in producing the good and that the country will become an importer.
When a country allows trade and becomes an exporter of a good, producers of the good
are better off, and consumers of the good are worse off. When a country allows trade and
becomes an importer of a good, consumers are better off, and producers are worse off. In
both cases, the gains from trade exceed the losses.
A tariff---a tax on imports---moves a market closer to the equilibrium that would exist
without trade and, therefore, reduces the gains from trade. Although domestic
producers are better off and the government raises revenue, the losses to consumers
exceed these gains.
An import quota---a limit on imports---has effects that are similar to those of a tariff.
Under a quota, however, the holders of the import licenses receive the revenue that the
government would collect with tariff.
There are various arguments for restricting trade; protecting jobs, defending national
security, helping infant industries, preventing unfair competition, and responding to
foreign trade restrictions. Although some of these arguments have some merit in some
cases, economists believe that free trade is usually the better policy.
Key concepts
World price, tariff, import quota,
Chapter10
Summary
When a transaction between a buyer and seller directly affects a third party, the effect is
called an externality. Negative externalities, such as pollution, cause the socially
optimal quantity in a market to be less than the equilibrium quantity. Positive
externalities, such as technology spillovers, cause the socially optimal quantity to be
greater than the equilibrium quantity.
Those affected by externalities can sometimes solve the problem privately. For instance,
when one business confers an externality on another business, the two businesses can
internalize the externality by merging. Alternatively, the interested parties can solve
the problem by negotiating a contract. According to the Coase theorem, if people can
bargain without cost, then they can always reach an agreement in which resources are
allocated efficiently. In many cases, however, reaching a bargain among the many
interested parties is difficult, so the Coase theorem does not apply.
When private parties cannot adequately deal with external effects, such as pollution,
the government often steps in. sometimes the government prevents socially inefficient
activity by regulating behavior. Other times it internalizes an externality using
Pigovian taxes. Another public policy is to issue permits. For instance, the government
could protect the environment by issuing a limited number of pollution permits. The end
result of this policy is largely the same as imposing Pigovian taxes on polluters.
Key concepts
Externality, internalizing an externality, Coase theorem, transaction costs, Pigovian
tax,
Chapter11
Summary
Goods differ in whether they are excludable and whether they are rival. A good is
excludable if it is possible to prevent someone from using it. A good is rival if one
person’s use of the good reduces other people’s ability to use the same unit of the good.
Markets work best for private goods, which are both excludable and rival. Markets do
not work as well for other types of goods.
Public goods are neither rival nor excludable. Examples of public goods include
fireworks displays, national defense, and the creation of fundamental knowledge.
Because people are not charged for their use of the public good, they have an incentive
to free ride when the good is provided privately. Therefore, governments provide public
goods, making their decision about the quantity based on cost-benefit analysis.
Common resources are rival but not exclude common grazing land, clean air, and
congested roads. Because people are not charged for their use of common resources, they
tend to use them excessively. Therefore, governments try to limit the use of common
resources.
Key concepts
Excludability, rivalry, private goods, public goods, common resources, free rider,
cost-benefit analysis, tragedy of the commons,
Chapter12
Summary
The U.S. government raises revenue using various taxes. The most important taxes for
the federal government are individual income taxes and patrol taxes for social
insurance. The most important taxes for state and local governments are sales taxes
and property taxes.
The efficiency of a tax system refers to the costs it imposes on taxpayers. There are two
costs of taxes beyond the transfer of resources from the taxpayer to the government. The
first is the distortion in the allocation of resources that arises as taxes alter incentives
and behavior. The second is the administrative burden of complying with the tax laws.
The equity of a tax system concerns whether the tax burden is distributed fairly among
the population. According to the benefits principle, it is fair for people to pay taxes based
on the benefits they receive from the government. According to the ability-to-pay
principle, it is fair for people to pay taxes based on their capability to handle the
financial burden. When evaluating the equity of a tax system, it is important to
remember a lesson from the study of tax incidence; the distribution of tax burdens is not
the same as the distribution of tax bills.
When considering changes in the tax laws, policymakers often face a tradeoff between
efficiency and equity. Much of the debate over tax policy arises because people give
different weights to these two goals.
Key concepts
Budget surplus, budget deficit, average tax rate, marginal tax rate, lump-sum tax,
benefits
principle,
ability-to-pay
principle,
vertical
equity,
horizontal
equity,
proportional tax, regressive tax, progressive tax,
Chapter13
Summary
The goal of firms is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total cost.
When analyzing a firm’s behavior, it is important to include all the opportunity costs of
production. Some of the opportunity costs, such as the wages a firm pays its workers,
are explicit. Other opportunity costs, such as the wages the firm owner gives up by
working in the firm rather than taking another job, are implicit.
A firm’s total costs reflect its production process. A typical firm’s production function
gets flatter as the quantity of an input increases, displaying the property of diminishing
marginal product. As a result, a firm’s total-cost curve gets steeper as the quantity
produced rises.
From a firm’s total cost, two related measures of cost are derived. Average total cost
divided by the quantity of output. Marginal cost is the amount by which total cost rises
if output increases by 1 unit.
When analyzing firm behavior, it is often useful to graph average total cost and
marginal cost. For a typical firm, marginal cost rises with the quantity of output.
Average total cost first falls as output increase further. The marginal-cost curve always
crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of average total cost.
A firm’s costs often depend on the time horizon being considered. In particular, many
costs are fixed in the short run buy variable in the long run. As a result, when the firm
changes its level of production, average total cost may rise more in the short run than in
the long run.
Key concepts
Total revenue, total cost, profit, explicit cost, implicit cost, economic profit, accounting
profit, production function marginal product, diminishing marginal, product, fixed costs,
variable costs, average total cost, average fixed cost, average variable cost, marginal
cost, efficient scale, economies of scale, constant returns to scale,
Chapter14
Summary
Because a competitive firm is a rice taker, its revenue is proportional to the amount of
output it produces. The price of the good equals both the firm’s average revenue and its
marginal revenue.
To maximize profit, a firm chooses a quantity of output such that marginal revenue
equals marginal cost. Because marginal revenue for a competitive firm equals the
market price, the firm chooses quantity so that price equals marginal cost. Thus, the
firm’s marginal cost curve is its supply curve.
In the short run when a firm cannot recover its fixed costs, the firm will choose to shut
down temporarily if the price of the good is less than average variable cost. In the long
run when the firm can recover both fixed and variable cost, it will choose to exit if the
price is less than average total cost.
In a market with free entry and exit, profits are driven to zero in the long run. In this
long-run equilibrium, all firms produce at the efficient scale, price equals the minimum
of average total cost, and the number of firms adjusts to satisfy the quantity demanded
at this price.
Changes in demand have different effects over different time horizons. In the short run,
an increase in demand raises prices and leads to profits, and a decrease in demand
lowers process and leads to losses. But if firms can freely enter and exit the market,
then in the long run the number of firms adjusts to drive the market back to the
zero-profit equilibrium.
Key concepts
Competitive market, average revenue, marginal revenue, sunk cost,
Chapter15
Summary
A monopoly is a firm that is the sole seller in its market. A monopoly arises when a
single firm owns a key resource, when the government gives a firm the exclusive right
to produce a good, or when a single firm can supply the entire market at a smaller cost
than many firms could.
Because a monopoly is the sole producer in its market, it faces a downward-sloping
demand curve for its product. When a monopoly increases production by 1 unit, it
causes the price of its good to fall, which reduces the amount of revenue earned on all
units produced. As a result, a monopoly’s marginal revenue is always below the price of
its good.
Kike a competitive firm, a monopoly firm maximizes profit by producing the quantity at
which marginal revenue equals marginal cost. The monopoly then chooses the price at
which that quantity is demanded. Unlike a competitive firm, a monopoly firm’s price
exceeds its marginal revenue, so its price exceeds marginal cost.
A monopolist’s profit-maximizing level of output is below the level that maximizes the
sum of consumer and producer surplus. That is, when the monopolist’s charges a price
above marginal cost, some consumers who value the good more than its cost of
production do not buy it. As a result, monopoly causes deadweight losses caused by
taxes.
Policymakers can respond to the inefficiency of monopoly behavior in four ways. They
can use the antitrust laws to try to make the industry more competitive. They can
regulate the prices that the monopoly charges. They can turn the monopolist into a
government-run enterprise. Or, if the market failure is deemed small compared to the
inevitable imperfections of policies, they can do nothing at all.
Monopolists often can raise their profits by charging different prices for the same good
based on a buyer’s willingness to pay. This practice of price discrimination can raise
economic welfare by getting the good to some consumers who otherwise would not buy it.
In the extreme case of perfect price discrimination, the deadweight losses of monopoly
are completely eliminated. More generally, when price discrimination is imperfect, it
can either raise or lower welfare compared to the outcome with a single monopoly price.
Key concepts
Monopoly, natural monopoly, price discrimination,
Chapter16
Summary
Oligopolists maximize their total profits by forming a cartel and acting like a monopolist.
Yet, it oligopolists make decisions about production levels individually, the result is a
greater quantity and a lower price than under the monopoly outcome. The larger the
number of firms in the oligopoly, the closer the quantity and price will be to the levels
that would prevail under competition.
The prisoners’ dilemma shows that self-interest can prevent people from maintaining
cooperation, even when cooperation is in their mutual interest. The logic of the
prisoners’ dilemma applies in many situations, including arms races, advertising,
common-resource problems, and oligopolies.
Policymakers use the antitrust laws to prevent oligopolies from engaging in behavior
that reduces competition. The application of these laws can be controversial, because
some behavior that may seem to reduce competition may in fact have legitimate
business purposes.
Key concepts
Oligopoly, monopolistic competition, collusion, cartel, Nash equilibrium, game theory,
prisoners’ dilemma, dominant strategy,
Chapter17
Summary
A monopolistically competitive market is characterized by three attributes: many firms,
differentiated products, and free entry.
The equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market differs from that in a
perfectly competitive market in two related ways. First, each firm in a monopolistically
competitive market has excess capacity. That is, it operates on the downward-sloping
portion of the average-total-cost curve. Second, each firm charges a price above
marginal cost.
Monopolistic competition does not have all the desirable properties of perfect
competition. There is the standard deadweight loss of monopoly caused by the markup
of price over marginal cost. In addition, the number of firms (and thus the variety of
products) can be too large or too small. In practice, the ability of policymakers to correct
these inefficiencies is limited.
The product differentiation inherent in monopolistic competition leads to the use of
advertising and brand names. Critics of advertising and brand names argue that firms
use them to take advantage of consumer irrationality and to reduce competition.
Defenders of advertising and brand names argue that firms use them to inform
consumers and to compete more vigorously on price and product quality.
Key concepts
Monopolistic competition,
Chapter18
Summary
The economy’s income is distributed in the markets for the factors of production. The
three most important factors of production are labor, land, and capital.
The demand for factors, such as labor, is a derived demand that comes from firms that
use the factors to produce goods and services. Competitive, profit-maximizing firms hire
each factor up to the point at which the value of the marginal product of the factor
equals its price.
The supply of labor arises from individuals’ tradeoff between work and leisure. An
upward- sloping labor supply curve means that people respond to an increase in the
wage by enjoying less leisure and working more hours.
The price paid to each factor adjusts to balance the supply and demand for that factor.
Because factor demand reflects the value of the marginal product of that factor, in
equilibrium each factor is compensated according to its marginal contribution to the
production of goods and services.
Because factors of production are used together, the marginal product of any one factor
depends on the quantities of all factors that are available. As a result, a change in the
supply of one factor alters the equilibrium earnings of all the factors.
Key concepts
Factors of production, production function, marginal product of labor, diminishing
marginal product, value of the marginal product, capital,
Chapter19
Summary
Workers earn different wages for many reasons. To some extent, wage differentials
compensate workers for job attributes. Other things equal, workers in hard, unpleasant
jobs get paid more than workers in easy, pleasant jobs.
Workers with more human capital get paid more than workers with less human capital.
The return to accumulating human capital is high and has increased over the past two
decades.
Although years of education, experience, and job characteristics affect earnings as
theory predicts, there is much variation in earnings that cannot be explained by things
that economists can measure. The unexplained variation in earnings is largely
attributable to natural ability, effort, and chance.
Some economists have suggested that more educated workers earn higher wages not
because education raises productivity but because workers with high natural ability use
education as a way to signal their high ability to employers. If this signaling theory is
correct, then increasing the education attainment of all workers would not raise the
overall level of wages.
Wages are sometimes pushed above the level that brings supply and demand into
balance. Three reasons for above-equilibrium wages are minimum-wage laws, unions,
and efficiency wages.
Some differences in earnings are attributable to discrimination on the basis of race, sex,
or other factors. Measuring the amount of discrimination is difficult, however, because
one must correct for differences in human capital and job characteristics.
Competitive markets tend to limit the impact of discrimination on wages. If the wages
of a group of workers are lower than those of another group for reasons not related to
marginal productivity, then nondiscriminatory firms will be more profitable than
discriminatory firms. Profit-maximizing behavior, therefore, can reduce discriminatory
wage differentials. Discrimination persists in competitive markets, however, if
customers are willing to pay more to discriminatory firms or if the government passes
laws requiring firms to discriminate.
Key concepts
Compensating
differential,
human
capital,
union,
strike,
efficiency
wages,
discrimination,
Chapter20
Summary
Data on the distribution of income show wide disparity in our society. The richest fifth of
families earns about ten times as much income as the poorest fifth.
Because in-kind transfers, the economic mobility are so important for understanding
variation in income, it is difficult to gauge the degree of inequality in our society using
data on the distribution of income in a single year. When these other factors are taken
into account, they tend to suggest that economic well-being is more equally distributed
than is annual income.
Political philosophers differ in their views about the role of government in altering the
distribution of income. Utilitarians (such as John Stuart Mill) would choose the
distribution of income to maximize the sum of utility of everyone in society. Liberals
(such as John Rawls) would determine the distribution of income as if we were behind a
“veil of ignorance” that prevented us from knowing our own stations in life. Libertarians
(such as Robert Nozick) would have the government enforce individual rights to ensure
a fair process but then not be concerned about inequality in the resulting distribution of
income.
Various policies aim to help the poor-minimum-wage laws, welfare, negative income
taxes, and in-kind transfers. Although each of these policies helps some families escape
poverty, they also have unintended side effects. Because financial assistance declines as
income rises, the poor often face effective marginal tax rates that are very high. Such
high effective tax rates discourage poor families from escaping poverty on their own.
Key concepts
Poverty rate, poverty line, in-kind transfers, life cycle, permanent income,
utilitarianism, utility, liberalism, maximin criterion, libertarianism, welfare, negative
income tax,
Chapter21
Summary
A consumer’s budget constraint shows the possible combinations of different goods he
can buy given his income and the prices of the goods. The slope of the budget constraint
equals the relative price of the goods.
The consumer’s indifference curves represent his preferences. An indifference curve
shows the various bundles of goods that make the consumer equally happy. Points on
higher indifference curves are preferred to points on lower indifference curves. The
slope of an indifference curve at any point is the consumer’s marginal rate of
substitution---the rate at which the consumer is willing to trade one good for the other.
The consumer optimizes by choosing the point on his budget constraint that lies on the
highest indifference curve. At this point, the slope of the indifference curve (the
marginal rate of substitution between the goods) equals the slope of the budget
constraint (the relative price of the goods).
When the price of a good falls, the impact on the consumer’s choices can be broken down
into an income effect and a substitution effect. The income effect is the change in
consumption that arises because a lower price makes the consumer better off. The
substitution effect is the change in consumption that arises because a price change
encourages greater consumption of the good that has become relatively cheaper. The
income effect is reflected in the movement from a lower to a higher indifference curve,
whereas the substitution effect is reflected by a movement along an indifference curve
to a point with a different slope.
The theory of consumer choice can be applied in many situations. It can explain why
demand curves can potentially slope upward, why higher wages could either increase or
decrease the quantity of labor supplied, and why higher interest rates could either
increase or decrease saving.
Key concepts
Budget constraint, indifference curve, marginal rate of substitution, perfect substitutes,
perfect complements, normal good, inferior good, income effect, substitution effect,
Giffen good,
Chapter22
Summary
In many economic transactions, information is asymmetric. When there are hidden
actions, principals may be concerned that agents suffer from the problem of moral
hazard. When there are hidden characteristics, buyers may be concerned about the
problem of adverse selection among the sellers. Private markets sometimes deal with
asymmetric information with signaling and screening.
Although government policy can sometimes improve market outcomes, governments are
themselves imperfect institutions. The Condorcet paradox shows that majority rule fails
to produce transitive preferences for society, and arrow’s impossibility theorem shows
that no voting scheme will be perfect. In many situations, democratic institutions will
produce the outcome desired by the median voter, regardless of the preferences of the
rest of the electorate. Moreover, the individuals who set government policy may be
motivated by self-interest rather than the national interest.
The study of psychology and economics reveals that human decisionmaking is more
complex than is assumed in conventional economic theory. People are not always
rational, they care about the fairness of economic outcomes (even to their own
detriment), and they can be inconsistent over time.
Key concepts
Moral hazard, agent, principal, adverse selection, signaling, screening, Condorcet
paradox, arrow’s impossibility theorem, median voter theorem,
Chapter23
Summary
Because every transaction has a buyer and a seller, the total expenditure in the
economy must equal the total income in the economy.
Gross domestic product (GDP) measures an economy’s total expenditure on newly
produced goods and services and the total income earned from the production of these
goods and services. More precisely, GDP is the market value of all final goods and
services produced within a country in a given period of time.
GDP is divided among four components of expenditure: consumption, investment,
government purchases, and net exports. Consumption includes spending on goods and
services by households, with the exception of purchases of new housing. Investment
includes spending on new equipment and structures, including households’ purchases of
new housing. Government purchases include spending on goods and services by local,
state, and federal governments. Net exports equal the value of goods and services
produced domestically and sold abroad (exports) minus the value of goods and services
produced abroad and sold domestically (imports).
Nominal GDP uses current prices to value the economy’s production of goods and
services. Real GDP uses constant base-year prices to value the economy’s production of
goods and services. The GDP deflator---calculated from the ratio of nominal to real
GDP---measures the level of prices in the economy.
GDP is a good measure of economic well-being because people prefer higher to lower
incomes. But it is not a perfect measure of well-being. For example, GDP excludes the
value of leisure and the value of a clean environment.
Key concepts
Microeconomics, macroeconomics, gross domestic product (GDP), consumption,
investment, government purchases, net exports, nominal GDP, real GDP, GDP deflator,
Chapter24
Summary
The consumer price index shows the cost of a basket of goods and services relative to the
cost of the same basket in the vase year. The index is used to measure the overall level
of prices in the economy. The percentage change in the consumer price index measures
the inflation rate.
The consumer price index is an imperfect measure of the cost of living for three reasons.
First, it does not take into account consumers’ ability to substitute toward goods that
become relatively cheaper over time. Second, it does not take into account increases in
the purchasing power of the dollar due to the introduction of new goods. Third, it is
distorted by unmeasured changes in the quality of goods and services. Because of these
measurement problems, the CPI overstates true inflation.
Although the GDP deflator also measures the overall level of prices in the economy, it
differs from the consumer price index because it includes goods and services produced
rather than goods and services consumed. As a result, imported goods affect the
consumer price index but not the GDP deflator. In addition, while the consumer price
index uses a fixed basket of goods, the GDP deflator automatically changes the group of
goods and services over time as the composition of GDP changes.
Dollar figures from different points in time do not represent a valid comparison of
purchasing power. To compare a dollar figure from the past to a dollar figure today, the
older figure should be inflated using a price index.
Various laws and private contracts use price indexes to correct for the effects of inflation.
The tax laws, however, are only partially indexed for inflation.
A correction for inflation is especially important when looking at data on interest rates.
The nominal interest rate is the interest rate usually reported; it is the rate at which
the number of dollars in a savings account increases over time. By contrast, the real
interest rate takes into account changes in the value of the dollar over time. The real
interest rate equals the nominal interest rate minus the rate of inflation.
Key concepts
Consumer price index (CPI), inflation rate, producer price index, indexation, nominal
interest rate, real interest rate,
Chapter25
Summary
Economic prosperity, as measured by GDP per person, varies substantially around the
world. The average income in the world’s richest countries is more than ten times than
in the world’s poorest countries. Because growth rates of real GDP also vary
substantially, the relative positions of countries can change dramatically over time.
The standard of living in an economy depends on the economy’s ability to produce goods
and services. Productivity, in turn, depends on the amounts of physical capital, human
capital, natural resources, and technological knowledge available to workers.
Government policies can try to influence the economy’s growth rate in many ways: by
encouraging saving and investment, encouraging investment from abroad, fostering
education, maintaining property rights and political stability, allowing free trade,
promoting the research and development of new technologies, and controlling
population growth.
The accumulation of capital is subject to diminishing returns: the more capital an
economy has, the less additional output the economy gets from an extra unit of capital.
Because of diminishing returns, higher saving leads to higher growth for a period of
time, but growth eventually slows down as the economy approaches a higher level of
capital, productivity, and income. Also because of diminishing returns, the return to
capital is especially high in poor countries. Other things equal, these countries can grow
faster because of the catch-up effect.
Key concepts
Productivity, physical capital, human capital, natural resources, technological
knowledge diminishing returns, catch-up effect,
Chapter26
Summary
The U.S. financial system is made up of many types of financial institutions, such as the
bond market, the stock market, banks, and mutual funds. All these institutions act to
direct the resources of households who want to save some of their income into the hands
of households and firms who want to borrow.
National income accounting identities reveal some important relationships among
macroeconomic variables. In particular, for a closed economy, national saving must
equal investment. Financial institutions are the mechanism through which the
economy matches one person’s saving with another person’s investment.
The interest rate is determined by the supply and demand for loanable funds. The
supply of loanable funds comes from households who want to save some of their income
and lend it out. The demand for loanable funds comes from households and firms who
want to borrow for investment. To analyze how any policy or event affects the interest
rate, one must consider how it affects the supply and demand for loanable funds.
National saving equals private saving plus public saving. A government budget deficit
represents negative public saving and, therefore, reduces national saving and the
supply of loanable funds available to finance investment. When a government budget
deficit crowds out investment, it reduces the growth of productivity and GDP.
Key concepts
Financial system, financial markets, bond, stock financial intermediaries, mutual fund,
national saving (saving), private saving, public saving, budget surplus, budget deficit,
market for loanable funds, crowding out,
Chapter27
Summary
Because savings can earn interest, a sum of money today is more valuable than the
same sum of money in the future. A person can compare sums from different times
using the concept of present value. The present value of any future sum is the amount
that would be needed today, given prevailing interest rates, to produce that future sum.
Because of diminishing marginal utility, most people are risk average. Risk-averse
people can reduce risk using insurance, through diversification, and by choosing a
portfolio with lower risk and lower risk and lower return.
The value of an asset, such as a share of stock, equals the present value of the cash
flows the owner of the share will receive, including the stream of dividends and the final
sale price. According to the efficient markets hypothesis, financial markets process
available information rationally, so a stock price always equals the best estimate of the
value of the underlying business. Some economists question the efficient markets
hypothesis, factors also influence asset price.
Key concepts
Finance, present value, future value, compounding, risk averse, diversification,
idiosyncratic risk, aggregate risk, fundamental analysis, efficient markets hypothesis,
informationally efficient, random walk,
Chapter28
Summary
The unemployment rate is the percentage of those who would like to work who do not
have jobs. The Bureau of Labor Statistics calculates this statistic monthly based on a
survey of thousands of households.
The unemployment rate is an imperfect measure of joblessness. Some people who call
themselves unemployed may actually not want work, and some people who would like to
work, and some people who would like to work have left the labor force after an
unsuccessful search.
In the U.S. economy, most people who become unemployed find work within a short
period of time. Nonetheless, most unemployment observed at any given time is
attributable to the few people who are unemployed for long periods of time.
One reason for unemployment is the time it takes for workers to search for jobs that
best suit their tastes and skills. Unemployment insurance is a government policy that,
while protecting workers’ incomes, increases the amount of frictional unemployment.
A second reason why our economy always has some unemployment is minimum-wage
laws. By raising the wage of unskilled and inexperienced workers above the equilibrium
level, minimum-wage laws raise the quantity of labor supplied and reduce the quantity
demanded. The resulting surplus of labor represents unemployment.
A third reason for unemployment is the market power of unions. When unions push the
wages in unionized industries above the equilibrium level, they create a surplus of
labor.
A fourth reason for unemployment is suggested by the theory of efficiency wages.
According to this theory, firms find it profitable to pay wages above the equilibrium
level. High wages can improve worker health, lower worker turnover, increase worker
effort, and raise worker quality.
Key concepts
Labor force, unemployment rate, labor-force participation rate, natural rate of
unemployment, cyclical unemployment, discouraged workers, fictional unemployment,
structural unemployment, job search, unemployment insurance, union, collective
bargaining, strike, efficiency wages,
Chapter29
Summary
The term money refers to assets that people regularly use to buy goods and services.
Money serves three functions. As a medium of exchange, it provides the item used to
make transactions. As a unit of account, it provides the way in which prices and other
economic values are recorded. As a store of value, it provides a way of transferring
purchasing power from the present to the future.
Commodity money, such as gold, is money that has intrinsic value: it would be valued
even if it were not used as money. Fiat money takes the form of currency and various
types of bank deposits, such as checking accounts.
The Federal Reserve, the central bank of the United States, is responsible for regulating
the U.S. monetary system. The Fed chairman is appointed by the president and
president and confirmed by Congress every four years. The chairman is the lead
member of the Federal Open Market Committee, which meets about every six weeks to
consider changes in monetary policy.
The Fed controls the money supply primarily through open-market operations: the
purchase of government bonds increases the money supply, and the sale of government
bonds decreases the money supply. The Fed can also expand the money supply by
lowering reserve requirements or decreasing the discount rate, and it can contract the
money supply by raising reserve requirements or increasing the discount rate.
When banks loan out some of their deposits, they increase the quantity of money in the
economy. Because of this role of banks in determining the money supply, the Fed’s
control of the money supply is imperfect.
Key concepts
Money, medium of exchange, unit of account, store of value, liquidity, commodity money,
fiat money, currency, demand deposits, federal reserve (Fed), central bank, money
supply, monetary policy, reserves, fractional-reserve banking, reserve ratio, money
multiplier, open-market operations, reserve requirements, discount rate,
Chapter30
Summary
The overall level of prices in an economy adjusts to bring money supply and money
demand into balance. When the central bank increases the supply of money, it causes
the price level to rise. Persistent growth in the quantity of money supplied leads to
continuing inflation.
The principle of monetary neutrality asserts that changes in the quantity of money
influence nominal variables but not real variables. Most economists believe that
monetary neutrality approximately describes the behavior of the economy in the long
run.
A government can pay for some of its spending simply by printing money. When
countries rely heavily on this “inflation tax,” the result is hyperinflation.
One application of the principle of monetary neutrality is the Fisher effect. According to
the Fisher effect, when the inflation rate rises, the nominal interest rate rises by the
same amount, so that the real interest rate remains the same.
Many people think that inflation makes them poorer because it raises the cost of what
they buy. This view is a fallacy, however, because inflation also raises nominal incomes.
Economists have identified six costs of inflation: shoeleather costs associated with
reduced money holdings, menu costs associated with more frequent adjustment of prices,
increased variability of relative prices, unintended changes in tax liabilities due to
nonindexation of the tax code, confusion and inconvenience resulting from a changing
unit of account, and arbitrary redistributions of wealth between debtors and creditors.
Many of these costs are large during hyperinflation, but the size of these costs for
moderate inflation is less clear.
Key concepts
Quantity theory of money, nominal variables, real variables, classical dichotomy,
monetary neutrality, velocity of money, quantity equation, inflation tax, Fisher effect,
shoeleather costs, menu costs,
Chapter31
Summary
Net exports are the value of domestic goods and services sold abroad minus the value of
foreign goods and services sold domestically. Net capital outflow is the acquisition of
foreign assets by domestic residents minus the acquisition of domestic assets by
foreigners. Because every international transaction involves an exchange of an asset for
a good or service, an economy’s net capital outflow always equals its net exports.
An economy’s saving can be used either to finance investment at home or to buy assets
abroad. Thus, national saving equals domestic investment plus net capital outflow.
The nominal exchange rate is the relative price of the currency of two countries, and the
real exchange rate is the relative price of the goods and services of two countries. When
the nominal exchange rate changes so that each dollar buys more foreign currency, the
dollar is said to appreciate or strengthen. When the nominal exchange rate changes so
that each dollar buys less foreign currency, the dollar is said to depreciate or weaken.
According to the theory of purchasing-power parity, a dollar (or a unit of any other
currency) should be able to buy the same quantity of goods in all countries. This theory
implies that the nominal exchange rate between the currencies of two countries should
reflect the price levels in those countries. As a result, countries with relatively high
inflation should have depreciating currencies, and countries with relatively low
inflation should have appreciating currencies.
Key concepts
Closed economy, open economy, exports, imports, net exports, trade balance, trade
surplus, trade deficit, balanced trade, net capital outflow, nominal exchange rate,
appreciation, depreciation, real exchange rate, purchasing-power parity,
Chapter32
Summary
To analyze the macroeconomics of open economies, two markets are central---the
market for loanable funds and the market for foreign-currency exchange. In the market
for loanable funds, the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply of loanable funds
(from national saving) and the demand for loanable funds (from domestic investment
and net capital outflow). In the market for foreign-currency exchange, the real exchange
rate adjusts to balance the supply of dollars (for net capital outflow) and the demand for
dollars (for net exports). Because net capital outflow is part of the demand for loanable
funds and provides the supply of dollars for foreign-currency exchange, it is the variable
that connects these two markets.
A policy that reduces national saving, such as a government budget deficit, reduces the
supply of loanable funds and drives up the interest rate. The higher interest rate
reduces net capital outflow, which reduces the supply of dollars in the market for
foreign-currency exchange. The dollar appreciates, and net exports fall.
Although restrictive trade policies, such as tariffs or quotas on imports, are sometimes
advocated as a way to alter the trade balance, they do not necessarily have that effect. A
trade restriction increases net exports for a given exchange rate and, therefore,
increases the demand for dollars in the market for foreign-currency exchange. As a
result, the dollar appreciates in value, making domestic goods more expensive relative
to foreign goods. This appreciation offsets the initial impact of the trade restriction on
net exports.
When investors change their attitudes about holding assets of a country, the
ramifications for the country’s economy can be profound. In particular, political
instability can lead to capital flight, which tends to increase interest rates and cause the
currency to depreciate.
Key concepts
Trade policy, capital flight,
Chapter33
Summary
All societies experience short-run economic fluctuations around long-run trends. These
fluctuations are irregular and largely unpredictable. When recessions do occur, real
GDP and other measures of income, spending, and production fall, and unemployment
rises.
Economists analyze short-run economic fluctuations using the model of aggregate
demand and aggregate supply. According to this model, the output of goods and services
and the overall level of process adjust to balance aggregate demand and aggregate
supply.
The aggregate-demand curve slopes downward for three reasons. First, a lower price
level raises the real value of households’ money holdings, which stimulates consumer
spending. Second, a lower price level reduces the quantity of money households
demand; as households try to convert money into interest-bearing assets, interest rates
fall, which stimulates investment spending. Third, as a lower price level reduces
interest rates, the dollar depreciates in the market for foreign-currency exchange, which
stimulates net exports.
Any event or policy that raises consumption, investment, government purchases, or net
exports at a given price level increases aggregate demand. Ay event or policy that
reduces consumption, investment, government purchases, or net exports at a given
price level decreases aggregate demand.
The long-run aggregate-supply curve is vertical. In the long run, the quantity of goods
and services supplied depends on the economy’s labor, capital, natural resources, and
technology, but not on the overall level of prices.
Three theories have been proposed to explain the upward slope of the short-run
aggregate-supply curve. According to the sticky-wage theory, an unexpected fall in the
price level temporarily raises real wages, which induces firms to reduce employment
and production. According to the sticky-price theory, an unexpected fall in the price level
leaves some firms with prices that are temporarily too high, which reduces their sales
and causes them to cut back production. According to the misperceptions theory, an
unexpected fall in the price level leads suppliers to mistakenly believe that their
relative prices have fallen, which induces them to reduce production. All tree theories
imply that output deviates from its natural rate when the price level deviates from the
price level that people expected.
Events that alter the economy’s ability to produce output, such as changes in labor,
capital, natural resources, or technology, shift the short-run aggregate-supply curve
(and may shift the short-run aggregate-supply curve as well). In addition, the position of
the short-run aggregate-supply curve depends on the expected price level.
One possible cause of economic fluctuations is a shift in aggregate demand. When the
aggregate-demand curve shifts to the left, for instance, output and prices fall in the
short run. Over time, as a change in the expected price level causes wages, prices, and
perceptions to adjust, the short-run aggregate-supply curve shifts to the right, and the
economy returns to its natural rate of output at a new, lower price level.
A second possible cause of economic fluctuations is a shift in aggregate supply. When the
aggregate-supply curve shifts to the left, the short-run effect is falling output and rising
prices---a combination called stagflation. Over time, as wages, prices, and perceptions
adjust, the price level falls back to its original level, and output recovers.
Key concepts
Recession,
depression,
model
of
aggregate
demand
aggregate-demand curve, aggregate-supply curve, stagflation,
and
aggregate
supply,
Chapter34
Summary
In developing a theory of short-run economic fluctuations, Keynes proposed the theory
of liquidity preference to explain the determinants of the interest rate. According to this
theory, the interest rate adjusts to balance the supply and demand for money.
An increase in the price level raises money demand and increases the interest rate that
brings the money Markey into equilibrium. Because the interest rate represents the
cost of borrowing, a higher interest rate reduces investment and, thereby, the quantity
of goods and services demanded. The downward-sloping aggregate-demand curve
expresses this negative relationship between the price level and the quantity
demanded.
Policymakers can influence aggregate demand with monetary policy. An increase in the
money supply reduces the equilibrium interest rate for any given price level. Because a
lower interest rate stimulates investment spending, the aggregate-demand curve shifts
to the right Conversely, a decrease in the money supply raises the equilibrium interest
rate for any given price level and shifts the aggregate-demand curve to the left.
Policymakers can also influence aggregate demand with fiscal policy. An increase in
government purchases or a cut in taxes shifts the aggregate-demand curve to the right.
A decrease
in
government
purchases
or
an
increase
in
taxes
shifts
the
aggregate-demand curve to the left.
When the government alters spending or taxes, the resulting shift in aggregate demand
can be lager or smaller than the fiscal change. The multiplier effect tends to amplify the
effects of fiscal policy on aggregate demand. The crowding-out effect tends to dampen
the effects of fiscal policy on aggregate demand.
Because monetary and fiscal policy can influence aggregate demand, the government
sometimes uses these policy instruments in an attempt to stabilize the economy.
Economists disagree about how active the government should be in this effort.
According to advocates of active stabilization policy, changes in attitudes by households
and firms shift aggregate demand; if the government does not respond, the result is
undesirable and unnecessary fluctuations in output and employment. According to
critics of active stabilization policy, monetary and fiscal policy work with such long lags
that attempts at stabilizing the economy often end up being destabilizing.
Key concepts
Theory of liquidity, preference, multiplier effect, crowding-out effect, automatic
stabilizers,
Chapter35
Summary
The Phillips curve describes a negative relationship between inflation and
unemployment. By expanding aggregate demand, policymakers can choose a point on
the Phillips curve with higher inflation and lower unemployment. By contracting
aggregate demand, policymakers can choose a point on the Phillips curve with lower
inflation and higher unemployment.
The tradeoff between inflation and unemployment described by the Phillips curve holds
only in the short run. In the long run, expected inflation adjusts to changes in actual
inflation, and the short-run Phillips curve shifts. As a result, the ling-run Phillips curve
is vertical at the natural rate of unemployment.
The short-run Phillips curve also shifts because of shocks to aggregate supply. An
adverse supply shock, such as the increase in world oil prices during the 1970s, gives
policymakers a less favorable tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. That is ,
after an adverse supply shock, policymakers have to accept a higher rate of inflation for
any given rate of unemployment, or a higher rate of unemployment for any given rate of
inflation.
When the Fed contracts growth in the money supply to reduce inflation, it moves the
economy along the short-run Phillips curve, which results in temporarily high
unemployment. The cost of disinflation depends on how quickly expectations of inflation
fall. Some economists argue that a credible commitment to low inflation can reduce the
cost of disinflation by inducing a quick adjustment of expectations.
Key concepts
Phillips curve, natural-rate hypothesis, supply shock, sacrifice ratio, rational
expectations,
Chapter36
Summary
Advocates of active monetary and fiscal policy view the economy as inherently unstable
and believe that policy can manage aggregate demand to offset the inherent instability.
Critics of active monetary and fiscal policy emphasize that policy affects the economy
with a lag and that our ability to forecast future economic conditions is poor. As a result,
attempts to stabilize the economy can end up being destabilizing.
Advocates of rules for monetary policy argue that discretionary policy can suffer from
incompetence, abuse of power, and time inconsistency. Critics of rules for monetary
policy argue that discretionary policy is more flexible in responding to changing
economic circumstances.
Advocates of a zero-inflation target emphasize that inflation has many costs and few it
any benefits. Moreover, the cost of eliminating inflation---depressed output and
employment---is only temporary. Even this cost can be reduced if the central bank
announces a credible plan to reduce inflation, thereby directly lowering expectations of
inflations. Critics of a zero inflation target claim that moderate inflation imposes only
small costs on society, whereas the recession necessary to reduce inflation is quite costly.
Advocates of a balanced government budget argue that budget deficits impose an
unjustifiable burden on future generations by raising their taxes and lowering their
incomes. Critics of a balanced government budget argue that the deficit is only one
small piece of fiscal policy. Single-minded concern about the budget deficit can obscure
the many ways in which policy, including various spending programs, affects different
generations.
Advocates of tax incentives for saving point out that our society discourages saving in
many ways, such as by heavily taxing the income from capital and by reducing benefits
for those who have accumulated wealth. They endorse reforming the tax laws to
encourage saving, perhaps by switching from an income tax to a consumption tax.
Critics of tax incentives for saving argue that many proposed changes to stimulate
saving would primarily benefit the wealthy, who do not need a tax break. They also
argue that such changes might have only a small effect on private saving. Raising
public saving by decreasing the government’s budget deficit would provide a more direct
and equitable way to increase national saving.