Download Jacob Schulman

Jacob Schulman
AP American History
January 7, 2008
Mr. Davis
Chapter 18: The Machine Age, 1877-1920
I. Technology and the Triumph of Industrialism:
A. 1876: Thomas Edison made a lab in Menlo Park, NJ
Wanted organization to bring about new projects and breakthroughs
B. Mechanization fired American optimism- machine=opportunity
- Patent system expanded rapidly to grant more patents for inventions
Birth of the Electrical Industry & George Westinghouse:
A. 1878: Edison formed the Edison Electric Light Company and tried to find good indoor
lighting for a cheap price- perfected the incandescent bulb
- Made a system of power generation and distribution to provide convenient power
B. Edison illuminated Menlo Park with 40 lights to publicize- got much attention
C. George Westinghouse: Made it possible for electricity to travel more than 2 miles
- Made transmissions cheaper over longer distances
D. Samuel Insull: Edison’s secretary- attracted investors and organized power plants
E. Late 1880s- Henry Villard and JP Morgan bought patents for lighting and made the
General Electric Company
Encouraged the practicality of electricity
F. Granville T. Woods: “Black Edison”- automatic circuit breaker, electromagnetic brake,
instruments to help communications between railroads (sold to GE)
Henry Ford and the Automobile Industry & Du Ponts and the Chemical Industry:
A. Henry Ford: Sparked by development of the internal-combustion engine in FR and Germ.
B. Ford had a scheme and a product: Wanted to democratize the automobile
- Assembly line manufacturing- reduced time and cost to produce cars
C. 1903: Ford Motor Company began operation; Built the Model T.
Rising automobile demands made more jobs, higher earnings, greater profits
D. 1914: Cars cost ¼ of what they did earlier- Ford wanted higher productivity, so he offered
them the Five-Dollar-Day plan- paid $5 a day (instead of $2)
E. du Pont family had been making gunpowder for a long time- 3 cousins took over their
family’s company and broadened production
F. 1911: Able to make rubber, photographic film, lacquer, plastics- impacted electronics
G. du Pont company had good management and kept good records to control production
Technology and Southern Industry & Southern Textile Mills:
A. Tobacco and cotton propelled the region into the machine age
- 1876: Virginian named James Bonsack (18 y.o.) invented a machine for rolling cigarettes
- James B. Duck of NC made them more popular in the north with free samples, etc
B. 1900: American Tobacco Company was a huge business
- Jewish immigrant cigar makers that trained laborers
- Cigarette factories employed blacks and whites, but put them in separate locations
C. 1900: 400 southern textile mills, 4 million spindlesElectric motors, automatic looms
- Required fewer and less skilled workers; Installed electric lighting to extend hours
- Southerners were paid about half that of northerners
D. Northern and European capitalists did other industries in the SouthLumber into the Gulf
States, southern iron and steel manufacturing (Birmingham)
- South really lacked technological innovations that allowed the North to get ahead
E. Henry Grady: Defends the South against the North and says that they did a good job
Influence of New Machines & Frederick W. Taylor and Efficiency:
A. Timing of technological innovation varied from one industry to another
- Phones and typewriters revolutionized communications
- Sewing machines make clothes available to almost everyone
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B. Profits came about from lower costs- built larger factories, got more investments
- Large companies could take advantage of discounts from shipping in bulk, etc.
C. Engineers and managers went to special schools to learn and plan every task in factory
D. Frederick W. Taylor: Advocate of efficient production- Midvale Steel Company 1880s
- Wanted to apply scientific studies of how types of work should be done
E. 1989: Taylor took his stopwatch and illustrated hose principles of scientific management
workedDesigned 15 shoves and showed proper motions for using
- Able to reduce a crew of 600 to 140 men
II. Mechanization and the Changing Status of Labor:
A. 1880: Status of labor shifted in a single generation- new jobs, but fewer workers were
needed to produce more in less time
B. Working class was mainly employees- men, women, children that were hired
C. Workers continually repeated the same specialized operation- the worker became a mere
machine- result of subdivisions
- Assembly lines deprived workers of independence- didn’t decide when to start/stop
D. Workers didn’t accept these changes passivelyWanted to keep independence
- Artisans wanted to preserve their workplaces and shop customs
E. Employers made standards of behavior and work incentives to help- supported
temperance and moral-reform societies
Employment of Women & Child Labor:
A. Employers cut labor costs by hiring women and children
- Proportion of women in domestic-service jobs plummeted as other jobs opened
- Had menial positions in textile mills and food processing plants
B. Number of women in clerical jobs skyrocketed (4% to 25%)
- Typewriter, cash register, adding machine simplified tasks
- Women liked sales jobs because it was respectable, pleasant surroundings, customers
C. Sex discrimination was prevalent- male cashiers took in cash, women didn’t count money
D. 1890: Over 18% of all children 10-15 y.o. were employedTextile and shoe factories
- Especially hard conditions or children in the South- got sharecroppers and their kids
E. States in the Northeast passed laws specifying minimum ages and max hours for kids
- It was very difficult to enforce- people lied about kids’ ages, employers didn’t ask
F. By 1900, state laws and automation reduced number of children employed
Wage Work & Industrial Accidents:
A. Low wages were the biggest catalyst for worker unrestEmployers believe in “Iron law of
wages”- belief that employees were to be paid based on supply and demand
- Really meant that employers could pay as little as possible
- Workers justified the system by individual freedom- could quit if they wanted
B. Workers were denied the right to organize and bargain collectively
- Wage earners believed the system trapped them
C. Mistakes were very possible in factories and serious injury could be caused
D. Major disasters like cave-ins were very possible and happened on occasion
E. Fires: New York City’s Triangle Shirtwaist Company in 1911
F. Legislation was prevented from being passed that would regulate hours and conditions
Stricken families could only sue and prove that the injured worker didn’t realize the risks
Courts Restrict Labor Reform & Railroad Strikes of 1877:
A. Supreme Court limited scope of legislation for working conditions
B. 1896: Holden v Hardy- law regulating working hours of miners could cause harm
C. 1905: Lochner v NY- Court struck down a law limiting bakery workers to a 60 hour week
Court said that it couldn’t interfere with right of individuals to make contracts for labor
D. 1908: Muller v Oregon- upheld law limiting women to a 10 hour workday in laundries
- Said that women’s health needed protection
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- Later laws would bar women from occupations in printing, transportation
E. Different groups entered the labor force- some submitted to demands of the factory
F. 1877: July- series of strikes break out among unionized RR workers
- Rioters attacked railroad property, derailed trains, burned yards
G. Worst violence was in Pittsburgh- July 21- militiamen fired on demonstrators, killed 10
- Pres Rutherford B. Hayes sent troops to end strikes
H. After the Panic of 1837, railroad managers cut wages, increased work, laid off workers
Forced workers to strike and riot
III. The Union Movement:
A. Fear of loss of independence, wages, working conditions pushed people into unions
B. Unions included everyone except skilled workers in some crafts
C. 1866: National Labor Union- claimed 640k members, collapsed in the 1870s
Knights of Labor:
A. 1869: Philadelphia garment cutters founded the Knights
B. 1879: Terence V. Powderly- elected grand master- welcomed women, Blacks, immigrants,
all unskilled and semiskilled workers
- Peaked at 730k in 1886
C. Wanted to build a workers’ alliance as an alternative to capitalismWant to put the actual
worker in charge of his/her own work
D. Strikes were really the only means of achieving goals- but Powderly opposed them
E. 1886: Knights demanded higher wages and union recognition- a strike broke out
- Knights were forced to give inMembership fell drastically
Haymarket Riot:
A. May 1, 1886: Chicago- campaign for 8-hour day made mass strikes, huge demonstration
- 100k workers turned out; Chicago officials were especially nervous because it coincided
with a European day for special demonstration
B. The day passed calmly, but 2 days later police broke pu a strike- killed 2 unionists
C. Next day, groups rallied at Haymarket Square to protest the police brutality- a bomb
exploded, 8 anarchists were conficted
D. Haymarket Bombing drew attention to discontent of laborCreated a feeling that forces of
law and order needed to happen quickly
- Governments strengthened police forces and armories
American Federation of Labor:
A. AFL emerged in 1886 as the major workers’ organization- had 140k members, mostly
skilled workers
- Led by Samuel Gompers- opportunistic immigrant that headed Cigar Makers’ Union
B. Pressed for harder goals- higher wages, shorter hours, right to collective bargaining
C. Member unions stayed independent but tried to make a general policy
D. 1901: 1 million members, 1917- 2.5 million- 111 national union, 27k local unions
E. AFL avoided party politics, wanted to support friends of labor, oppose its enemies
F. Setbacks in the 1890s- violence stirred public fears
- July 1892: Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steelworkers refused to accept pay
cutsThe plant was closed- angry workers attached guards that were stationed
Pullman Strike & IWW:
A. 1894: Pullman Palace Car Company workers walked out over exploitative policies
- George Pullman was paternalistic- workers didn’t like it
B. Pullman wouldn’t negotiate with workers- protected profits by cutting wages
- Pullman fired 3 of the workers on a committee that went to ask him for wages back
C. Union led by Eugene V. Debs voted to aid the strikers by refusing to handle cars
- President Grover Cleveland ordered federal troops to Chicago to crush the strike
- Supreme Court upheld the 6 month sentence for Debs
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D. 1905: Colorado miners organized the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)
- Strove like the Knights of Labor to unify all laborers
E. Led a series of strikes- McKees Rocks, PA, Lawrence, MAGot publicity
F. IWW collapsed in WWI
Women and the Labor Movement:
A. Many unions rejected female members; fewer than 2% of women were in unions
- Unionists really just feared the competition- worried men’s wages would be lowered
B. Male workers couldn’t imagine working side by side with women
C. Females fought workers very well- Collar Laundry Union of Troy, NY- got higher wages
D. Women did dominate the Telephone Operators’ Department of the International
Brotherhood of Electrical Workers- union leaders organized social events and educational
programs to make their employees more intelling
- Wanted to instill pride in their workers
E. Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL): Founded in 1903, wanted to promote interests of
Women- helped telephone operators with union, supported big strikes
Immigrants, African Americans, and Labor Union & Fraternal Societies:
A. Organized labor excluded most immigrant and black workers- feared they would lower
wagesOnly the Knights of Labor and IWW accepted them
B. Blacks were prominent in coal miners’ union, partially unionized
C. After the Civil War, labor struggles made it easy to forget that only some wage workers
were in unionsStrong in construction trades, but not strong in manufacturing
- Most employers hired workers during peak seasons and laid off when not
D. Those who weren’t unionized dealt with pressures of machine age- Polish Roman Catholic
Union and the Jewish B’nai B’rith- gave life insurance, benefits, funeral expenses
IV. Standards of Living:
A. Few Americans could resist the changes that mechanization brought to everyday life
Mass production and American ingenuity made goods available more than ever
New Availability of Products:
A. US was becoming affluent between 1880 and 1920By 1899, manufactures goods and
perishable foodstuffs were increasingly available
- Bought machine-made cigarettes, pairs of silk stockings
B. Incomes rose broadlyNew industrial elite, rising incomes in the middle class- average
pay rose 36% from 1890-1910
C. Income figures were deceptive because jobs were not stable- hour wages were same
Cost of Living, Supplements to Family Income, & Higher Life Expectancy:
A. Weekly cost of living for a family of 4 rose over 47%- rose faster than wages
B. Many people couldn’t afford machine-age goods and services
C. Could raise some more income by sending children and women into labor market, rent
rooms to boarders and lodgers
Increased spending on life insurance, alcohol, union dues, leisure activities
D. Highly developed wage and money economy- rural society was being replaced
- Industry and commerce jobs were easier to keep track of- Most American had always
worked, the increase in paid employment was what was new
E. Advances in Medical care, better diets, improved housing- raised lifespans
- Significantly more deaths from cancer, diabetes, heart disease
F. Means of upward mobility seemed more accessible as well
- Number of students in public high schools rose
- New sales and managerial jobs countered downward mobility from mechanization
- Race, gender, religion, and ethnicity were still big roadblocks
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V. The Quest for Convenience:
Flush Toilets & Processed and Preserved Foods & Dietary Reform:
A. Chain-pull washdown water closet was invented in England around 1870
- Appeared in the US after 1900
B. Toilet brought a shift in habits and attitudesGerm theory changed beliefs
Americans wanted more cleanliness- water closets became common
C. Tin Can: Allowed foods out of season to be eatenDidn’t have to be dried or smoked
D. 1860s: Canned goods and condensed milk become very popularEasy to can foods
E. Growing demands for fruit and vegetables, railroad refrigerator cars
Allows foods to be transported further without spoiling
F. Health Reformers wanted to step up and correct the American diet
G.1870s: John H. Kellogg- manager of Western Health Reform Institute in Battle Creek, MI
- Started to serving patients healthy new foods; His brother invented corn flakes later
H. Cereals started to pop up as alternatives to eggs, potatoes, and other breakfast foods
I. Working class had a more diversified diet too- poorer families could afford meat now
Ready Made Clothing & Department and Chain Stores & Advertising:
A. Sewing machine made many foods widely available- Elias Howe Jr and Isaac Singer
- Demand for uniforms for the Civil War boosted the clothing industry and sales went up
B. Mass production allowed for good quality products to be made at a low cost
C. Concern for style was reinforcedWomen were abandoning the burdensome features
D. Men’s clothing became lightweight and stylish- made clothes of different fabrics for
different seasons and it became more about buying than making at home
E. 1896-1900: Macy’s in NYC, Wanamaker’s, Marshall Field, Rich’s- huge stores
- Department stores were available to anyone and at any purchase price
F. Great Atlantic Tea Company (1859) was the first grocery chainBecame A&P
- Bought in volume and sold at low pricesBecame huge
G. When there is abundance, advertising is needed to create demandSpent huge dollars
H. Advertisers tried to invent needs and persuade large groups to buy a specific product
I. 1881: Congress passed a trademark law allowing producers to protect brand names
J. Newspapers were the primary means of advertising- got more money by selling ad space
VI. The Corporate Consolidation Movement:
A. Huge investment in new technology meant that factories needed to work huge amounts
Factories were getting stuck in bad cycles of borrowing money and then being stuck
B. Economic deadlines lingered for several yearsBusinesspeople began seeking ways to
combat the uncertainty of boom-and bust cycles
Rise of Corporations:
A. Industrialists never questioned capitalism- wanted to build on the base that had supported
economic growth since the early 1800s
Stockholders could share in profits without much personal risk
- Investors didn’t have to deal with the everyday issues of the firm
B. Corporations were the best way to raise capital for industrial expansion
- Said that investors were protected by the 14th Amendment
Pools, Trusts, & Holding Companies:
A. Corporations managers sought more stability in new and larger forms of concentration
B. Pools: Arrangements of business consolidation conglomerates
Dependent upon members’ honesty
C. Interstate Commerce Act of 1887: Outlawed pools among railroads
D. 1879: One of John D. Rockefeller’s lawyers Samuel Dodd made a more stable means of
dominating the market
- Adapted a trust- legal arrangement where individuals would manage the financial affairs
of a person that didn’t want to do it for themselves
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Allowed Rockefeller to get horizontal integration of the petroleum industry
E. 1888: NJ made laws that allowed corporations to own stock in other corporations
- Created the holding company- owned a partial or complete interest in other company
F. Mergers were an answer to the search for order and profitsMostly trusts and holding
companies would merge
Put smaller companies out of business
Financiers:
A. Merging made a new businessman- was supposed to financially organize
- Raised money by selling stock and borrowing from banks
B. Investment bankers piloted the merger movement and were incredibly skilled
C. Growth of corporations let to financial stock and bond exchange to skyrocket
States loosened regulations to allow banks to invest more
VII. The Gospel of Wealth and its Critics:
Social Darwinism:
A. Social Darwinism was used to justify tactics of business leaders to consolidate
- Developed by Herbert Spencer of GB, taught by Yale teacher William Sumner
B. Put Darwin’s theories onto laissez fair doctrine
Said that civilization depended upon the system of acquiring property
C. Said that wealth had moral responsibilities to provide for those less fortunate
- Carnegie’s “Gospel of Wealth”- gave over $350 million to institutions
Government Assistance to Business & Dissenting Voices:
A. Business leaders also wanted government help- wanted subsidies, loans, tax relief
- Tariffs, grants to railroad companies, etc.
B. Government allowed prices for American prices to increase by putting tariffs on foreign
C. Critics said that some changes were unnatural because they stifled opportunity
- They were really just afraid of the large corporations
D. Mid-1880s: Some people wanted to oppose Social Darwinism and laissez faire
- Lester Ward- Dynamic Sociology- said that our control of nature made civilization
Utopian Economic Schemes and Antitrust Legislation:
A. Henry George- believed that inequality stemmed from ability of a few to profit from rising
land costs- said that it made speculators rich
- Argues this scheme in Progress and Poverty was very popular
B. Edward Bellamy: Believed competitive capitalism promoted wasteWanted a state in
which gvt owned the means to production
- Looking Backward- made Boston look like a perfect Utopian city
C. Several states took action to prohibit monopolies and regulate business
D. 1890: Sherman Anti-Trust Act- Made illegal every form of trust that would restrict trade
- The law was purposely vague
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