Download Unit 11

Unit 11
The Great War (1.5 weeks)
Objectives
-To understand the causes of World War
-To be able to trace the course of World
War I
-To understand the causes of the Russian
Revolution and to trace the development
of the Soviet government
-To assess the impact of the war on the
home-front
-To understand the issues surrounding
the Paris Peace Conference and the
Treaty of Versailles
Europe 1913
The Great War had multiple causes –
not one can stand alone as the reason for
its beginning and ultimate destruction of
Empires, Land, Resources and Human
Life.
From extreme nationalism and
assassinations, to unrestricted submarine
warfare, to imperial competition on a
global scale, to entangling alliances and
the failure of diplomacy all combined
are to plan for the Guns of August.
WWI would see the end of the Imperial
Age with the destruction of 4 of the 6
Empires of Europe, and the catastrophic
causality rate of 38.2 million causalities.
The war had a better chance of starting
in 1905 and 1911 than it did in 1914 as
by 1914 tension between Empires was
lessoning. Most heads of states n Europe
saw war as inevitable in their lifetime –
it was a matter of When not If.
It began with a Spark June 28th, 1914.
An internal struggle within the
weakening Austro-Hungarian Empire
Archduke Francis Ferdinand a
visionary for a peaceful solution to his
Empire’s ethnic, religious and racial
issues was assassinated with his wife
Sophia in Sarajevo (the capitol of
Bosnia). An Austrian Serbian Nationalist
and member of the Black Hand –
Gavrilo Pincip pulled the trigger of an
American made revolver. Diplomacy
then quickly failed.
Entangling Alliances
National Rivals – Nothing in the 19th
century was going to make Germany
and France work together in Europe.
Following the Franco/Prussian War
Alsace and Loraine were a source of
tension between the two Empires.
The most dangerous Rival was between
Russia and Austria-Hungary over PanSlavism. This forced by 1882 Germany
and Austria/Hungary to become allies.
1882 Italy joined the Central Powers
with Germany and Austria/Hungary –
reaffirmed this treaty in 1891, 1902
1905 Britain and Germany were rivals
both in economics and in military
building – this forced Britain and France
to became allies for the first time in their
history. Russia needed an ally and joined
the Triple Entente with Britain and
France. Russia joined even though the
Britain refused to allow Russia access to
warm water. The only reason Britain
joined the Triple Entente was out of its
growing fears of a strong German Navy
and German global Imperialism.
These alliances were based on the
concept of Bismarck and the balance of
power in Europe always be on the side
of the three in a fight of five. Germany
would find itself on the side of two at the
start of the war.
Germany and Austria/Hungary v.
Russia
"Some damn foolish thing in the
Balkans," Otto von Bismarck
1873 – three Emperors league developed
by Bismarck –an agreement to maintain
peace in Eastern Europe and to talk
before any military action would be
considered. Created to prevent an
uprising of the Slavic states within the
Austrian/Hungarian Empire and Russian
intervention
Old Man Turk begins to die
1875 – Bosnia and Herzegovina revolt
against Turkish Rule Russia intervenes
Austria believed it was their right (PanSlavism)
1877-1878 Russo-Turkish war
1878 Congress of Berlin called by
Bismarck gave Russia influence over
Bulgaria even though it remained in the
Ottoman Empire and gave
Austria/Hungary control over – Bosnia
and Herzegovina even though it
remained in the Ottoman Empire. Britain
requested that the nation of Serbia and
Romania be created to buffer against
Russian influence in the area and block
the warm water from Russia.
Montenegro was also given
independence and The Ottoman Empire
was forced to give Cyprus to Britain.
1879 Bismarck feared a growing Russia
and developed the dual alliance between
Germany and Austria/Hungary. (this
ultimately put him on the side of two in
a war of five) Bismarck feared a
Franco/Russian alliance.
1881 Bismarck reassured the Three
Emperor’s League.
1887 Russia left the Three Emperors
League (Pan-Slavism) Germany
immediately signed a treaty with Russia
promising to stay out of a war if the
other got involved with one.
1892 France and Russia signed a treaty
to help each other out if either country
ever went to war with Germany. A secret
alliance was formed in 1894 with the
goal of France getting Alsace Lorraine
and Russia getting the Balkan states for
Slavism.
1. French banks by 1890 had
investments in Russia
2. Most of Russia’s nobility spoke
French (thanks to Peter the
Great)
Anglo-German rivalry
Following the Congress of Vienna
Britain had made it its policy to not
make any alliances with the Empires of
Europe. Growing global competition
with Germany forced Britain to
reconsider not having any friends in
Europe.
1897 Germany allocated an enormous
budget to building a large Naval force to
counter the British. In response Britain
built the Dreadnought the largest ship
built to date. An Anglo-German naval
arms race ensued.
1899-1902 Boer War Germany
supported the Boers
1905 Anglo/Franco alliance
Britain and France
1901 – U.S. U.K. treaty allowing for
panama canal and Anglo Japanese treaty
1904-1905 Russo Japanese war
convinced Britain that Germany not
Russia was the real threat to warm water
trade routes and global competition.
Britain would invest in the rebuilding or
Russia following the Russo/Japanese
War.
1904 Entente Cordial between Britain
and France - recognized French control
over Morocco and British control over
Egypt, this also eased tension in South
East Asia by recognizing Siam as a
neutral buffer nation between British
Burma and French Indochina
First Moroccan Crisis 1906– tested
Anglo/French alliance when Germany
demanded equal trade with Morocco –
England not willing to go to was for
France but neither was Austria willing to
support Germany both sides backed
down France remained in control of
Morocco
Turkey – Ottoman Empire
Following the Crimean War Turkey
became dependent on Western loans to
modernize Turkey by 1875 Turkey could
not pay its debts and Western Europe
took over control of the Ottoman Debt.
This lead to the British buying control of
the Suez Canal at a fraction of its value
(Forcing France to give up any control it
had over the Suez) forcing Egypt into
bankruptcy in the Ottoman Empire.
Abdulhamid II became the Sultan in
1876 ruled until 1909 created a
constitution for the empire –
westernization began – railroads were
built- roads paved – larger farms were
created and public school was initiated.
This lead to nationalism in the regions of
the empire – Armenia backed by Russia
pushed for independence and 200,000
Armenians were put to death as a result.
1889 Young educated Turks formed the
Committee of Union and Progress
“The Young Turks” Mustafa Kemal –
Ataturk was their leader
Their goal - modernize and unify the
Empire without Western help or
influence in Armenia. They forced a
return the constitution of 1876 and
ousted the Sultan. Russia supported this
unstableness as it sought warm water
access through the straits.
1908
Bosnian crisis (although was is averted
this demonstrated that all of Europe
could go to war over what happened in
the BALKLANS)
October Bulgaria declared independence
and Austria annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina – this up set the agreements
of the Congress of Berlin of 1878 and
enraged Russia – none of Europe
however was ready or willing to go to
war over this annexation. Germany
demanded that Russia recognize the
annexation without conflict.
1911
Second Moroccan Crisis
Germany sailed into the Moroccan port
of Agadir and demanded that France
give up its claim to the Congo region in
return for Germany recognition of
French Morocco Britain and Russia
supported France but avoided war as
France gave up 100,000 miles of the
Congo –resulted in the British and
French dividing naval responsibilities on
the globe the British would control the
Channel and the North Sea the French
fleet would control the Mediterranean.
1912 Italy invaded Libya and took it
from the Ottoman Empire and Serbia,
Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece
formed the Balkan League with the
intention of liberating the Balkan states
from the Ottoman Empire. Taking
advantage of the weakening Ottoman
Empire the league declared war on the
Turks in 1912 (Balkan War) 1 monththe League won and annexed Ottoman
territory. Austria/Hungary, Russia,
Germany and Britain all picked sides as
to how the newly liberated territories
should be treated – European War was
avoided by simple recognition of the
outcome of the 1 month war – Albania
became a free state of its own.
Treaty of London divided up the
remainder of the European part of the
Ottoman Empire to then Balkan states.
(This would cause problems well into
the 21st century)
It began with a Spark June 28th, 1914.
An internal struggle within the
weakening Austro-Hungarian Empire
Archduke Francis Ferdinand a
visionary for a peaceful solution to his
Empire’s ethnic, religious and racial
issues was assassinated with his wife
Sophia in Sarajevo (the capitol of
Bosnia). An Austrian Serbian Nationalist
and member of the Black Hand –
Gavrilo Pincip pulled the trigger of an
American made revolver. Diplomacy
then quickly failed.
The 1911 Gräf & Stift Bois de Boulogne tourer in which
Archduke Franz Ferdinandand his wife were riding at
the time of their assassination
is now located in Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in
Vienna
Gavrilo Princip in his prison cell at the
Terezín fortress
The Latin Bridge near the assassination site
Archduke and wife minutes before assassination
The Ultimatum
“The Lions of July”
Austria ‘s government wanted to crush
Serbia for this. Germany encouraged an
attack and gave Austria a “blank check”
to do what was needed to Serbia with the
full support of the German Empire.
Germany believed Britain would not
interfere but expected war with Russia
and France a 2 V. 2 imperial fight.
July 21st 1914 – Russia and France
warned Austria to stand down and look
for a peaceful solution
July 23rd Austria presented its
Ultimatum to Serbia. Austria accused
Serbia of trying to break up the
Austro/Hungarian Empire.
The demands: 48 hours to respond.
The Royal Serbian Government shall
further undertake:
(1) To suppress any publication which
incites to hatred and contempt of the
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the
general tendency of which is directed
against its territorial integrity;
(2) To dissolve immediately the society
styled "Narodna Odbrana," to confiscate
all its means of propaganda, and to
proceed in the same manner against
other societies and their branches in
Serbia which engage in propaganda
against the Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy. The Royal Government shall
take the necessary measures to prevent
the societies dissolved from continuing
their activity under another name and
form;
(3) To eliminate without delay from
public instruction in Serbia, both as
regards the teaching body and also as
regards the methods of instruction,
everything that serves, or might serve, to
foment the propaganda against AustriaHungary;
(4) To remove from the military service,
and from the administration in general,
all officers and functionaries guilty of
propaganda against the AustroHungarian Monarchy whose names and
deeds the Austro-Hungarian
Government reserve to themselves the
right of communicating to the Royal
Government;
(5) To accept the collaboration in Serbia
of representatives of the AustroHungarian Government for the
suppression of the subversive movement
directed against the territorial integrity
of the Monarchy;
(6) To take judicial proceedings against
accessories to the plot of the 28th of
June who are on Serbian territory;
delegates of the Austro-Hungarian
Government will take part in the
investigation relating thereto;
(7) To proceed without delay to the
arrest of Major Voija Tankositch and of
the individual named Milan Ciganovitch,
a Serbian State employee, who have
been compromised by the results of the
magisterial inquiry at Serajevo;
(8) To prevent by effective measures the
cooperation of the Serbian authorities in
the illicit traffic in arms and explosives
across the frontier, to dismiss and punish
severely the officials of the frontier
service at Shabatz Loznica guilty of
having assisted the perpetrators of the
Serajevo crime by facilitating their
passage across the frontier;
(9) To furnish the Imperial and Royal
Government with explanations regarding
the unjustifiable utterances of high
Serbian officials, both in Serbia and
abroad, who, notwithstanding their
official position, have not hesitated since
the crime of the 28th of June to express
themselves in interviews in terms of
hostility to the Austro-Hungarian
Government; and, finally,
(10) To notify the Imperial and Royal
Government without delay of the
execution of the measures comprised
under the preceding heads.
The Austro-Hungarian Government
expect the reply of the Royal
Government at the latest by 5 o'clock on
Saturday evening the 25th of July.
Europe was shocked at the list – Serbia
became totally dependent upon Russia
for help. Britain called it the most
“formidable document ever presented by
one independent state to another” Russia
blamed Germany for the wording and
claimed it was a German plot to keep
Russia out of the warm waters.
July 23rd France told Russia it would
support what ever Russia did.
July 25th Russia mobilized it Army
Russian Mobilization
Serbia mobilized its Army
Britain place it Naval Fleet on alert for
war.
The Serbian reply – accepted 5 would
talk about 4 and refused to comply to 1
July 26th Germany told Russia
mobilization would be scene as an act of
war and believed Britain would stay out
as long a Germany did not threaten it.
July 28th – one month to the date of the
assassination Austria declared war on
Serbia and Europe fell like a “house of
cards”
German sent a letter to Belgium
demanding that be able to march troops
through Belgium into France. William II
also sent a letter to Nicholas II asking
him to avoid war.
July 29th Austria bombarded Belgrade
July 30th Full scale Russian
Mobilization against Austria. Austria
sent troops to fight the Russians and the
Serbians.
Britain was approached by France and
Russia to join the war but did not want
to support Russia at this point Germany
and Austria could have avoided war.
– Britain wanted Europe to recognize a
neutral Belgium and to keep it out of the
coming conflict.
July 31st Germany demanded that
Russia stop its mobilization against
Austria. Then Germany demanded
France stay neutral in a fight between
Russian and Germany and that France
allow German troops to occupy several
French fortifications as a show of good
faith. France refused.
French socialist and peace maker Juan
Jaures is assassinated in Paris.
The Guns of August
Aug 1st – Germany mobilized for war
and declared war on Russia. France then
declared war on Germany
Aug 2nd Belgium refused to let Germany
marched through its country – Britain
told France it would defend the English
Channel and its ports.
Aug 3rd Germany declared war on
France and marched in Belgium –
Britain warned Germany to withdraw its
troops Germany ignored them.
German invasion of Belgium
Aug 4th Britain declared war on
Germany – Germany was now on the
side of 2 in a fight of 5
The international tension of the last
decade now exploded on the battlefield
of Europe. Central Powers (triple
Alliance Italy would quickly change
sides ) vs. the Triple Entente
Kaiser William II
The Germany Plan – Schlieffen Plan
Created by the German General Staff in
1905 to fight a two front war in Europe.
Take out France first with lightening war
this required the passing through British
protect Belgium as France had fortified
its border after the Franc/Prussian war.
(Means war with England) Race to the
English Channel and South to Paris at
the same time and force France to
surrender before Britain could send
troops across the channel. Then turn all
of Germany’s resources to fight the
much bigger but slower Russia.
The French Plan – Plan XVII
Marshal Joseph Joffre attack Germany
through Alsace and Lorraine on the 16th
day of the war as the Russian invaded
Germany from the East.
France underestimated the speed in
which the German army could attack and
was completely over run by Aug 16th –
Belgium collapsed before the German
Army.
Aug 20th, 100,000 British troops arrived
in France just in time to retreat
Aug 24th German army pushed to within
35 miles of Paris and were stopped at the
Marne River – do in part to the fact that
Italy remained neutral and did not force
France to fight it in the South.
Sept 5th the Schlieffen Plan ended as the
German offensive failed to force a
French surrender.
Sept 14th the German Army was forced
to stop all advances on Paris and “dig in”
for the duration of the war The First
Battle of the Marne saved France.
Nov 1914 say the last of the open field
battles at Ypres in Belgium the
remainder of the war would be fought
from trenches. Ypres was fought
between the British and the Germans.
Britain stopped the Germans from
making it to the English Channel.
Dec 24 –25 1914 Christmas truce –
German and British troops play a soccer
match and exchange gifts in no mans
land
Eastern Front
Aug1914 Battle of Tannenberg
German trapped A Russian army of
200,000 Russia suffered 125,000
casualties Two old German generals
gained fame and would later lead
Germany in the inter war years.
Hindenburg sand Ludendorff
Sept 1914 Austrian Army attacked the
Russians and lost as all of the Slavs in
the Habsburg Army defected to Russia
and were sent to Siberia for
Russification.
Nov 1914 – Germany’s ally turkey
closed off the Dardanelle Straits to the
British. Britain developed a strategy to
take them back in order to get supplies to
the Russians
Approximate Casualties (killed
wounded missing) from Aug-Dec 1914
German 417,000
French 250,000
British –87,733
Russian – 317,000
Austria/Hungary – 576,000
130,000 Czech/Slavs defected to
Russia
Serbia- 320,000
Bulgaria-37,000
battlefield as troops charged across No
Mans Land into certain death.
Reason for high casualty rate
Out dated tactics against modern
weapons
Trench Warfare – not knew for WW I
first used in the American Civil War
1864-65
British trench upper left – German trench Right side
Mustard Gas -Battle of Ypres Mustard
gas first used by the Germans – carried
by the wind designed to burn out the
lungs and eyes
over 6250 miles of trenches dug in
France – separated by 40 yards to a mile
– this would stagnate the war and cause
mass casualties in “No Mans Land” as
well as cause trench foot and poor health
conditions for troops living in them.
Machine Gun – best defensive weapon
of the war – was used like a paint brush
sweeping back and forth over the
British Use of Gas – direction is
determined by the wind – caused
massive problems for the user as well
Estimated gas casualties
Nation
Fatal Non-fatal
Russia
56,000 419,340
Germany
9,000 200,000
France
8,000 190,000
British Empire
8,109 188,706
(includes Canada)
Austria-Hungary
3,000 100,000
USA
1,462
72,807
Italy
4,627
60,000
Total
88,498 1,240,853
Spad s XIII
Zeppelin
Airplane – first used as observation
devices – then they carried pigeons to
quickly deliver messages – then they
were used to hand drop bombs and
grenades – then machine guns were
placed on them to shoot each other out
of the sky
Zeppelins -were used by both sides to
bomb cities and be an aircraft aircraft
carrier
Aircraft production by 1918
German built 47,000 aircraft
France 51,000 aircraft
Britain 55,000 aircraft
Submarine
U.S. commissioned the first Submarine
into its fleet 1862 USS Alligator
The 1862 Alligator, first submarine of the United States
Navy.
Sopwith camel
By 1914 all of the powers had
submarines – The German U-Boat was
the most effective 188 feet long and had
a travel range of 2,400 miles
red baron
German U Boat
Allied and Neutral Tonnage sunk by submarines in
World War I
Month
January
1914
1915
47,981
1916
81,259
1917
368,521
1918
306,658
February
59,921
117,547
540,006
318,957
March
80,775
167,097
593,841
342,597
April
55,725
191,667
881,027
278,719
May
120,058
129,175
596,629
295,520
June
131,428
108,855
687,507
255,587
July
109,640
118,215
557,988
260,967
62,767
185,866
162,744
511,730
283,815
September 98,378
151,884
230,460
351,748
187,881
87,917
88,534
353,660
458,558
118,559
November 19,413
153,043
311,508
289,212
17,682
December
123,141
355,139
399,212
August
October
Total
44,197
312,672 1,307,996 2,327,326 6,235,878 2,666,942
Grand Total 12,850,815 gross tons
German
Flame Thrower
Flame throwers were introduced by the
Germans in early 1915, then copied by
the French and British. Throughout the
war both sides duplicated each other's
ever-more-lethal battlefield technology.
Below: British cavalry return after their
initial attack while infantrymen dash
forward, continuing the advance.
Tanks – First used by the British Feb 2nd
1916 to break the stalemate of trench
warfare – code named tanks
Tank production in WWI:
Year
| United
Kingdom |
1916
150
|
1917
1,277
|
1918
1,391
|
France Germany Italy
USA
|
|
|
-
-
-
-
800
-
-
-
4,000
20
6
84
Total: 7,728
Total War – WW I was also waged
against populations and areas as cities
were bombed.
British
French
The Home Front 1914 early in the war
-None of the Empires could fight this
war without complete support from the
Home Front. Propaganda machines were
effective in every nation – Germany
convinced its people as a war for the
preservation of German Culture against
the Russian Barbarians and the
dishonorable French
Britain – A war to defend law liberty
and progress against the Germans who
violated national sovereignty and
international law
France – defend Liberty from the
German Invader
In France and Britain political parties put
aside differences to concentrate on a war
economy – their primary arguments
were over who was and was not a
successful general.
David Lloyd George help transform
England economy to a war time
economy supported the Munitions of
War Act which forbade strikes and
allowed for impressments of factory
workers to build war supplies. Daylight
savings time and volunteer rationing
occurred throughout Britain. The
Women’s Suffrage movement in Britain
was put on hold when Millicent Garrett
Fawcett asked women to stop protesting
and support the men going off to war.
The German people whole heartedly
supported the war as 500 German trains
crossed the Rhine River on a daily basis
supplying the German Army.
IN France the Socialist party and all
other political parties signed the “Sacred
Union” agreement not to argue political
differences while the war was being
fought.
Russia was on the verge of Civil war
WWI would push it into revolution.
Austria was able to keep its
multinational Empire together in a
common cause of war.
Russia- Protection of the Slavic people
and later Red Russia
Western front Stagnated in the trenches
The War n 1915
British Casualties 300,000
German Casualties 610,000
French Casualties 1,292,000
Treaty of London A secret treaty
between France Britain and Italy – Italy
would join the allies with the hope of
acquiring part of the Austrian Empire
Japan joined the allies and seized parts
of the German pacific
The Eastern Front 1915
With stagnation of the Western Front the
German moved to destroy Russia before
it could destroy the weaker Austrian
Army.
Jan 1915 -Austrian needed to be saved
from destruction in the Carpathian
Mountains Germans lost 350,000 saving
them
May 1915 Germans had pushed the
Russians back 100 miles in a chaotic
route of the Russian Army and civilian
population. The Germany army pushed
all the way to the Polish city of BrestLitovsk – ending a 100 years of Russian
rule in Poland
April 1915 British fleet sailed through
the Dardanelle Straits and landed
colonial troops mostly Australian and
New Zealand troops at Gallipoli an up
hill battle against the Turkish army –
400,000 British troops were involved the
campaign failed and the British
withdrew in Jan 1916 with 200,000
casualties
Oct 1915 because Britain failed at
Gallipoli the nation of Bulgaria joined
the Central Powers in an effort to build a
Bulgarian empire in Macedonia
Japan took more of the German islands
in the pacific.
Western Front 1915
May 7th 1915, while heading east off
the Old Head of Kinsale, Ireland,
Lusitania was torpedoed without
warning by U-20 and sank within 18
minutes. (Two explosions rocked the
ship. The first was clearly caused by a
torpedo from U-20. The cause of the
second explosion has never been
definitively determined and remains the
source of much controversy.)
Of those on board, 761 were rescued,
while 1,198 perished 128 Americans
were on board. Lusitania's sinking, and
the sinking of White Star's Arabic a few
months later (2 Americans died), vividly
demonstrated that prior concepts of the
rules of war no longer prevailed, and that
unarmed merchant ships were no longer
safe from attack.
Germany claimed it was carrying war
supplies to the allies and therefore
needed to be sunk – in fact it was but not
found out until the 1990’s
Wilson demanded under threat of war
that if the Kaiser did not stop
unrestricted Submarine warfare – the
U.S. would enter on the side of the
allies. Known as the Sussex Ultimatum
after the French ship sunk in 1916 –
Germany would now warn ships before
sinking them.
December – Stagnation in the trenches
Britain replaced its command staff in
Europe by appointing General Haig in
December. The French appointed
General Philippe Pétain
Germany appointed General Erich Von
Falkenhayn
1916
The year began with all sides planning
assaults: Germany wanted to grind
French manpower down through a war
of attrition, forcing them to defend the
symbolic Fortress of Verdun at horrific
cost, while the Entente aimed to
breakthrough on the Somme. In the East,
the Germans planned to hold firm while
different Russian armies planned attacks.
Meanwhile, Romania enters the war as
an Entente power.
Verdun February 21 - December 18:
Battle of Verdun, fought by French and
German troops at massive cost and no
overall gains.
Germany needed this victory to force
France to sue for peace as the Russians
although loosing ground in the East were
not surrendering or even looking for
peace with Germany. Falkenhayn
believed this would be a battle of
attrition and that the French would loose
5 for every 2 German dead.
August 29: Falkenhyn dismissed from
German command, mainly due to the
continuing failure at Verdun. He is
replaced by Hindenburg and Ludendorff;
they now control almost all German and
Austro-Hungarian forces on the Eastern
and Western Fronts.
December the German offensive on
Verdun ended – France lost 540,000
casualties the Germans 430,000
In one battle around Verdun on one hill
the French lost 90,000
Nearly everyone in the French army
fought at Verdun the battle was of
national pride.
Somme
July – November 1916 the British
offensive in the Somme
July 1: On the first day of the Battle of
the Somme, the attacking British troops
suffer 60,000 casualties, mostly in the
first hour.
September 15: Tanks are used for the
first time, by the British at FlersCourcelette, Somme
British Tank Somme Battle lines
November Allied gains were measured
in yards when the offensive ended
Cost of the Somme
Britain 420,000 Casualties
French 200,000 Casualties
Germans 650,000 Casualties
This battle convinced the German High
command that the only way to win was
to return to unrestricted submarine
warfare and to win before America could
enter.
December 6: David Lloyd George
named Prime Minister of Britain;
remains until 1922
Bulgaria and Turkey economically
drained by the war sought peace with the
allies
Germany asked for peace only with
England not France – UK refused
French general Joffre was replaced by
General Robert Nivelle
Break of Day in the Trenches
Isaac Rosenberg 1916 Western Front
The darkness crumbles away
It is the same old druid Time as ever,
Only a live thing leaps my hand,
A queer sardonic rat,
As I pull the parapet's poppy
To stick behind my ear.
Droll rat, they would shoot you if they
knew
Your cosmopolitan sympathies,
Now you have touched this English hand
You will do the same to a German
Soon, no doubt, if it be your pleasure
To cross the sleeping green between.
It seems you inwardly grin as you pass
Strong eyes, fine limbs, haughty athletes,
Less chanced than you for life,
Bonds to the whims of murder,
Sprawled in the bowels of the earth,
The torn fields of France.
What do you see in our eyes
At the shrieking iron and flame
Hurled through still heavens?
What quaver -what heart aghast?
Poppies whose roots are in men's veins
Drop, and are ever dropping;
But mine in my ear is safe,
Just a little white with the dust.
Home front 1916
Britain – Anglo Persian oil was making
profit at 344 million pounds
1 million British women entered the
workforce 750,000 women worked in
munitions.
Censorship kept the casualties from
going public in England – propaganda
went as far as to say life in the trenches
was fun, comfortable and the men were
always n good spirits.
Ireland – Irish republicans who opposed
British rule wanted Home rule and
independence from Great Britain.
On Easter Sunday the IRA planned a
violent uprising in Dublin – Sir Roger
Casement and Irish Nationalist wanted
German support for the uprising was
unable to get it encouraged rebellion and
was arrested prior to the Easter Uprising
when he returned to Ireland on a German
Submarine. The Easter uprising lasted 5
days 450 IRA wee killed and Casement
was executed for treason against the
crown.
Germany –Clara Zetkin and Rosa
Luxemburg both lead socialist women’s
movement against he war in Germany
and was jailed
German people were untouched by the
destruction of war – but not the
casualties of war as the death tolls
started to public in 1917 – many
Germans were also starving do to war
rationing and the public wanted an end
to the war – the Reichstag however had
little control of the Military run
Government.
France – Large amount of civilian
refugees from the occupied farmlands of
France – the bulk of the war was fought
on French soil. There was no talk
amongst the French people of
capitulation only victory.
1917
Two major events occur that affect the
outcome of the War – America enters on
the side of the allies and the Russian
revolution which will lead to Russia
leaving the war
Western Front
January 19, 1917 - The British intercept
a telegram sent by Alfred Zimmermann
in the German Foreign Office to the
German embassies in Washington, D.C.,
and Mexico City. Its message outlines
plans for an alliance between Germany
and Mexico against the United States.
According to the scheme, Germany
would provide tactical support while
Mexico would benefit by expanding into
the American Southwest, retrieving
territories that had once been part of
Mexico. The Zimmermann telegram is
passed along by the British to the
Americans and is then made public,
causing an outcry from interventionists
in the U.S., such as former president
Teddy Roosevelt, who favor American
military involvement in the war.
Within days, Russian soldiers mutiny
and join the revolution.
February 1, 1917 - The Germans
resume unrestricted submarine warfare
around the British Isles with the goal of
knocking Britain out of the war by
cutting off all imports to starve the
British people into submission.
April 2, 1917 - President Woodrow
Wilson appears before the U.S.
Congress and gives a speech saying "the
world must be made safe for democracy"
then asks the Congress for a declaration
of war against Germany.
February 3, 1917 - The United States
severs diplomatic ties with Germany
after a U-Boat sinks the American grain
ship Housatonic. Seven more American
ships are sunk in February and March as
the Germans sink 500 ships in just sixty
days.
April 6, 1917 - The United States of
America declares war on Germany.
February 25, 1917 - In the Middle East,
newly reinforced and replenished British
troops retake Kut al-Amara in
Mesopotamia from outnumbered Turks.
The British then continue their advance
and capture Baghdad, followed by
Ramadi and Tikrit.
Russian revolution
March 8, 1917 - A mass protest by
Russian civilians in Petrograd (St.
Petersburg) erupts into a revolution
against Tsar Nicholas II and the war.
March 15, 1917 - The 300-year-old
Romanov dynasty in Russia ends upon
the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. In his
place, a new democratically minded
Provisional Government is established.
Great Britain, France, the United States,
and Italy rush to recognize the new
government in the hope Russia will stay
in the war and maintain its huge
presence on the Eastern Front.
The United States Enters the
War
April 16, 1917 - The French 5th and 6th
Armies attack along a 25-mile front
south of the Hindenburg Line. The new
offensive comes amid promises of a
major breakthrough within 24-hours by
the new French Commander-in-Chief,
Robert Nivelle, who planned the
operation. Nivelle once again utilizes his
creeping barrage tactic in which his
armies advance in stages closely behind
successive waves of artillery fire.
However, this time it is poorly
coordinated and the troops fall far
behind. The Germans also benefit from
good intelligence and aerial
reconnaissance and are mostly aware of
the French plan. Nivelle's offensive
collapses within days with over 100,000
casualties. French President Poincaré
personally intervenes and Nivelle is
relieved of his command. He is replaced
as Commander-in-Chief by General
Henri Petain, who must deal with a
French Army that is now showing signs
of mutiny.
April 16, 1917 - Political agitator
Vladimir Lenin arrives back in Russia,
following 12 years of exile in
Switzerland. Special train transportation
for his return was provided by the
Germans in the hope that anti-war Lenin
and his radical Bolshevik Party will
disrupt Russia's new Provisional
Government. Lenin joins other
Bolsheviks in Petrograd who have
already returned from exile including
Joseph Stalin.
May 18, 1917 - The Selective Service
Act is passed by the U.S. Congress,
authorizing a draft. The small U.S.
Army, presently consisting of 145,000
men, will be enlarged to 4,000,000 via
the draft.
May 19, 1917 - The Provisional
Government of Russia announces it will
stay in the war. A large offensive for the
Eastern Front is then planned by
Alexander Kerensky, the new
Minister of War. However, Russian
soldiers and peasants are now flocking to
Lenin's Bolshevik Party which opposes
the war and the Provisional Government.
over the unending battles of attrition and
appalling living conditions in the muddy,
rat and lice-infested trenches. The new
Commander-in-Chief, Henri Petain,
cracks down on the mutiny by ordering
mass arrests, followed by several
firing squad executions that serve as a
warning. Petain then suspends all French
offensives and visits the troops to
personally promise an improvement of
the whole situation. With the French
Army in disarray the main burden on the
Western Front falls squarely upon the
British.
June 7, 1917 - A tremendous
underground explosion collapses the
German-held Messines Ridge south of
Ypres in Belgium. Upon detonation,
10,000 Germans stationed on the ridge
vanish instantly. The British then storm
the ridge forcing the surviving Germans
to withdraw to a new defensive position
further eastward. The 250-foot-high
ridge had given the Germans a
commanding defensive position. British,
Australian and Canadian tunnelers had
worked for a year to dig mines and
place 600 tons of explosives.
French Mutiny
May 27-June 1, 1917 - The mutinous
atmosphere in the French Army erupts
into open insubordination as soldiers
refuse orders to advance. More than half
of the French divisions on the Western
Front experience some degree of
disruption by disgruntled soldiers, angry
June 13, 1917 - London suffers its
highest civilian casualties of the war as
German airplanes bomb the city, killing
158 persons and wounding 425. The
British react to the new bombing
campaign by forming home defense
fighter squadrons and later conduct
retaliatory bombing raids against
Germany by British planes based in
France.
June 25, 1917 - The first American
troops land in France.
July 1, 1917 - Russian troops begin the
Kerensky Offensive attempting to
recapture the city of Lemberg (Lvov) on
the Eastern Front. The Germans are
lying in wait, fully aware of the battle
plans which have been leaked to them.
The Russians attack along a 40-mile
front but suffer from a jumble of tactical
problems including a lack of artillery
coordination, poor troop placement, and
serious disunity within the ranks
reflecting the divisive political situation
back home. The whole offensive
disintegrates within five days. Sensing
they might break the Russian Army, the
Germans launch a furious counteroffensive and watch as Russian soldiers
run away.
July 2, 1917 - Greece declares war on
the Central Powers, following the
abdication of pro-German King
Constantine who is replaced by a proAllied administration led by Prime
Minister Venizelos. Greek soldiers are
now added to the Allied ranks.
Third Battle of Ypres
July 31-November 6, 1917
July 31, 1917 - The British attempt once
more to break through the German lines,
this time by attacking positions east of
Ypres, Belgium. However, by now the
Germans have vastly improved their
trench defenses including wellpositioned artillery. Although the British
5th Army succeeds in securing forward
trench positions, further progress is
halted by heavy artillery barrages from
the German 4th Army and rainy weather.
August 10, 1917 - The British resume
their attack at Ypres, focusing on
German artillery positions around
Gheluvelt. The attack produces few
gains as the Germans effectively
bombard and then counter-attack. Six
days later, the British try again, with
similar results. The entire Ypres
offensive then grinds to a halt as British
Army Commander Douglas Haig
ponders his strategy.
September 1, 1917 - On the Eastern
Front, the final Russian battle in the war
begins as the Germans attack toward
Riga. The German 8th Army utilizes
new storm troop tactics devised by
General Oskar von Hutier. Bypassing
any strong points as they move forward,
storm troop battalions armed with light
machine-guns, grenades and flame
throwers focus on quickly infiltrating the
rear areas to disrupt communications and
take out artillery. The Russian 12th
Army, under General Kornilov, is unable
to hold itself together amid the storm
troop attacks and abandons Riga, then
begins a rapid retreat along the Dvina
River, pursued by the Germans.
September 20, 1917 - A revised British
strategy begins at Ypres designed to
wear down the Germans. It features a
series of intensive, narrowly focused
artillery and troop attacks with limited
objectives, to be launched every six
days. The first such attack, along the
Menin Road toward Gheluvelt, produces
a gain of about 1,000 yards with 22,000
British and Australian casualties.
Subsequent attacks yield similar results.
October 12, 1917 - The Ypres offensive
culminates around the village of
Passchendaele as Australian and New
Zealand troops die by the thousands
while attempting to press forward across
a battlefield of liquid mud, advancing
just 100 yards. Steady October rains
create a slippery quagmire in which
wounded soldiers routinely drown in
mud-filled shell craters.
Attack at Caporetto
October 24, 1917 - In northern Italy, a
rout of the Italian Army begins as 35
German and Austrian divisions cross the
Isonzo River into Italy at Caporetto and
then rapidly push 41 Italian divisions 60
miles southward. By now, the Italians
have been worn down from years of
costly but inconclusive battles along the
Isonzo and in the Trentino, amid a
perceived lack of Allied support. Nearly
300,000 Italians surrender as the AustroGermans advance, while some 400,000
desert. The Austro-Germans halt at the
Piave River north of Venice only due to
supply lines which have become
stretched to the limit.
later, the Allies attack again and edge
closer as the Germans slowly begin
pulling out.
October 31, 1917 - In the Middle East,
the British led by General Edmund
Allenby begin an attack against Turkish
defensive lines stretching between Gaza
and Beersheba in southern Palestine. The
initial attack on Beersheba surprises the
Turks and they pull troops away from
Gaza which the British attack secondly.
The Turks then retreat northward toward
Jerusalem with the Allies in pursuit.
Aiding the Allies, are a group of Arab
fighters led by T. E. Lawrence, an Arab
speaking English archeologist, later
known as Lawrence of Arabia. He is
instrumental in encouraging Arab
opposition to the Turks and in disrupting
their railroad and communication
system.
November 6, 1917 - The village of
Passchendaele is captured by Canadian
troops. The Allied offensive then ceases,
bringing the Third Battle of Ypres to an
end with no significant gains amid
500,000 casualties experienced by all
sides.
October Revolution
November 6-7, 1917 - In Russia,
Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin
and Leon Trotsky
October 26, 1917 - At Ypres, a second
attempt is made but fails to capture the
village of Passchendaele, with Canadian
troops participating this time. Four days
overthrow the
Provisional Government in what comes
to be known as the October Revolution
(Oct. 24-25 according to the Russian
calendar). They establish a nondemocratic Soviet Government based on
Marxism which prohibits private
enterprise and private land ownership.
Lenin announces that Soviet Russia will
immediately end its involvement in the
war and renounces all existing treaties
with the Allies.
November 11, 1917 - The German High
Command, led by Erich Ludendorff,
gathers at Mons, Belgium, to map out a
strategy for 1918. Ludendorff bluntly
states he is willing to accept a million
German casualties in a daring plan to
achieve victory in early 1918, before the
American Army arrives in force. The
goal is to drive a wedge between the
British and French armies on the
Western Front via a series of all-out
offensives using Germany's finest
divisions and intensive storm troop
tactics. Once this succeeds, the plan is to
first decimate the British Army to knock
Britain out of the war, and then decimate
the French Army, and thus secure final
victory.
November 15, 1917 - Georges
Clemenceau becomes France's new
Prime Minister at age 76. Nicknamed
"The Tiger," when asked about his
agenda, he will simply answer, "I wage
war."
British Tank Attack
November 20, 1917 - The first-ever
mass attack by tanks occurs as the
British 3rd Army rolls 381 tanks
accompanied by six infantry divisions in
a coordinated tank-infantry-artillery
attack of German trenches near Cambrai,
France, an important rail center.
The attack targets a 6-mile-wide portion
of the Front and by the end of the first
day appears to be a spectacular success
with five miles gained and two Germans
divisions wrecked. The news is
celebrated by the ringing of church bells
in England, for the first time since 1914.
However, similar to past offensives, the
opportunity to exploit first-day gains is
missed, followed by the arrival of heavy
German reinforcements and an effective
counter-attack in which the Germans
take back most of the ground they lost.
December, 7, 1917 - Romania
concludes an armistice with the
Central Powers due to the demise of
Imperial Russia, its former military ally.
December 9, 1917 - Jerusalem is
captured by the British. This ends four
centuries of its control by the Ottoman
(Turkish) Empire.
December 15, 1917 - Soviet Russia
signs an armistice with Germany. With
Russia's departure from the Eastern
Front, forty-four German divisions
become available to be redeployed to the
Western Front in time for Ludendorff's
Spring Offensive.
1918
January 1918 - President Woodrow
Wilson outlines an elaborate peace plan
to the U.S. Congress containing
Fourteen Points as the basis of its
establishment.
March 3, 1918 - At Brest-Litovsk,
Soviet Russia signs a treaty with
Germany formally ending its
participation in the war. Harsh terms
imposed by the Germans force the
Russians to yield a quarter of their
prewar territory and over half of Russia's
industries.
German Spring Offensives
March 21, 1918 - Germany's all-out
gamble for victory begins upon the
launch of the first of a series of
successive spring offensives on the
Western Front. The Saint Michael
Offensive, named after Germany's
patron saint, begins after a five-hour
6,000-gun artillery bombardment as 65
divisions from the German 2nd, 17th and
18th Armies attack the British 3rd and
5th Armies along a 60-mile front in the
Somme. At first it seems destined to
succeed as the thinly stretched British
5th Army is quickly overrun and
wrecked. Using effective storm troop
tactics, the Germans recapture all of the
ground they lost in 1916 during the
Battle of the Somme and press forward.
However, during the two week
offensive, the British 3rd Army manages
to hold itself together and prevents the
Germans from taking Arras and Amiens,
key objectives of the offensive.
March 26, 1918 - At a strategic
conference in Doullens, France, the
British and French agree to appoint an
Allied Supreme Commander on the
Western Front, in place of the separate
commanders they had been using, to
better coordinate their efforts. Ferdinand
Foch, Petain's highly regarded chief of
staff, accepts the position.
April 1, 1918 - Britain's Royal Air Force
(RAF) is founded upon the merging of
the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval
Air Service. By now, the British aviation
industry has become the world leader.
April 9-29, 1918 - The second offensive
in Germany's victory gamble, the
Georgette Offensive, begins as 46
divisions from the German 6th Army
attack the British 2nd Army around
Ypres. The Germans push the British
back three miles to the outskirts of
Ypres, even taking back the hard-won
Passchendaele Ridge. However, the
arrival of British, French and Australian
reinforcements from the south breaks the
German momentum and the offensive
halts. Georgette, similar to Michael, is
only a partial success. General
Ludendorff's goal of first separating the
British and French armies via Michael
and then destroying the British via
Michael and Georgette is not achieved.
Additionally, the Germans suffer
330,000 casualties in the two offensives
and lack sufficient reserve troops.
April 21, 1918 - Germany's Red Baron
(Manfred von Richthofen) is shot down
and killed by the British. The German
Ace was credited with shooting down 80
Allied aircraft. He is buried with military
honors by the British.
May 27-June 3, 1918 - The BlücherYorck Offensive, Germany's third in a
row, begins with the goal of bogging
down the Allies in central France, thus
preventing further reinforcements from
reaching British positions in the north.
Forty-one divisions of the German 1st
and 7th Armies successfully attack the
inadequate defenses of the French 6th
Army along a 25-mile front east of the
Aisne River. After a highly effective
artillery barrage, German storm troops
roll over the decimated 6th Army. This
startling success emboldens General
Ludendorff to change his overall
strategy. He decides to make a run for
Paris, hoping to draw the Allies into a
final climactic battle that will decide the
war. Within two days, the Germans cross
the Aisne River and rapidly advance
westward, coming within 50 miles of
Paris. But the troops have been pushed
to the limit for too long and soon
succumb to exhaustion, unable to
maintain the breakneck pace. The
advance sputters to a halt as Allied
reinforcements, including Americans,
pour in to the region.
First American Action
May 28-29, 1918 - Troops of the U.S.
1st Infantry Division capture the village
of Cantigny from the Germans and hold
it. The American Expeditionary Force
(AEF) is commanded by General John
Pershing who is determined to maintain
all-American fighting units, rather than
parcel out American troops to the British
and French armies. By now, 650,000
American soldiers have arrived in
France, with the number growing by
10,000 per day.
June 6, 1918 - The Battle of Belleau
Wood involving the U.S. 2nd Infantry
Division begins. During the three-week
fight against the Germans, Americans
experience their first significant
battlefield casualties with 5,000 killed.
June 9, 1918 - The Germans launch
their fourth offensive, once more with an
eye toward Paris. In the hastily arranged
Gneisenau Offensive the German 18th
Army attacks in a southwest direction
toward Paris. However, the Germans are
stopped as French and American troops
successfully counter-attack and the new
offensive withers after just four days.
June 15, 1918 - Austrian troops begin an
offensive along the Piave River in Italy,
at the urging of the Germans. Although
suffering from a lack of food, horses and
supplies, they cross the river and
establish a 12-mile front, but then realize
they can not hold it against the nowrevitalized Italian Army and withdraw
after suffering 150,000 casualties.
Following this, Austrian soldiers in Italy
begin deserting.
Mid 1918 - Soldiers from all sides begin
to succumb to a deadly strain of
influenza. Troop losses from the flu
epidemic soon exceed combat casualties,
especially weakening the hard-pressed
German Army. The worldwide epidemic
lasts for about a year, killing an
estimated 20 million persons, then
vanishes as strangely as it had appeared.
July 15-17, 1918 - The last German
offensive of the war, the Marne-Reims
Offensive, begins with a two-pronged
attack around Reims, France, by 52
divisions. The Allies have been
anticipating this battle and lie in wait.
The German attack to the east of Reims
is crushed that day by the French. To the
west of Reims, the advance is blocked
by the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division,
followed by a successful French and
American counter-attack.
July 17, 1918 - Russian Bolsheviks
murder former Tsar Nicholas and his
entire family. By now, an all-out civil
war has erupted in Russia that features
indiscriminate killings of civilians and
captured fighters. Amid the chaos,
disease and starvation envelop Russia.
The fighting between Bolsheviks and
their opponents will last three years,
ending with a Bolshevik victory amid a
Russian death toll estimated at 15
million persons.
Tsar Nicholas II in capitivity
General Ludendorff. This occurs as the
British 4th Army using 456 tanks attacks
German positions east of Amiens. Six
German divisions quickly fall apart and
13,000 prisoners are taken during the
rapid 7-mile advance. The attack is only
slowed when the Germans rush in nine
divisions, their last reserves on the
Western Front.
August 20, 1918 - The French 10th
Army takes 8,000 prisoners at Noyon
and captures the Aisne Heights.
August 21, 1918 - The British 3rd Army
begins an attack along a 10-mile front
south of Arras, while the adjacent 4th
Army resumes it attack in the Somme, as
the Germans continue to fall back.
September 12, 1918 - The first standalone attack by Americans occurs as the
U.S. 1st Army attacks the southernmost
portion of the Western Front in France at
St. Mihiel. The offensive is supported by
an unprecedented 1,476 Allied aircraft
used as part of a coordinated air-ground
attack. Within 36 hours, the Americans
take 15,000 prisoners and capture over
400 pieces of artillery as the Germans
withdraw.
Allied Counter-Offensives
July 18, 1918 - A combined French and
American attack along the Marne marks
the first in a series of coordinated Allied
counter-offensives on the Western Front.
Three French armies accompanied by
five American divisions cross the Marne
River. In the face of this assault, the
German 7th and 9th Armies begin a
withdrawal from the Marne.
August 8, 1918 - Germans in the
Somme experience the "Black Day of
the German Army" as later described by
September 15, 1918 - The Allies push
the Bulgarians out of Serbia as French,
Serbian and Italian troops make rapid
gains, advancing nearly 20 miles
northward from Greece in three days.
Bulgarian troops attempting to redeploy
westward through the narrow Kosturino
Pass are relentlessly bombarded by
airplanes and overall troop morale
collapses. Meanwhile, political turmoil
strikes at home as anti-war riots erupt in
Bulgaria's cities along with Russianstyle revolutionary fervor that results in
the proclamation of local soviets.
September 19, 1918 - In the Middle
East, the Allies launch a cavalry attack
to push the Turks out of Palestine.
Australian and Indian cavalry divisions
smash through the Turkish defenses
around Megiddo on the first day and
gallop northward, as British infantry
follow, while the RAF and Arab fighters
disrupt communication and supply lines.
As the Turkish armies collapse, they
withdraw northward toward Damascus
with the Allies in pursuit.
September 26, 1918 - The U.S. 1st
Army and French 4th Army begin a joint
offensive to clear out the strongly
defended corridor between the Meuse
River and the Argonne Forest. Here, the
Germans do not fall back and the battle
soon resembles action from earlier years
in the war. Amid a steady rain, the
troops advance yard-by-yard over the
muddy, crater-filled terrain with 75,000
American casualties suffered over six
weeks of fighting.
Hindenburg Line Broken
September 27, 1918 - The British 1st
and 3rd Armies, aided by Australians
and the U.S. 2nd Corps, break through a
20-mile portion of the Hindenburg Line
between Cambrai and St. Quentin.
September 28, 1918 - Belgian and
British troops push back the Germans in
the Fourth Battle of Ypres. Unlike the
previous drawn-out battles, this one lasts
just two days as the Belgians take
Dixmude and the British secure
Messines.
September 28, 1918 - Confronted by the
unstoppable strength of the Allies and
faced with the prospect of an outright
military defeat on the Western Front,
General Ludendorff suffers a nervous
collapse at his headquarters, losing all
hope for victory. He then informs his
superior, Paul von Hindenburg, the war
must be ended. The next day,
Ludendorff, accompanied by
Hindenburg, meet with the Kaiser and
urge him to end the war. The Kaiser's
army is becoming weaker by the day
amid irreversible troop losses, declining
discipline and battle-readiness due to
exhaustion, illness, food shortages,
desertions and drunkenness. The Kaiser
takes heed from Hindenburg and
Ludendorff, and agrees with the need for
an armistice.
September 29, 1918 - Bulgaria signs an
armistice with the Allies, becoming the
first of the Central Powers to quit the
war.
October 1, 1918 - In the Middle East,
Damascus is captured by Australian
troops and Arab fighters.
October 2, 1918 - A military
representative sent by Ludendorff to
Berlin informs the legislature the war is
lost and that armistice discussions
should begin immediately. The German
politicians are shocked by the news,
having largely been kept in the dark by
the General Staff and the Kaiser till now.
Germans Request Armistice
October 4, 1918 - President Woodrow
Wilson receives a request from the
German government, sent via the Swiss,
asking for armistice discussions on the
basis of his Fourteen Points. The
Germans have bypassed the French and
British in the hope of negotiating with
Wilson who they perceive as more
lenient. They are disappointed, however,
when Wilson responds with a list of
demands as a prelude to discussions
including German withdrawal from all
occupied territories and a total halt of UBoat attacks.
October 5, 1918 - The Allies break
through the last remnants of the
Hindenburg Line.
October 6, 1918 - A provisional
government proclaims the state of
Yugoslavia, signaling the beginning of
the breakup of the old Hapsburg
(Austro-Hungarian) Empire in central
Europe which had existed for six
centuries.
October 7, 1918 - Poland, formerly part
of the Russian Empire, proclaims itself
as an independent state.
October 8, 1918 - The British 3rd and
4th Armies take 8,000 German prisoners
while advancing toward Cambrai and
LeCateau.
October 13, 1918 - The Germans
engage in a general retreat along a 60mile portion of the Western Front in
France stretching from St. Quentin
southward to the Argonne Forest, as
French and American armies steadily
advance.
October 14, 1918 - Germans abandon
positions along the Belgian coast and
northernmost France as the British and
Belgians steadily advance.
October 17, 1918 - King Albert of
Belgium enters the city of Ostend on the
Belgian coast.
October 23, 1918 - Under pressure from
the French and British, President Wilson
informs the German government that
armistice negotiations can not ensue
with the current military or Imperial war
leaders still in place. An outraged
General Ludendorff then disavows the
negotiations as 'unconditional surrender'
and is forced to resign by the Kaiser. In
the face of such turmoil, the armistice
negotiations are conducted principally
by civilian members of Germany's
government. This will become the basis
of a postwar "stab in the back" claim by
German militarists asserting their troops
at the Front were sold out by the
politicians back home.
October 24, 1918 - In southern Europe,
the Allies cross the Piave River to push
the Austrians out of Italy as seven Italian
armies, incorporating British, French and
American divisions, attack the four
remaining Austro-Hungarian armies
from the Trentino westward to the Gulf
of Venice. In its final battle of the war,
the Austro-Hungarian Army sees 30,000
soldiers killed and over 400,000 taken
prisoner.
October 29, 1918 - The Czechs declare
their independence from Austria. Two
days later, Slovakia declares
independence from Hungary.
Czechoslovakia is subsequently formed.
October 30, 1918 - Turkey signs an
armistice with the Allies, becoming the
second of the Central Powers to quit the
war.
November 1, 1918 - Belgrade is
liberated by French and Serbian troops.
November 1, 1918 - After pausing to
regroup and resupply, Allied armies
resume their eastward march as the U.S.
1st Army and newly formed U.S. 2nd
Army attack remaining German
positions along the Meuse River near
southern Belgium, while the Belgians
and British move toward Ghent and
Mons in Belgium.
November 3, 1918 - Mutiny strikes the
German Navy at the ports of Kiel and
Wilhelmshaven as sailors refuse orders
to put to sea to engage in a final colossal
battle with the British Navy. Along with
this, revolutionary fervor and
Bolshevist-style uprisings erupt in
German cities including Munich,
Stuttgart and Berlin. The extent of the
unrest stuns German leaders, and even
the Allies, who fear Germany might now
succumb to a violent Bolshevist
revolution in the manner of Russia. This
brings a stark urgency to the armistice
negotiations.
November 3, 1918 - The only remaining
ally of Germany, Austria-Hungary,
signs an armistice with Italy, leaving
Germany alone in the war.
November 5, 1918 - The Germans are
informed by President Wilson that
armistice discussions can begin on the
basis of his Fourteen Points as they
requested, but that an armistice must be
secured through France's Marshal Foch,
the Allied Supreme Commander.
November 8, 1918 - At Compiègne,
France, six representatives of the
German government, with Matthias
Erzberger as spokesman, are brusquely
presented with armistice terms by
Marshal Ferdinand Foch. The terms
include German evacuation of all
occupied territory, an Allied occupation
of Germany west of the Rhine River,
surrender of weaponry including all subs
and battleships, and indefinite
continuation of the naval blockade.
November 9, 1918 - The Kaiser's
Imperial government collapses in ruin as
a German republic is proclaimed with
Friedrich Ebert heading the new
provisional government. Kaiser Wilhelm
then seeks refuge in Holland amid
concerns for his safety after his generals
warn him they may not be able to
adequately protect him from the volatile
situation in Germany.
Armistice Ends Fighting
November 11, 1918 - At 5:10 am, in a
railway car at Compiègne, France, the
Germans sign the Armistice which is
effective at 11 am--the eleventh hour of
the eleventh day of the eleventh month.
Fighting continues all along the Western
Front until precisely 11 o'clock, with
2,000 casualties experienced that day by
all sides. Artillery barrages also erupt as
11 am draws near as soldiers yearn to
claim they fired the very last shot in the
war.
November 12, 1918 - A final action
occurs as Germans in Africa under the
command of the elusive General Paul
von Lettow-Vorbeck encounter British
troops in Northern Rhodesia, where
news of the Armistice had not reached
the Germans.
April 28, 1919 - The League of Nations
is founded, championed by President
Wilson as a means of peaceably
resolving future conflicts. Germany is
excluded for the time being. Despite
Wilson's intentions, the United States
never joins as an isolationist-minded
U.S. Senate subsequently rejects
membership to avoid further European
entanglements.
June 21, 1919 - The Germans sink 74 of
their own warships in anticipation of
being forced to yield them to the Allies.
Europe 1919
Treaty of Versailles
January 6, 1919 - An attempt to
overthrow Germany's provisional
government occurs in Berlin as several
buildings are seized by members of the
communist Spartacus League led by
Karl Liebknecht. The revolution is
violently thwarted by bands of Freikorps
composed of ex-soldiers led by former
German Army officers and Liebknecht is
killed.
January 18, 1919 - The Paris Peace
Conference opens with delegates from
32 nations invited. President Woodrow
Wilson attends, marking the first-ever
visit to Europe by a sitting president.
January 19, 1919 - The first-ever
nationwide election in Germany results
in pro-democracy political parties
getting 75 percent of the vote.
February 6, 1919 - The newly elected
German Assembly meets in Weimar and
begins work on a new democratic
constitution.
inside the palace of Versailles at the
peace table
June 28, 1919 - At the Palace of
Versailles in France, a German
delegation signs the Treaty formally
ending the war. Its 230 pages contain
terms that have little in common with
Wilson's Fourteen Points as the Germans
had hoped. Germans back home react
with mass demonstrations against the
perceived harshness, especially clauses
that assess sole blame for the war on
Germany. 231
July 31, 1919 - The Weimar Republic
is born in Germany from a new
constitution which provides for a liberal
democracy. The government consists of
two houses of Parliament (Reichstag)
and a president elected by the people.
The president can dissolve the Reichstag
and rule by decree in the event of an
emergency.
September 1919 - Corporal Adolf Hitler
is ordered by the German Army to
investigate a small political group in
Munich called the German Workers'
Party. Hitler soon joins the group and
begins to build it up, later changing its
name to the National Socialist German
Workers' (Nazi) Party. The antidemocratic group vehemently opposes
the Treaty of Versailles and claims the
German Army was not defeated on the
battlefield but was betrayed by a "stab in
the back" wrought by disloyal politicians
on the home front.
March 1920 - Freikorps groups attempt
but fail to overthrow Germany's
democratic government during the Kapp
Putsch.
April 1921 - The Reparations
Commission announces Germany must
pay the Allies $28 billion over 42 years,
via annual payments of cash and goods
such as coal and timber.
April 1922 - Germany and Soviet Russia
conclude the Treaty of Rapallo allowing
for economic collaboration. Secret
clauses in the treaty provide for German
military activities prohibited by the
Treaty of Versailles, including weapons
manufacturing, to be done in Soviet
Russia.
January 1923 - After Germany falls
behind on its war reparation payments,
French and Belgian troops occupy the
Ruhr industrial region inside Germany.
Workers there react by walking off the
job. In a defiant show of support, the
German government sends money to the
out-of-work protestors. However, this
soon leads to ruinous inflation and
devaluation of the German deutsche
mark--eventually four billion to the
dollar--as the government prints an
unlimited amount of money to satisfy its
needs.
November 9, 1923 - Three thousand
Nazis led by Adolf Hitler, and aided by
former General Erich Ludendorff,
attempt but fail to overthrow Germany's
democratic government by staging an
armed Putsch in Munich. Hitler is then
sentenced to prison where he composes
Mein Kampf a book outlining his racial,
political and military philosophies,
including the need for Germany to
forcibly expand its borders eastward into
Russia. The Nazis remain a fringe group
until the worldwide economic collapse
of 1929 causes political turmoil in
Germany that generates popular support
for Hitler, resulting in the election of
Nazis to the government.