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SOR1 2009HSC Topic One: Religion and Belief Systems in Australia post-1945 Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming Fundamental to Ab. Spirituality. ↝ the Dreaming involves all knowledge and understanding in Aboriginal societies, and hence incorporates all beliefs and practices of Aboriginal communities. Encompasses physical and spiritual aspects of Ab. Life. Symbolic of creation phase- believe land created in present shape by journeys of ancestor spirits. Dreaming is LAW- governs Ab. behaviour, sets out structure for society, rules for moral actions, instructions for religious ceremonies/rituals etc. Acts as guide for Ab. Person throughout life. Concept of time is cyclical, not linear- meaning dreaming is past, present and future. origins of the universe & inextricably connected to the land Transcendent: ultimate reality is beyond the limits of the physical earth Immanent: reality resides in the sacred places and the stores of ‘my country’ In an Aboriginal way of being, everything is connected; land, people and spirit. ‘Country’ is a word used to describe an area of land in which a number of Aboriginal families live The Dreaming is reflected by the whole environment. Humans are unified with the environment. Dreaming is embedded in all aspects of Aboriginal life. Aboriginal spirituality and its inextricable connection with the land Kinship system of belonging and responsibilities within a clan Significance: Kinship ties also assign the responsibility to transmit the knowledge of the Dreaming from elders to the younger generation. People are initiated into the Dreaming by different degrees according to their age and position in the community. This process of learning the Dreaming is a life long pursuit. Obligations to the land and people Page 1 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC Land is the physical medium through which the Dreaming is lived and communicated. Dwelling place for ancestral spirit beings. Identity & acknowledgement of the traditional owners Sacred sites Stories Sacred sites or ritual estate have a special significance connected with particular events in the Dreaming. Aboriginal people have special ritual responsibilities to take care of, and to learn from these sacred sites which are off-limits and hidden from the noninitiated. Totems The Dreaming is primarily expressed through stories Way of teaching Aboriginal children about right and wrong behaviour in society. Rituals Reliving of the story in a powerfully sacred way. Totems are the embodiment of each individual in his or her primordial state Ceremonial responsibilities commonly known as balance rites. Issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to POLICY OF ASSIMILATION · “half caste” assimilates them into the white community · forget their cultural identity · Separation of Aboriginal children from families · Prohibition of traditional Aboriginal practices · Ban on the use of traditional Aboriginal languages STOLEN GENERATION · Aboriginal children who were removed from their homes between 1900 and 1972 by the Government and church missionaries in an attempt to assimilate these children into White Australian society · Aboriginal race could be bred out of existence. · Maltreatment, sexual exploitation and humiliation severing Aboriginal children's ties with the Dreaming. The removal of these children from their traditional lands means that they could no longer learn or fulfil their ritual responsibilities The effect of dispossession: separation from the land, separation from Kinship groups and Stolen Generation The impact of dispossession for Aboriginal people has been enormous and overwhelmingly detrimental Government policies of protection and assimilation are the dark episodes of the Stolen Generation. Separation from land Loss of identity Ever-present burden of not being able to fulfil ritual responsibilities. Separation from kinship groups, results in the loss of language Destruction of the kinship system Removal of large numbers of children from their families meant that these children were unable to maintain their cultural identity Page 2 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC Restriction on the practice of the kinship system, totems and ceremonial rituals Dislocation of Aboriginal people from the land caused a loss of Aboriginal cultural identity as the people of the Dreaming are inextricably connected to the land The Land Rights Movement: Native Title, Mabo, Wik Importance of land rights movement. Land rights are of critical importance in relation to Aboriginal spirituality, because the Dreaming is inextricably connected with the land. The land is the resting place for ancestral spirit beings. Each Aboriginal is connected with the land through their totem. Specific areas have important spiritual meaning for particular groups of Aboriginal people - these are known as sacred sites. There are special responsibilities attached to sacred sites The identity of an Aboriginal person is inextricably linked to the land and hence the land is like a mother for the people. Native Title The beginnings of the modern land rights movement is usually attributed to the Wave Hill Mob who went on strike for better conditions on a Northern Territory cattle station at Wave Hill. Eventually after a protracted dispute the Whitlam Federal Government passed the first land rights legislation in 1975. Land rights legislation benefits a very small percentage of Aboriginal people. Native title refers to communal or individual rights or interests of Aboriginal people or Torres Strait Islanders in relation to land or waters. Mabo In June 1992 the High Court of Australia ruled in favour of an action brought by Eddie Mabo on behalf of the Murray Island people. The court ruled that Australia was indeed an occupied land at the time of British settlement and that the notion of terra nullius - "land belonging to no one" - was false in regard to the situation in Australia. It further ruled that under certain circumstances a form of title known as "Native Title" existed under Australian law. In order to claim Native Title it had to be proved that continuous links with the land had been maintained since before 1788 and that the Native Title had not been extinguished as with freehold title. Native Title could only be claimed on a very small percentage of Australian land. The Wik case and the Native Title Amendment Act In 1996 the High Court ruled in favour of the Wik people who claimed that Leasehold Title may not automatically extinguish Native Title. The High Court ruled that in certain circumstances Native Title and Leasehold Title could co-exist and that in areas of dispute the interests of the Leasehold Title holder would prevail. Page 3 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC In response to pressure from investors in rural Australia the Howard Federal Government prepared legislation to amend the Native Title Act and prevent any uncertainty. The legislation was called the Native Title Amendment Act and was commonly referred to as the 10 Point Plan. The main feature of the legislation was to transfer from the Federal Government to the various State Governments the power to upgrade the title from Leasehold Title to Freehold Title thus extinguishing Native Title. Religious Expression in Australia – 1945 to Present The religious landscape from 1945 to the present in relation to: changing patterns of religious adherence and current religious landscape changing patterns of religious adherence There have been significant declines in the number of Christians regularly attending religious services. This decline is most evident in the Anglican Church, the Presbyterian Church and the Uniting Church. The drop in the figures for these three denominations represents both a decrease in the percentage of those who are affiliated with that denomination as well as a decline in actual numbers over the last decade. The proportion of Orthodox Christians in Australia grew rapidly after the Second World War and has remained quite constant over the past decade. Roman Catholics have continued to increase both numerically and as a percentage of the population, and have overtaken Anglicans as the largest denomination in Australia. Pentecostal figures have demonstrated strong growth both numerically and as a percentage of the population since the 1960s. In the last ten years however, this steep ascent appears to have slowed down and reached a plateau. The significant drop in the numbers of people regularly attending religious services should be read in conjunction with the substantial trend in the increasing numbers of people writing "No Religion" or "Religion Not Stated" in the census . The figure for religions other than Christianity, on the whole, appears to be steadily increasing from a fairly small base. Buddhist figures have grown at a steady rate from 1972 onwards and is now the largest religion other than Christianity in Australia Hinduism has maintained steady growth. The numbers of Muslims in Australia have also increased dramatically since 1945. In 2001 the proportion of Jews was similar to that recorded in 1947. present religious landscape in Australia Christianity as the major religious tradition Page 4 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC The significant decline in the number of Christians regularly attending religious services, especially in the Anglican, Uniting Church and Presbyterian denominations, can be attributed to the aging population, the lack of migrant intake and the general dissatisfaction impacting on other mainstream Christian groups. Roman Catholics are continuing to increase numerically, though not at the rate of the population because of its younger membership and substantial migrant intake. The significant increases in the Pentecostal figures can be attributed to factors such as the lively nature of its worship, its emphasis on contemporary mu sic, the strong sense of community and spiritual support it provides, the charismatic leaders which lead the congregation and the clear cut answers it provides for times of uncertainty. Pentecostalism is an evangelical (fundamentalist and focused on conversion) and charismatic (a strong emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit) strand of the Christian religion. The slow down in the increase of Pentecostal figures in the last 10 years can be attributed to the 'revolving door syndrome' which recognises that large numbers of Pentecostals remain with the Church for a relatively short period of time and because many Pentecostals were encouraged by their leaders to write "Australian Christian Church" rather than "Pentecostal" on the 2001 census . Immigration Changed Australia from being mono-cultural, mono-faith to multi-cultural, multi-faith. Since World War 2 and the lifting of the White Australia policy there has been much more diversity in migration and an accompanying increase in the diversity of religious groupings. Migration after World War 2 led to increased number of Catholics from countries such as Italy, Malta etc. This also increased numbers of Orthodox Christians from Greece and Eastern Europe. After the ending of the White Australian policy in 1972 migration developed from a larger range of countries bringing a wider range of religions. Migration has led to significant increases in the numbers of people who are Buddhist, Muslims, Hindus and Jews. Buddhists came from Indo-Chinese countries - Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and in more recent times Malaysia, Hong Kong and China. Muslims came from countries such as Indonesia, Lebanon, Iran and Iraq, Bosnia. Increases have also occurred in Christian denominations where there is a large non-Anglo population - Orthodox (Eastern Europe) and Catholic churches (from predominantly Irish to include Mediterranean, Eastern European, Asian, South American, African members). Increased presence of a variety of religious groups has also led to a greater appreciation of this diversity. Denominational switching Page 5 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC The vast majority of people affiliated with religious groups in Australia were born into that religion. The phenomena of swapping between denominations or groups of the same religious tradition is known as denominational switching. Denominational switching is more common in Protestant Churches than in the Catholic Church. The majority of Pentecostals have moved from another Protestant denomination to join the Pentecostal group. Pentecostal is the term used to describe Christian denominations which have a strong emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit (speaking in tongues, healing, prophecy etc). They are often relatively small groups which provide for more personal interaction, they also have lively worship. Pentecostalism is the fastest growing Christian group. Most Pentecostals have switched to the group from another Christian denomination. Many leave again after about 2 years - this is known as the 'revolving door syndrome'. Rise of New Age religions Census figures show a considerable level of dissatisfaction with traditional religious groups. Alongside this dissatisfaction is an indication of a strong and growing longing for a spiritual dimension to life. "New Age" is an umbrella term which refers to a range of alternative and/or pseudo-religious groups that people are attracted to. New Age religions are characterised by their adoption of elements of Eastern religions and their subsequent rejection of traditional Western views, and the fact that it favours creation centred spirituality. Some examples of new age religions are feng shui, yoga, tai chi, astrology, tarot cards, numerology etc. Many people uphold traditional religious beliefs and practices but supplement them with new age elements. Secularism Secularism is the belief that religion should not interfere with or be integrated into the public affairs of a society. There are multiple factors which have contributed to the decline of religion's relevance for the integration and legitimation of modern life. The increasing pluralism and materialism of society alongside society's increasing individualism and dissatisfaction with traditional religions are major reasons for secularisation. This trend is most evident in the significant increase in the number of people responding "No religion" in the census alongside an overall decline in the Christian figures recorded in the census. Describe the impact of Christian ecumenical movements in Australia Page 6 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC Ecumenism refers to the movement towards religious unity amongst Christian denominations. Ecumenical movements have made an impact on various levels. At the highest level, joint commissions such as the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) make statements about official church teachings. Cooperation on social/political issues and in times of crisis or tragedy. Theological initiatives such as Sydney College of Divinity. Grass roots initiatives such as parish prayer groups etc. The formation of the Uniting Church in 1977, through a merger of three existing Churches - Methodist, Presbyterian and Congregational. The reorganisation of the Australian Council of Churches in 1994 to become the National Council of Churches in Australia. The reorganisation of the structure of the NSW Ecumenical Council to accommodate the Catholic dioceses within NSW and the Australian Capital Territory . Importance of interfaith dialogue in multi-faith Australia Interfaith dialogue is a movement aimed towards promoting understanding between different religious traditions. In the current political environment the need for religious leaders around the world to express the commonalities which bind the religious world views have become even more important in light of these cultural and political divisions. The dignity of the human person and the sanctity of human life is a prime example of one fundamental element which runs throughout all world religions. In response to tragedies such as the Boxing Day Tsunami, the Bali Bombings, etc religious groups provided support through inter-faith memorials. Cooperation on social justice issues such as indigenous rights, opposition to GST, unemployment, poverty, land mines, nuclear testing and asylum seekers. Relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation Many Christian groups strongly support reconciliation, and the issues. associated with it such as land rights, native title and the need for a formal apology to the Stolen Generation. Historically, Christian groups have been intimately involved with the process of reconciliation for example by advocating Aboriginal land rights and citizenship, supporting the Mabo and Wik decisions and opposing the Ten Point Plan. Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation (ANTaR) is an example of a prominent church based organisation advocating indigenous rights. There is interfaith support for the process of reconciliation. Various Jewish groups also opposed the Ten Point Plan and every year they hold a week of prayer for reconciliation. Islamic and Buddhist groups have also made public statements supporting reconciliation, and issues such as native title, a formal apology to the Stolen Generation and land rights. The support that traditions other than Christianity lend to reconciliation is less noticeable compared to the work of Christian groups because of their smaller affiliation. Page 7 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC Topic Two: Depth Study One: Christianity SIGNIFICANT PERSON AND IDEAS: MARY MAGDALENE Background: - a Galilean from Magdala, always named first - healed by Jesus - witnessed the resurrection and crucifixion - Mary is continually mentioned in the gospels as the leading woman disciple in Jesus’ company - The Gnostic tradition continued this high estimate of her role by making her the exemplar of woman’s apostolic authority and the disciple closest to Jesus - Gospel of John emphasizes the close relationship of Jesus and Mary Magdalene by developing a special scene in which he appears to her - Mary is faced with growing up in her faith, believing in Jesus beyond the tomb - This powerful role of MM, as beloved disciple and apostle to the apostles threatened to sanction leadership for women in a later patriarchal Christianity. - So MM is demoted in the tradition → converted prostitute Contribution of MM to the development and expression of Christianity: 1. Apostle to the Apostle: - Direct commissioning by Jesus → JN 20:17 - By St. Paul’s own definition of apostle → someone who has had a direct experience of Risen Christ - MM announcement is receiving and believed in the community as when Jesus appears again, he does not repeat what MM had told them → he presumes they know it 2. Disciple: - presented as a faithful and ideal disciple - MM followed Jesus; she left her home which illustrates her wholehearted dedication to Jesus and his mission. - Her dedication is shown when she goes to anoint the body of Jesus at the tomb. (Jn20:14-18) Gnostic gospel of Philip states MM role as a disciple. “there were three who walked with the Lord: His mother Mary, her sister and Magdalene”. - Two elements of discipleship: 1. Following Jesus even at the risk of one’s life (Mk 8:34-38). - 2. Becoming a servant of all (Mk 9.35. 10:42-45). In Mk 15:40-41 MM’s name is mentioned as a disciple and following these elements. Page 8 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC 3. Deacon: - MM is woman who becomes the first woman minister. 4. - Evangeliser: Jn 20:18 MM is one of Jesus’ primary proclaimers. MM was chosen to talk to the disciples about his resurrection At the time women’s witness had no value or meaning-Jesus chose her. Taught the community about will of God and about Christianity. 5. Leader - Both to women and men. In all gospels MM is portrayed as a leader of the company of women who remain faithful to Jesus at the cross when the male disciples ran away. - Leadership role evident in Gnostic gospels writings-gospel of Mary where the rivalry, between peter and MM is quite explicit. - ‘Levi...replied to peter “peter, you are always angry. Now look you are treating this woman as you would treat the enemy. If the Lord has made her worthy, who are you to reject her?”’ 6. Witness to the Resurrection: - All gospels state that MM was the only person (first women) to witness Jesus’ resurrection and presenting the message to the community. Mk16:9-11, Mt 28:1-10, Lk 24:1-12, Jn 20:1-18. - At the tomb Jesus calls MM by her name. Impact of MM on Christianity: 1. Conclusion: - In all four accounts MM saw first the resurrection - The role of MM in the mission of Christ and the Early Christian community cannot be overlooked or underestimated - It is her many roles that note her presences - MM emerges as a model of a faithful, devoted follower of the Lord - Strong, independent leader. Page 9 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC SIGNIFICANT PRACTICE IN THE LIFE OF ADHERENTS: MARRIAGE Background: -The time: couple should be over 18yrs of age -the place: church-important to make solemn promises in God’s house -The participants: rite of marriage=public ceremony-couple is required to make their vows in public. Two witnesses, families and friends a priest of minister is required. -The Charter: Orthodox, Roman, Catholic and some protestant Christians regard marriage as a sacrament-this means it is a special means by which God acts in peoples lives. -The set form: opening song, bridal procession, giving bride away, reading from the bible, etc. Varies between different denominations -The symbol system: recitation of vows, exchange of rings, drinking from the cup of wine, joining hand whilst marriage vows are made, signing the marriage contract, bride wear white. -The hierarchical and role relations: couple move from being children of a family to an equal level with their parents. Most have children themselves and become parents. The relationship between a man and a woman in a Christian marriage is expected to be equal. -The transformation: couple were single and from two different families. Marriage unites the couple together as well as the family. How does marriage expresses the significant beliefs of Christianity: OT-marriage as a mirror of God’s Covenant: - The Book of Hosea symbolises the covenantal relationship between a man and woman and their relationship to God. - Songs of Solomon describes the nature between God and the Chosen People. ‘The voice of my beloved; look he comes, leaping upon the mountains, bounding over the hills. My beloved is like a gazelle or a young stag...my beloved speaks to me and says to me:” Arise, my love, my fair one, and come away;’ (Song 2:8-10). - ‘And so I do no take my sister for any lustful motive; I do it in singleness of heart. Be kind enough to have pity on her and on me and bring us to old age together’ (Tob 8:7) - faithful steadfast and forgiving love - Bible as the picture of the relationship between God and the chosen people NT-the teaching of Jesus. - ‘But from the beginning of creation, God made them male and female. For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh’. Therefore what God has joined together, let no one separate. (Mk10:6-9) ‘He answered “anyone who divorces his wife and marries another woman commits adultery against her. And if she divorces her husband and marries another man she commits adultery.”’ (Mk10:11-12) Page 10 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC - - Paul also makes references to marriage. ‘The husband should give to his wife her conjugal rights, and likewise the wife to her husband. For the wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does; likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does’ (1 Cor 7:3-4) ‘love is patient, love is kind; love is not envious or boastful or arrogant or rude. It does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice in wrong doing, but rejoices in the truth. It bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, and endures all things. (1 Cor 13:4-7) To love, to forgive, to suffer and to heal Marriage a significant Christian practice it confirms the beliefs of the group, encourages group cohesion and teaches moral lessons. Significance for the Individual: - Elevates the mundane to the supernatural: the couple’s relationship should demonstrate and reflect the love of Christ, has for his church, so that even the mundane events of life, the love the couple has for each other deepens their relationship with God. - Structures the live of the couple: prior to marriage=single with responsibility for themselves. Marriage=share the same home and they have an ongoing responsibility for each other and for their children - A way of holiness: marriage is sacred and life-long union. Their love should reflect everlasting love. Through marriage the couple express their love and service of god through each other. Significance for the Community: - A means of identification with the community of believers: a marriage in the Catholic Church, or the baptism ceremony of the couple’s children is passing on traditions - Strengthens the community of believers: this happens through prayers that the congregation say for the couple about to be married. They affirm their Christian beliefs, and central beliefs about marriage are made clear through the rite itself. - A means of reflection for all couples present: on the couple’s participation within the Christianity and their ultimate purpose as human beings, to grow in holiness through their relationships. - acknowledges supports and encourages the human conditions of suffering, joy and bereavement: this is clear in the marriage vows “for better for worse, for richer for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and to cherish, til death do us part’ Page 11 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC ETHICAL TEACHINGS: BIOETHICS Authority for Christian Ethics: - Scriptures (The Bible) - Experience (inspiration from the Holy Spirit) - Tradition (Authority of leaders) - Logic (Reason) Natural Law: - The belief is that God created everything perfectly so if we study the way life works and learn the laws of Nature, we will learn how to behave Catholic Church: - Based on God’s revelation through the bible and natural law, the church’s tradition and the exercise of reason - Donum Vitae (Gift of Life) → asserts that the life of every human being is to be respected in an absolute way from the very instant of the commencement of his or her existence until death - Abortion is therefore seen by Catholics as against natural law and God’s law - Genetic testing of unborn babies is permissible if the aim is to benefit the child - Donum Vitae (Gift of Life) → use embryos as the object of instrument of experimentation constitutes a crime against their dignity as human beings - The CC is strongly opposed to voluntary euthanasia - The document also argues that the natural method of conception is sexual relationships within marriage → the use of donor sperm, surrogate motherhood and artificial insemination = no Evangelical: - Rely on God’s revelation of himself through the bible - The Anglican Archbishop → life begins at conception ⁂ abortion and stem cell research on embryos are wrong → life in the womb begins w/ conception it would be arbitrary to chose any other point at which the child develops value - Reject the concept of surrogacy Liberal: - Many see the bible as a pre-scientific book - The best person to make the decision to proceed with an abortion is the pregnant woman, after consultation with her family, friends and trusted advisers. - Voluntary euthanasia might be an appropriate thing Page 12 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC Topic Three: Depth Study Two: Islam SIGNIFICANT PERSON AND IDEAS: A’ISHA BINT ABU BAKAR Background: - 3rd (and favourite)wife of Prophet Muhammad → for 10 years - Born into Quraysh tribe to family of wealth, fame, status → father Abu Bakr is the 1st Caliph - Parents embraced teachings of Islam in it’s early years→ this developed a firm faith, revulsion for infidelity and pagan ways - Betrothed and married very early, according to custom → inspired by Allah - Relationship with Muhammad is very close → Anas: “the first expression of live in Islam was the love of the prophet towards his wife A’isha!” Contribution of A’isha to the development and expression of Islam: 1. Theology: - Deemed ‘Mother of Believers’ for her extensive contribution to Islamic theological writing and thought - Muhammad’s wife for 10 years and constant companion→ witnesses several revelations (only wife to see angel Jibreel), unrivalled position from which to recall Hadith (words and deeds of Muhammad) → remembered over 2000 - Clarified context of Muhammad’s words, an expert in sacred saying and law - Early faith, independent thought, probing curiosity, fierce intelligence → A’isha wields deep knowledge and understanding of Islamic beliefs and law - Authoritative source of clarification and wording of sacred texts, development of Fiqh (jurisdiction), Ijma (consensus of scholars), Tafsir (commentary on Qur’an and extraction of meaning from it) - Muhammad refers to A’isha as final resource in theological matters → this endorsement by the Prophet promotes/assists A’isha’s religious authority and role in Islam after Muhammad’s death - Muhammad → “Draw half of your religion from this ruddy-faced woman” 2. - Politics: Strong personality and unshakable faith → natural leader in political issues of Caliphate Supports and protects reputation of Abu Bakr (1st Caliph and her father) Destabilises Uthman (3rd Caliph) → refuses to assist him when besieged by rebels Stood up against injustice, unfairness ,falsity → courageously defended what she believed was true and in accordance with Islamic beliefs → this included criticism of Caliphs Accompanied Muhammad to war, but later leads armies herself Page 13 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC - - 3. - - Rebels against 4th caliph Ali ibn abi Talib →obtains support, men, weapons in Basra by publicly explaining the logic of her opposition in the mosques Culminates in Battle of the Camel near Basra against Ali (4th Caliph) → criticises him for not avenging the murder (which he was possibly complicit in) of Uthman→ defeated and taken prisoner → military escort Withdrew from public life after imprisonment Commands enormous respect from people because of her loyalty to the revelations of the Prophet and courageous defence of her faith Sunni-Shia split → loyalty to Abu Bakr (Sunni) rather than Ali (Shia) → uses oratory skills to speak out against criticism of Abu Bakr, including rendering opponents to silence → this schism lasts from 632 CE to today Society: Develops, explains, and clarifies fara’id (daily duties and rituals of Muslim) Belief in inherent justice of Islam → draws concern to issues of social justice Educational reform for women (especially in laws and teachings of Islam), translating roles into more active societal dimension, fights for roles and status reflecting her own treatment by Muhammad. Charity to poor and needy →dedicated to care of orphans and destitute → lived ascetic life Epitomises the ideals of sura 33:35,and indeed whole Qur’an → believing, obedient, truthful, patient, humble, charitable, pious, giving, and remembering Allah Impact of A’isha on Islam: 1. 2. - - - Active participation in Islamic community and efforts in women’s roles = idea of just Islam Instigator and example of increased participation → champions equality in teachings and action Promotes women’s education Vocally challenges patriarchy and potentially marginalising statements (i.e. women invalidate prayer) Assertive and forceful → “how dare you compare us women with dogs and donkeys!” Participation in Janazah prayers Female public example →inspires and promotes this idea Accompanies M to battle fields and later her own campaign against Ali But today in Saudi Arabia and indeed in much of the Muslim world, gender inequality remains Contribution to early theological/interpretative development Intimacy with M and events of life = source of authority Contributes to compilation of Hadiths (over 2000 verses attributed to her transmission) Knowledge is of unrivalled status Knowledge of law → rebuked for visiting her brother’s grave in Makkah b/c Allah forbids women to visit → A’isha replies that the Prophet forbid both men and women, but later lifted this ban → this amendment does not only apply to men Iijma, Fiqh Questioned Prophet → A’isha follows Muhammad to graveyard (for prayer) → she asks if a devil follows each person → M: yes → A: does one follow you? → M: yes, but he has become a Muslim. Public sphere → critical intellect →public opinion and strong corrective voice Intellect allows her to apply knowledge to justify arguments and show action to be inconsistent with Islam Advice relied upon by prominent individuals (Umar and Abu Bakr) Teaches in mosques and mentored a number of pupils – also in history, Arabic, medicine Page 14 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC - Graduates of teaching → Abd Allah, Qasim, Urwah, Umrah bint Abd al-Rahman al-Ansariyyah Future generations benefit from scriptural and interpretative aspect of Islam and in own context 3. - Political influence and significance: Strong personality and unshakable faith → natural leader in political issues of Caliphate Supports and protects reputation of Abu Bakr (1st Caliph and her father) Destabilises Uthman (3rd Caliph) → refuses to assist him when besieged by rebels Stood up against injustice, unfairness ,falsity → courageously defended what she believed was true and in accordance with Islamic beliefs → this included criticism of Caliphs Accompanied Muhammad to war, but later leads armies herself Rebels against 4th caliph Ali ibn abi Talib →obtains support, men, weapons in Basra by publicly explaining the logic of her opposition in the mosques Culminates in Battle of the Camel near Basra against Ali (4th Caliph) → criticises him for not avenging the murder (which he was possibly complicit in) of Uthman→ defeated and taken prisoner Withdrew from public life after imprisonment Commands enormous respect from people because of her loyalty to the revelations of the Prophet and courageous defence of her faith Sunni-Shia split → loyalty to Abu Bakr (Sunni) rather than Ali (Shia) → uses oratory skills to speak out against criticism of Abu Bakr, including rendering opponents to silence → this schism lasts from 632 CE to today - 4. Development and perception of Islam benefits from her exemplification of the values associated with the ideal Muslim life - Unmaterialistic → familial wealth and political standing → ascetic life - tattered clothes, minimal living, simplicity - Goodwill and selflessness → devoted wealth to poor – Urwah (a scholar taught by Ai’sha) →“I saw A’isha giving away 70 000 dirhams in charity while she was wearing a garment which had so many patches on it!” - Assertive→ falsely accused of adultery →stands firmly with faith in Allah → a surah revealed to attest to her purity → praised for honour and trust in Allah - Humility despite contribution → insists unworthy to be buried beside Muhammad b/c of misjudgement of Ali - Stands up for beliefs → knowledge makes her responsible to challenge unjust, incorrect, unethical policies - Deep humility →wages war against Ali , planned to exact justice upon Uthman →but misjudged and later regretted this →said b/c of this she was less worthy of being buried beside Prophet - Important social figure who exemplified what it meant to be a Muslim Page 15 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC SIGNIFICANT PRACTICE IN THE LIFE OF ADHERENTS: THE HAJJ Background: - Largest annual religious gathering in the world, an ancient practice of utmost spiritual significance - Hajj → week long pilgrimage to Mecca (modern Saudi Arabia) undertaken exactly 2 months and 10 days after holy month of Ramadan, in DhulHijjah (12th month of Islamic calendar) - Around 2.5 million each year →logistical nightmare which huge physical danger - Exhaustion, heatstroke, cardio-respiratory problems, most advised to write a will before pilgrimage, in 2006, 362 pilgrims are killed via stampede - Millions flock from around to globe to express submission to Allah, walk in footsteps of Prophet Muhammad, fulfil the fifth pillar of Islam - Hajj is fard (obligation) →required of every Muslim at least once in his/her lifetime - Limitations → must be physically able, mentally responsible, debt-free →last criterion prevents many from performing Hajj →only 1/10 manage Key Quotes: - “It is the duty of all men towards God to come to the House a pilgrim, if he is able to make his way there” (Qur’an 3:93) - “O lord…save us from the punishment of the Hell fire” when reach the Rukn Al Yamani - “Pilgrimage to the House is incumbent upon men for the sake of Allah, upon everyone who is able to undertake the journey to it” 3:96 - “The Prophet said: ‘Islam does not allow for failure to perform the Hajj” → Hadith Abu Da’ud - “If you are prevented from completing it send an offering of sacrifice, such as you may find, and do not shave your heads until the offering reaches the place of sacrifice” (Surah 2:196) - “And proclaim unto mankind the Hajj…That they may witness things that are of benefit to them” (Sura 22:27-8) - “And proclaim the Pilgrimage among men: they will come to you on foot and on every kind of camel…through deep and distant mountain highways” (22:27) - “Hajj is Arafat” (Hadiths) Proceedings of the Hajj: - Arrival in Mecca for Miquat (recitation of talbiyah, donning of ihram, ghusl (full ritual washing of the body with water alone to be pure for the prayer), tawaf before greater Hajj - Mecca → Mina (prayers and encampment) - 9th → Mina to Arafat to Muzdalifa - 10th → Muzdalifa to Mina (Jamra, Nahr, shave hair, removal of ihram) → Mina to Ka’aaba (Tawaf al-Ifadha, sa’y between Safa and Marwa) - 10th – 13th → Tashriq days at Mina (stoning, farewell Tawaf) - Departure from Makkah Page 16 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC - Talbiya → pronouncement which pilgrims declare to Allah during Hajj Tawaf → circling of the Holy Kabbah How the Hajj expresses the beliefs of Islam: - - Fundamental Islamic beliefs experienced symbolically by individuals through various rites of pilgrimage 1st pillar/Shahada → public and detailed declaration of faith before Islamic community (Hajj itself and numerous ritual verses uttered i.e. when entering holy mosque express belief) → demonstrates tangible commitment to Allah and belief in Muhammad as Prophet Islam as chosen religion → recognised by day spent at Arafat (where M expressed this idea in his last public act) Arafat → human need for forgiveness as believers offer prayers repenting sins and asking for Allah’s mercy Jamra → belief in Satan, efforts to draw the individual away from Allah’s will, and need to resist evil → Ibrahim stoned devil when tempted by Satan Eid-al-Adha → also recalls story of Ibrahim → individual should be willing to sacrifice in name of Allah and subsequent reward →Ibrahim is provided with a ram Ihram → equality before Allah → worn in death → highlights mortality → judgement according to deeds (not wealth or status) → belief in salvation via acts and judgement Angels → circumnutation of Ka’aba (angels surrounding heavenly throne) Afterlife → verses affirming it’s reality → “O lord…save us from the punishment of the Hell fire” when pilgrims reach the Rukn Al Yamani Sa’ay → search/need for salvation 3rd pillar - Zakat → last day of sacrifice where meat is shared with poor Significance for the Islamic individual: - Moving spiritual experience and fundamental religious duty → fundamental significance for individual Muslim adherent Fulfils fifth pillar → subsequent favour on Day of Judgement → possibility of forgiveness Fulfils fard and brings spiritual development and renewal Connects individual to rich historical foundation of Islam → extensive prayer and meditation, reinforces key concepts, provides opportunity to focus solely on devotion to Allah Journey helps to focus priorities on submission to Allah’s will, develop spiritual consciousness and understanding of what it means to live as a Muslim. “Prioritise my life even … reinforces the importance of our final goal…. We re-focus our attention on our destination (so to speak) and ensure we are walking on a path that will take us there” Significance for the Islamic community: - Promotes and preserves unity of umma via shared faith and devotion Page 17 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC - Collective nature dissolves barriers of race, language, wealth, gender, and age with ihram and universal use of Arabic for all rites Results in strong sense of fellowship and encourages both cohesion and the preservation of Islamic traditions “Made me appreciate I was part of a much bigger community that well beyond the borders of Australia” MH Spiritual impact is contagious → “it rubs off on the other members of their family and wider community”MH ETHICAL TEACHINGS: BIOETHICS Main sources of ethical teachings: - Qur’an → universal source of ethics and guide to life practice – halal/haram Sunnah → practices of Muhammad and model for life Hadiths (arguably part of Sunnah) → what M taught and approved of, often translated by companions Iijma → consensus of Islamic scholars Qiyas → legal precedent from analogy and reasoning Other sources: - Sharia → haram/halal Fitra → natural inclination toward virtue 5 Pillars Ijtihad → independent judgment on matters not outlined Different ethical views: - - Umma is geographically and culturally diverse → variety of ethical views Different schools of jurisprudence → Hanafi, Shafei, Maleki→lead to different decisions Shia/Sunni → different interpretation of what constitutes Sunnah → Sunnis base on Sharia, ijma, qiyas, taqlid (follow someone or imitate on an expert on Islamic jurisprudence, worship, or personal matters)→ Shia base on Mujtahid and person interpretation Mujtahid → scholar who uses reason for the purpose of forming an opinion or judgement on issues of theology or law Moderate to fundamentalist observance of principles Teachings associated with Islamic Bioethics: - Human life has been made sacred by Allah and mankind has been honoured above other creatures → a strong reverence for life expressed in Qur’an Muslims are obligated to preserve and protect life because of this Allah provides and determines life and life’s necessities Helping the sick is an act of charity and compassion which demonstrates real submission to Allah Can remove life support from medically brain-dead person → Islamic Law Council of Muslim World League 1987 Otherwise, no euthanasia b/c Allah is the source and determiner of life Page 18 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC - Abortion is not permitted unless pregnancy endangers life of mother IVF and artificial insemination are permitted if ovum and sperm belong to the married couple Organ donation, transfusion are permitted (not sex organs or from cadavers) → form of charity → “whoever saves the life of one person it is as if he saved the life of all mankind” 5:32 Hadith stresses sanctity of body both in life and death(Commentary of Sahih Muslim by Nawawi), Qiya states that cutting divine creation is forbidden in Sharia→ this limits on organ transplants etc. Contraception permitted if for a valid reason → but faith in Allah’s provision means the adherent should not worry about family planning “Necessity makes possible what is forbidden” 2:173 → so sometimes stem cell research etc could be justified Key quotes: “Whoever saves the life of one person it is as if he saved the life of all mankind” (5:32) “Necessity makes possible what is forbidden” (2:173) “Take not life, which God has made sacred” (6:151) “Kill not you offspring for fear of poverty, it is we who provide for them and for you” (17:32) “Allah Most High Says: ‘It is He who has created for you all things that are on earth” (Surah alBagarah 2.29) - “And verily we have honoured the children of Adam” (Sura al-Isra v.70) - “To protect human life in all stages and under al circumstance” (Oath of the Muslim Doctor 1981) Ethical teachings on Abortion: - - List main sources and lesser-known sources Note lack of ethical teachings for religious application to contemporary issues → and subsequent need to derive guidance from other sources Abortion - Long-standing practice which has particularly become prominent issue in modern years - Teachings fail to address explicitly/specifically → but through alternate sources, if a definitive position is to be reached → abortion is morally wrong - Result of Iijma and Qiyas with analogous teachings, so open to debate for complexity - Rejects abortion as morally wrong - Sanctity of life → Allah’s creation, in all stages should be protected - Oath of the Muslim Doctor 1981 → “to protect human life in all stages and under all circumstance” - “Take not life, which God has made sacred” 6:151 - “Whoever saves the life of one person it is as if he saved the life of all mankind” 5:32 - - What constitutes human life is debated → most say 120 days or 40 Foetus is human = rights and values However, it is universally agreed that after ensoulement (point of reaching full human life with attendant rights), abortion should be strictly prohibited Sometimes punishable by diya (blood money) if it is aborted whilst alive, less severe fine if unwilling Ethical approach toward abortion is by no means without exception → abortion becomes permissible (though still not ethically “right”) if it is performed to save the life of the mother Where medical issues (i.e. chemotherapy) may cause miscarriage or severe abnormality, termination is acceptable Abortion permitted before ensoulement if supported by adequate medical/judicial reasons Page 19 of 20 SOR1 2009HSC - Ethically wrong unless more than 1 life threatened →no flexibility or tolerance for less justification (i.e. an inability to provide for a child→ “kill not you offspring for fear of poverty, it is we who provide for them and for you” 17:32) Page 20 of 20