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Women In Business
A worldwide problem of gender inequality
Bangladesh
Cambodia
Denmark
Ethiopia
India
Japan
Russia
Spain
United States
Patricia Feenaghty
[email protected]
Introduction
Throughout the world, gender inequalities exist on every level. Women tend to earn less than men, be in subordinate
positions in their companies, and are less likely to be promoted up or to given pay raises. These are only a few examples
of the problems facing women in the work place. The extent to which these forms of discrimination are felt by women is
influenced by factors within each country. The intent of this paper is to look at these factors and to discuss how women
fare in the business world of each county and why this is important to potential outside investors.
Major Influences on a Woman’s Role in Business
Everything from the economic development of a country to the social norms have had a hand in influencing the role of
women in business. As can be seen in Table 2 of the Appendix, women in developing nations like Bangladesh and
Cambodia are highly concentrated in the agricultural sector where the major products produced in those countries are
agrarian in nature. Women in these countries are often found working in poor conditions without much opportunity for
advancement. In developed nations like Denmark and the US, women are primarily seen in the services sector and have
more opportunities for advancement.
Other determinants of a woman’s role are the social and cultural environments of the country. In terms of the social
side, patriarchal societies like Bangladesh and other Muslim countries tend to discourage women from even leaving the
home. A society’s cultural elements determine what is acceptable behavior and work for women. These two factors,
society and culture, are commonly the hardest to influence or change in any way due to their deep seated roots in a
country’s religious and moral beliefs.
In many countries, there exists a perceived notion that women are less productive than men. This concept comes from
the fact that women worldwide are still the primary care-givers of the family. They are responsible for child rearing and
for the domestic household upkeep. When women enter the business world, they have a “double burden” of taking care
of the family and bringing home a wage. The productivity problem manifests itself in women having higher
absenteeism, tardiness, and turnover than men due to the woman’s continued obligation to the family. There is also the
idea of women as physically weaker than men which comes into play in more agrarian and manufacturing centered
economies.
The reality of women as child bearers is another important indicator of her role in business. I say “indicator” because in
many countries women with greater access to birth control have begun to delay having children and on top of that are
having less children. Also, in more developed countries, the role of women as the primary care-givers is being
transformed and legislation allowing paternal leave is becoming more widely seen. However, in most cases child
bearing women are harmed by the loss of continuity in employment that child birth brings.
Education is another determinant of how women are seen in business. High illiteracy rates in women abound in
developing countries creating barriers to better jobs and higher pay. In developed nations on the other hand, there has
been a steady trend of women staying longer in school and earning higher degrees allowing for access to better jobs and
pay.
Women’s role in business to the extent of their ability to start their own business is influenced in many countries by the
availability of credit to women. The concept of land ownership is, in many cases, a determining factor as to whether or
not a woman can get credit. Understandably, financial institutions are not likely to give credit to someone without any
collateral to secure the debt.
The last major factor which influences women’s participation in business is government intervention. Laws regulating
equality and maternity rights are the most important. Maternity laws give women more flexibility in terms of leaving
and re-entering work for child rearing. In developed countries, the newest form of regulation concerns dealing with
sexual harassment in the workplace. Even though government intervention is most commonly meant to help women, in
some cases this intervention has closed off certain jobs to women because of laws restricting women’s ability to work in
labor intensive jobs or in jobs that require workers to work late into the night.
1
Why look at women in business?
With the global market becoming more and more open to businesses, the idea of looking at a woman’s role may not at
first seen important. This is not the case. In fact, multinationals have many things to determine when opening a foreign
subsidiary. Congress has decided in the Civil Rights Act of 1991 that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects
US citizens from employment discrimination by US multinationals in their overseas operations.1 This law only applies
to US citizens, creating possible ethical problems if US multinationals only apply it to US citizens and not to the foreign
employees. In countries where gender discrimination is legally allowed, engaging in equal opportunity policies could
result in cultural condemnation, loss of customer and client contacts, and eventually unprofitability of the entire overseas
operation.2 So how should multinationals deal with the gender issue? Many international organizations such as the UN,
OEDC, and ILO have created guidelines for multinationals from years of experience in dealing in gender discrimination
issues. 3 Referring to these guidelines could help corporations implement non-discrimination guidelines for both
expatriates and foreign employees without upsetting the cultural norms of a country.
Anther reason why companies must be aware of women’s issues worldwide is due to the common practice of sending
employees to work overseas, especially in the case of female employees. Women may not always be welcome in the
board room and should be aware of the barriers they may face when dealing with certain countries. Kay Ainsley of
Domino’s pizza spoke of her experience in Saudi Arabia. She had been briefed before going there so she knew what to
expect and went with the flow - “I was there to sell a franchise, not change a culture,” she says, “You learn not to take
things personally.”4 This idea of not being thrown off by the gender discrimination is very important when women work
abroad, but companies should be knowledgeable of the country’s culture in order to warn the employees of what they
might face.
Countries
In choosing the countries for this report, I tried to incorporate nations from several different levels of economic
development, with varying religious backgrounds, and government structures in order to give a sense of the range of
opportunities that women may or may not have.
Bangladesh
GDP
$1,330
Literacy
F - 49.4%
M - 26.1%
Religion
Muslim 88.3%, Hindu
10.5%, Other 1.2%
Government
Republic
Suffrage5
Universal - over
18 years
Hofstede
not available
Women in Bangladesh are limited in their participation in the work force by tradition. 6 The country is predominantly
Muslim and practices the concept of Purdah - the moral obligation of the women to live in seclusion, in submission and
with modesty. Not only do they have a restriction on mobility, but they also must dress so that body and face are
covered when they enter the male domain. Not covering yourself is considered provocative and is disrespectful.7
Women are also restricted in who they can speak with. Talking with men who are not their husband, father, brother is
not allowed. These rules greatly hinder the women’s ability to work in certain fields outside the home such as sales
where the women would not be able to speak with customers. Foreign countries doing business in Bangladesh must
consider the restrictions imposed on women because expatriate females might be subject to the same restrictions as the
women in this country in terms of dress and behavior. Also, a dual human resources policy on gender discrimination
might be the only way to avoid conflicts that might arise due to the restrictions put on women.
1
Mayer, D. &| Cava, A. Ethics and the gender equality dilemma for U.S. multinationals. Journal of Business Ethics. 12 (9): 701-708.
Mayer, D. &| Cava, A. Ethics and the gender equality dilemma for U.S. multinationals. Journal of Business Ethics. 12 (9): 701-708.
3
Mayer, D. &| Cava, A. Ethics and the gender equality dilemma for U.S. multinationals. Journal of Business Ethics. 12 (9): 701-708.
4
Steinberg, C. Working women have their work cut out for them overseas. World Trade. 9 (2): 22-24.
5
The CIA Factbook, Bangladesh, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/bg.html, March 21, 1999.
6
The World Bank, Bangladesh: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/bangla.htm, March 21, 1999.
7
Novartis Foundation for Sustainable Development, Purdah–The Seclusion of Women,
http://www.foundation.novartis.com/purdah_bangladesh.htm, March 24, 1999.
2
2
Employment
The labor force of Bangladesh is 42% female, of which 80% work in rural areas.8 Women are generally employed in the
preparation of food, finished products, small livestock keeping, and handicrafts such as spinning, weaving, or
needlework9 All of these activities tend to be ones that the women can do in the household without entering the male
domain. In this country, women are considered to have a weaker physical constitution making them less productive than
men. As such, women are compelled to work longer hours for lower wages due to this perception of their lower
productivity. Normally, women in Bangladesh earn 42% of the average male wage. 10
Government Intervention
The government of Bangladesh has made very little effort to help the plight of women in matters of business. There has
been some budgetary increases in primary education for females and efforts to increase maternal and neonatal health
care have been made also.
Cambodia
GDP
$750
Literacy
F - 22%
M - 48%
Religion
Theravada Buddhism
95%, Other 5%
Government
Multiparty liberal
democracy under a
constitutional monarchy
Suffrage11
Universal - over
18 years
Hofstede
not
available
Due to a long lasting war, the male population of Cambodia has been left decimated. Women make up 57% of the
population with many women as widows and or single household heads providing sole support to family members. 12
The low male population has allowed women to enter non-traditional female jobs that would not have been open to them
otherwise. With that in mind, women may not be able to maintain these jobs if the illiteracy rate does not decline before
the male population replenishes itself. Women in this country do have full right to land and some abilities to receive
lines of credit. Due to the government’s intentions to create equality for women, foreign companies will probably not
encounter too many problems by incorporating their non-discrimination policies in this country.
Employment
The labor force is 53% female. In the rural areas women work in agricultural production and handicrafts. This is
common work for women in developing nations as can be seen in Bangladesh and Ethiopia also. In the urban areas,
many women are self employed with small businesses. In general, women are paid less due to the lack of education,
skills, and time due to double burden of housework and business activity. 13
Government Intervention
Cambodia is one of the few countries to offer a foreign investment code that allows for tax holidays to factories that hire
women. 14 Other efforts to help women include: CEDAW (Convention for Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination
Against Women) 1992, Cambodian constitution - dictates gender equality in all walks of life.
Ministry of Women’s Affairs 1995.15
Denmark
8
The World Bank, Bangladesh: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/bangla.htm, March 21, 1999.
Novartis Foundation for Sustainable Development, Purdah–The Seclusion of Women,
http://www.foundation.novartis.com/purdah_bangladesh.htm, March 24, 1999.
10
Novartis Foundation for Sustainable Development, Purdah–The Seclusion of Women,
http://www.foundation.novartis.com/purdah_bangladesh.htm, March 24, 1999.
11
The CIA Factbook, Cambodia, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/cb.html, March 21, 1999.
12
The World Bank, Cambodia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/cambod.htm, March 21, 1999.
13
The World Bank, Cambodia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/cambod.htm, March 21, 1999.
14
Janssen, P. Cambodia works to heal its wounds. Asian Business. 32 (3): 70-72.
15
The World Bank, Cambodia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/cambod.htm, March 21, 1999.
9
3
GDP
$23,200
Literacy
Total - 99%
Religion
Lutheran 91%,
Protestant 2%, Other 7%
Government
Constitutional
Monarchy
Suffrage16
Universal – over
18 years
Hofstede
I – 85
M–8
In the 1970s, women entered the workforce in Denmark, mostly on a part-time basis. Along with joining the labor
market came social policies aimed at helping the advancement of women in terms of equal pay and work. 17 As is the
case with most developed nations, equality policies by foreign multinationals will fit in with the country’s intentions to
promote equality for women.
Employment
Women make up 46% of the Danish labor force.18 Of that population, 81% are concentrated in the services sector. This
is a trend that is very common to developed nations, especially where education is high. The labor market in Denmark is
very divided according to sex. Over 70% of the female working population are employed in some 25 trades and
professions. These positions include health and social services, work in retail, banks and offices. 19
Women in Denmark make less on average than men, but the gap is not as pronounced as it is in other countries. This
may be attributed to the dominance of women in trade unions, which is not seen in other countries, and the high
percentage of women working in the public sector.20
% of Total Union Membership that is Female
Danish Federation of Trade Unions
46%
Central Organization of Academics
21%
Federation of Civil Servants
63%
Government Intervention
Equal Pay Act 1976
Social Security provides provisions for protecting pregnant women and maternity leave if the woman so desires.
Ethiopia
GDP
$530
Literacy
F - 25.3%
M - 45.5%
Religion
Muslim 45%, Ethiopian
Orthodox 40%, animist
12%, other 3%
Government
Federal
Republic
Suffrage21
Universal –
over 18 years
Hofstede
not available
Ethiopia is another country that has suffered through a lot of fighting. However, in this country women and men fought
together creating a camaraderie between the sexes. During the fighting, men respected women for their fighting ability,
but now the men have turned on them and respect the women now for their make-up, their nice hair and their ability to
be a proper wife.22 Land in Ethiopia was nationalized in 1975 and broken up and allocated based on what its use was
going to be. The ability to get credit is limited to household heads having allocation of land by the government.23
Unfortunately, women are not normally allocated land which makes getting credit difficult. In terms of education, girls
tend to perform less well than boys. They also repeat grades more often and drop out in greater numbers. This is due to
their use during the cropping season and also in family need situations. 24 Foreign multinationals should be aware that
16
The CIA Factbook, Denmark, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/da.html, March 21, 1999.
Hernes, H.M. 1987. Welfare State and Woman Power. Oxford: Norwegian Press.
18
The World Bank, Labour Force Structure, Http://www.worldbank.org/data/pdfs/tab2_3.pdf, March 21,1999.
19
Nielsen, R. Special protective legislation for women in the Nordic countries. International Labour Review. 119 (1): 39-49.
20
Hernes, H.M. 1987. Welfare State and Woman Power. Oxford: Norwegian Press.
21
The CIA Factbook, Ethiopia, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/et.html, March 21, 1999.
22
Eritrea: the kitchen calls. Economist. 33 (7869): 46.
23
The World Bank, Ethiopia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/ethiop.htm, March 21, 1999.
24
The World Bank, Ethiopia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/ethiop.htm, March 21, 1999.
17
4
the role of women in business is changing; however, women already have equal rights under the law and the use of nondiscrimination policies by foreign multinationals should not create too many conflicts.
Employment
Women are most often found in agricultural production - coffee, tea, and grain grinding. The working conditions are
poor and women head load their burdens. Women are 41% of the labor force. Most of the women work in the informal
sector - personal household services and prostitution are common.25
Government Intervention
A lot of the government intervention revolves around the rights of pregnant women. For example, pregnant women will
be transferred to another job if the one they are doing is deemed unsafe. Pregnant women can’t work past 10PM or put
in any overtime. They receive 45 consecutive days of paid leave and when their maternity leave has been used up they
can take sick leave.26 Other important legislation: Article 34 of the constitution - Ethiopians are equal before the law,
irrespective of nationality, sex, religion, occupation and status. Article 36 provides women with special support,
particularly in education, training and employment to facilitate their participation in political, economic, social and
cultural affairs on an equal basis with men.27
India
GDP
$1,600
Literacy
F - 37.7%
M - 65.5%
Religion
Hindu 80%, Muslim 14%,
Christian 2.4%, other 3.6%
Government
Federal
Republic
Suffrage28
Universal –
over 18 years
Hofstede
I - 62
M - 63
India has made many efforts to address gender inequalities; however, the social and economic condition of women is
still disadvantaged due to a patriarchal society. This society has led to the practice of son preference that kills unborn
female infants. Women have the ability to become high up in a business, but factors such as rich/poor, urban/rural,
Northern/Southern play a big role in the likelihood of that happening.29 India suffers from high illiteracy and high drop
out rates among females. Again, this is attributed to the role of women in household chores and girls being kept at home
to do these chores.30
Employment
The labor force in India is 32% female - of which 74% work in agriculture, 15% work in the industry sector, and 12%
work in the services sector.31 Increasing numbers of women have left or are leaving home and the private life to become
bosses elsewhere. One thing to remember about India is that affluence is very important when it comes to women. The
time honored tradition of inheritance of family controlled businesses has helped many women in India. Regardless of
inheritance, India has a large number of women professionals - doctors, lawyers, engineers, scientists. The fact still
remains that these women more than not came from well to do families.32
Government Intervention
Many organizations have been formed to help women in India: Bureau of Women’s Welfare and Development,
Department of Women and Child Development, National Policy on Women 1996. Also education iniciatives have been
put in place.33 The Indian Constitution provides for positive discrimination for neutralizing the socio-economic,
25
The World Bank, Ethiopia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/ethiop.htm, March 21, 1999.
The World Bank, Ethiopia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/ethiop.htm, March 21, 1999.
27
The World Bank, Ethiopia: Country Gender Profile, http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/ethiop.htm, March 21, 1999.
28
The CIA Factbook, India, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/in.html, March 21, 1999.
29
The World Bank, India: Country Gender Profile Context, Http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/india.htm, March 21, 1999.
30
Cox, K. A Woman’s Work. World Business. 3 (1): 26-31.
31
The World Bank, Employment by Economic Activity, http://www.worldbank.org/data/pdfs/tab2_5.pdf. March 21, 1999.
32
Cox, K. A Woman’s Work. World Business. 3 (1): 26-31.
33
The World Bank, India: Country Gender Profile Context, Http://www.worldbank.org/gender/info/india.htm, March 21, 1999.
26
5
educational, and political disadvantages that women could be facing. It also protects against social discrimination,
violence and atrocities and also prevents social evils like child marriage and dowry. 34
Japan
GDP
$24,500
Literacy
Total 99%
Religion
Shinto and Buddhist 84%,
other 16%
Government
Constitutional
Monarchy
Suffrage35
Universal –
over 18 years
Hofstede
not available
Women in Japan are faced with a patriarchal society that expects them to manage the household work while men
dominate the other forms of work. This is not to say that women don’t work outside of the household, because not only
do Japanese women work outside of the home, but they are also expected to do exactly the same work that they would
have done in the household if they were not working.36 Although men and women receive comparable educations
through the high school level, by the age of 25, women are expected to have married. After marriage, work outside of
the home is discouraged but still allowed.37 A policy by multinationals that promotes gender equality without adamant
adherence to US law seems to work best in Japan, especially when adjustments are made to accommodate the culture. 38
Employment
The Japanese labor force is composed 41% of women. Of that 41%, the majority of women laborers are concentrated in
the services sector at 65%.39 An article on Japanese employment practices described the plight of Japanese women as
follows:
There is seldom, if ever, a managerial track for Japanese women: if employed by a major
Japanese company, they are often given positions largely designed to make the office
environment more comfortable (such as by serving tea and appearing ‘decorative’), and are
not taken seriously as career office workers. That would include differing pay scales for
men and women, actively discouraging women past the age of 25 from working with the
company, and pointedly not inviting women employees to the after-five work/social
functions that seem to play such an important part in an employee’s corporate bonding. 40
Another major problem for Japanese women doing business is the problem of sexual harassment. 41 This problem of
sexual harassment is becoming more and more common in developed nations due to the increased visibility of women in
environments where they are subordinates.
Government Intervention
Legislation exists that gives the impression of promoting gender equality in the workplace, though some have questioned
its efficacy.42
34
Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, Rights and Privileges, http://www.indiagov.org/social/women/rights.htm , March 20,
1999.
35
The CIA Factbook, Japan, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ja.html, March 24, 1999.
36
Shibuya, T. Women given more tasks, responsibility. Japan Times Weekly International Edition. 38 (30): 4
37
Shibuya, T. Women given more tasks, responsibility. Japan Times Weekly International Edition. 38 (30): 4
38
Mayer, D. &| Cava, A. Ethics and the gender equality dilemma for U.S. multinationals. Journal of Business Ethics. 12 (9): 701-708.
39
The World Bank, Employment by Economic Activity, http://www.worldbank.org/data/pdfs/tab2_5.pdf, March 21, 1999.
40
Mayer, D. &| Cava, A. Ethics and the gender equality dilemma for U.S. multinationals. Journal of Business Ethics. 12 (9): 701-708.
41
Mayer, D. &| Cava, A. Ethics and the gender equality dilemma for U.S. multinationals. Journal of Business Ethics. 12 (9): 701-708.
42
Mayer, D. &| Cava, A. Ethics and the gender equality dilemma for U.S. multinationals. Journal of Business Ethics. 12 (9): 701-708.
6
Russia
GDP
$4,700
Literacy
F - 97%
M - 100%
Religion
Russian Orthodox,
Muslim, Other
Government
Federation
Suffrage43
Universal - over
18 years
Hofstede
not available
Russia is currently undergoing a change to a market economy. This event has had a huge impact on the labor force,
opening opportunities for women to start their own businesses and to work in non-state operated organizations. State
owned operations tend to be less flexible in terms of women because of the male dominated hierarchy that has
predominantly traditional views about a woman’s role. Non-discrimination policies by foreign multinationals would not
appear to be a problem in Russia.
Employment
Women account for 72% of the unemployed in Russia and are subject to many barriers to employment The educational
level of women has been rising in Russia; however, even when women have a higher education and have earned more
degrees than their male colleagues, women usually earn a lower wage and are lower in the organizational hierarchy. 44
This problem is evident in many countries where women are highly educated. The historical reason for this seems to
stem from the “feminization” of certain jobs. As women enter the work force, they tend to begin with part time work
and progress to jobs with flexible hours. Some jobs are more suited to the flexibility that women desire and these jobs
become feminized as more and more women seek them out and the wage offered for these jobs decreases. Fewer
women than men in Russia report supervising others or participating in the spending decisions of the organization. Men
in this country tend to dominate top levels of management.45 One reason that women have a hard time moving up the
corporate ladder is the concept of how men and women find jobs in this country by way of networking. 46 Women have
lower level jobs to begin with and thus their network may not tap into the top level positions making it difficult to find
out about these jobs.
Government Intervention
By law, pregnant women are entitled to 20 weeks paid leave and they are forbidden from working at night.
Professions that are dangerous to women’s health are closed to them by law also. 48
47
Spain
GDP
$16,400
Literacy
F - 94%
M - 98%
Religion
Roman Catholic 99%,
Other 1%
Government
Parliamentary
Monarchy
Suffrage49
Universal - over
18 years
Hofstede
I - 64
M - 31
Spain has moved from the family centered society that dominated the years of dictatorship to a much more liberal
environment with less emphasis on the family as was determined by the Roman Catholic church previously. Women are
still the principal domestic providers; however, increased education and availability of contraception has helped women
make greater strides in entering the labor force. The welfare state of Spain has also equipped women with the ability to
enter and leave the labor force by enhancing educational opportunities and healthcare.50 US multinationals would be
advised to create a standard policy for non-discrimination that closely mirrors that of the US.
43
The CIA Factbook, Russia, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rs.html, March 21, 1999.
Linz, S. J. Gender differences in Russian labor market. Journal of Economic Issues. 30 (1): 161-185.
45
Linz, S. J. Gender differences in Russian labor market. Journal of Economic Issues. 30 (1): 161-185.
46
Linz, S. J. Gender differences in Russian labor market. Journal of Economic Issues. 30 (1): 161-185.
47
Linz, S. J. Gender differences in Russian labor market. Journal of Economic Issues. 30 (1): 161-185.
48
Koyal, V. 1995. Women in Contemporary Russia. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
49
The CIA Factbook, Spain, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/sp.html, March 21, 1999.
50
Jones, A.B. 1997. Women in Contemporary Spain. NY: Manchester University Press.
44
7
Employment
Then number of women working in Spain has increased greatly over the past 20 years. In 1980, women made up 28% of
the Spanish work force, whereas in 1996, their numbers increased to 36% of the labor force. 51 Even though the number
of women working is rising, women are underrepresented at senior levels of management. Only 5% of company
directors are female. This “glass ceiling “ as it is called prevents women from gaining promotions and pay raises in all
countries.52 To give an idea of the extent of this problem, the US which to most nations is considered highly progressive
in its hiring practices has only 12.4% of executive positions held by women. 53 To make matters worse in Spain, senior
staff that is predominantly male demand more of women and treat absenteeism and tardiness more stringently. Another
problem that women face in Spain is the large incidence of sexual abuse and harassment.54
Government Intervention
In 1981 a law creating Economic Rights was implemented that did away with a husband’s legal right as the administrator
of a couple’s possessions. This has created the ability for women to get credit where before they did not have collateral
to sign for debt without their husband’s permission. In terms of maternity, by law women are entitled to 16 weeks leave.
This can also be taken as paternity leave. In either case, the leave taker has a right to return to their job for 3 years
(return to the original position for 1 year and to an equivalent position for the following 2 years). 55
United States
GDP
$30,200
Literacy
F - 97%
M - 97%
Religion
Protestant 56%, Roman
Catholic 28%, Jewish 2%,
Other 4%, None 10%
Government
Federal
Republic
Suffrage56
Universal - over
18 years
Hofstede
I – 100
M – 74
The United States has been moving from a manufacturing economy to one focused on the services sector. According to
an article entitle “How equal is equal pay?”, 99% of US women will work for pay at some time in their life. 57 Based on
statistics from The World Bank, 84% of those women will work in the services industry. 58 Even though women may
seem to dominate this field, inequalities still remain for US women in terms of pay, opportunities, and benefits.
In terms of education, US women are spending more time in high school, college and trade schools. An increasing
number of women are earning MBAs in order to make themselves more marketable.59
Angel Kwolek-Folland attributes a large part of the success of women in the US to the rise in the rate of divorce, easy
access to birth control, and the wider acceptance of the female role outside the home. 60 The rise in divorce rate meant
that women who had been under the support of their husbands suddenly had to search for work to sustain themselves.
The ease of access to birth control meant that women could control when they would have children if they wanted to
have children. Women have been postponing child rearing until later ages in order to pursue a career. 61
US congressional law stipulates that multinationals must treat expatriates under the same laws as exist in the US, namely
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act and The Equal Pay Act.
51
The World Bank, Labour Force Structure, http://www.worldbank.org/data/pdfs/tab2_3.pdf, March 21, 1999.
Jones, A.B. 1997. Women in Contemporary Spain. NY: Manchester University Press.
53
Kwolek-Folland. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
54
Jones, A.B. 1997. Women in Contemporary Spain. NY: Manchester University Press.
55
Jones, A.B. 1997. Women in Contemporary Spain. NY: Manchester University Press.
56
The CIA Factbook, United States, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/us.html, March 21, 1999.
57
Brady, T. How equal is equal pay? Management Review. 87 (3): 59-61.
58
The World Bank, Employment by Economic Activity, http://www.worldbank.org/data/pdfs/tab2_5.pdf, March 21, 1999.
59
Kwolek-Folland, A. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
60
Kwolek-Folland, A. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
61
Kwolek-Folland, A. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
52
8
Employment
There has been a notable expansion of the female labor force in the US. Women have been moving outside of jobs that
are considered “feminized” markets such as social work and education and moving into areas that have largely been
dominated by men, especially in the arena of management and in the field of science. 62 The number of women owning
their own businesses has increased and today 7.7 million women own businesses that together create revenue of $1.4
trillion.63 This is a remarkable accomplishment for women; however, problems still exist in the US. Women’s wages
have remained proportionally lower than men’s wages - 76 cents on the dollar.64 *See the Appendix - Table 3 for an
explanation of why women’s wages are proportionally lower than male wages. Another major problem that plagues the
US job force is the increasing number of reports of sexual harassment.
Government Intervention
Two major laws exist to ensure equality in the US: Title VII of The Civil Rights Act and The Equal Pay Act of 1963.
Title VII of The Civil Rights Act stipulates that sex can not be a discriminating factor in employment and The Equal Pay
Act of 1963 prohibits employers from discriminating on the basis of sex in the payment of wages where substantially
equal work is performed under similar working conditions.65
In the 1980’s, the idea of parental leave other than by the mother took off. In 1993, the Family and Medical Leave Act
was passed and allowed for maternal or paternal leave from work. 66
Sexual harassment is another issue that has been addressed by the US courts. Evolving law says that sexual harassment
is not about sex, but about power - a supervisor’s power over a subordinate. The reason that this is most prevalent
against women is that women tend to be in the subordinate position.67
62
Anker, R. Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An Overview. International Labour Review. 136 (3): 315-339.
Kwolek-Folland, A. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
64
Kwolek-Folland, A. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
65
Davis Levin Livingston Grande, Attorneys at Law, Facts about Federal Sector Equal Employment Opportunity,
http://www.davislevin.com/facts/fs-fed.html, March 30, 1999.
66
Kwolek-Folland, A. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
67
Davis Levin Livingston Grande, Attorneys at Law, Facts about Federal Sector Equal Employment Opportunity,
http://www.davislevin.com/facts/fs-sex.html, March 30, 1999.
63
9
Conclusions
Women do not have the same opportunities worldwide in the area of business, especially when non-labor influences are
taken into consideration. The inherent culture of a society may restrict a women’s work as was the case in Bangladesh
while another society might foster a woman’s freedom to choose her career, even if it is a job that is not normally done
by a female. The economic development of a country may dictate what type of work is available to women while the
educational opportunities influence whether or not a woman has the capability to do that work. In other cases, the
amount of intervention by a government can either help or hinder a woman’s equal opportunities to employment. The
increased use of birth control in developed countries has helped some women determine when and to what extent they
wanted to have children. This important development has created a way for women to pursue a career while still
maintaining the ability to fulfill the desire to have a family. Another important factor I discovered in my research was
the effect that war had on the development of women in business. The decimation of the male population due to war
creates opportunities for women not only in developing nations, but this event has even been seen in the US during
World War II with images of Rosie the Riveter.
The scope of this paper is not to suggest that women around the world all want to work or that they all desire more
employment opportunities. What should be understood is that as possible investors begin looking at foreign countries,
they will have to deal with how they are going to treat women in those countries. Treating all employees with the same
gender policies as the multinational’s home country employs could be considered very ethnocentric and might create
problems where gender discrimination is legally allowed. However, treating women with the same gender policies as
the foreign country could also create ethical dilemmas for the multinational firm who has a global moral policy. In the
same scheme of things, women going abroad to work should be cognizant of the fact that women are not looked at in the
same way worldwide by their male counterparts. Female expatriates in countries where gender discrimination exists
need to be able to work around the problem in order to get the work done. I think Kay Ainsley’s controversial comment
sums it very well when she says that we’re not there to change the culture, we’re there to do business. 68
68
Steinberg, C. Working women have their work cut out for them overseas. World Trade. 9 (2): 22-24.
10
APPENDIX
Table 1.
% of Labor Force that is Female69
Country
Bangladesh
Cambodia
Denmark
Ethiopia
India
Japan
Russia
Spain
United States
1980
42%
56%
44%
42%
34%
38%
49%
28%
42%
1996
42%
53%
46%
41%
32%
41%
49%
36%
46%
World Wide
39%
40%
Table 2.
Female Employment by Economic Activity70
Country
Agriculture
Industry
Services
Bangladesh
74
19
7
Cambodia
78
8
14
Denmark
3
16
81
Ethiopia
86
2
12
India
74
15
12
Japan
6
25
65
Russia
10
35
56
Spain
7
14
65
United States
2
13
84
Table 3. Wage Ratios71
Occupation
% of Male Wage that
Women Earn
Marketing
61.4%
Financial Managers
67.3%
Sales Representatives
65.6%
Nurses
95.9%
Bookkeepers
90.5%
Teachers
69
70
71
Historically male dominated occupations:
Women tend to earn a lower % of male wage
Historically female dominated occupations:
Women tend to earn a higher % of male
wage
87%
The World Bank, Labour Force Structure, Http://www.worldbank.org/data/pdfs/tab2_3.pdf, March 21,1999.
The World Bank, Employment by Economic Activity, http://www.worldbank.org/data/pdfs/tab2_5.pdf, March 21, 1999.
Kwolek-Folland. 1998. Incorporating Women. NY: Twayne Publishers.
11
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