Download Chapter 7 - Reocities

 Sai Ram
Sampath Kumar Medepalli
Chapter 7 Notes
http://www.libarts.sfasu.edu/history/133_Unit3.html
Election of 1808
1. Candidates
a. Republican-Democrats after Jefferson followed Washington's precedent of no third term
a. James Madison 's nomination by party caucus left some candidates miffed.
Eastern Republicans, disenchanted with the embargo, nominated Vice-president Geo Clinton (NY).
b. Southern "Old Republicans" nominated James Monroe, but he withdrew.
b. Federalists sensed a potential increase in strength because of dissatisfaction over the embargo and nominated Charles C.
Pinckney (SC) and Rufus King (NY).
2. Results
a. Madison won comfortably with 122 electoral votes to Clinton's 6 while Pinckney received 47 (an increase over 14 in 1804,
but not enough).
b. Clinton was elected Vice President over Rufus King 122-47.
c. Federalists gained seats in the House, but not a majority.
II. Madison's Administrations (4th President)
A. Madison the Man
1. The "Father of the Constitution" was the most height-challenged (shortest) president at 5'4".
2. His very-popular wife, Dolly, decorated the White House and held the first inaugural ball.
B. First Term -- Domestic Issues
1. Annexation of West Florida October 1810
a. Although not mentioned, the US assumed that Louisiana included West Florida to the Perdido river
b. When Southern expansionists revolted over Spain's dominion of West Florida, Madison announced that the US possessed
the territory and authorized its military occupation by US troops.
c. In January 1811, Congress secretly resolved to occupy East Florida in the event that local authority consented or a foreign
power attempted to take it over.
d. In May 1812, Congress included West Florida in Mississippi Territory.
e. After the War of 1812 began, Gen Wilkerson occupied the Spanish fort at Mobile, the only possession that the US retained
after the War of 1812 was over.
2. Yazoo Land Fraud
a. Georgia's legislature (1794), after much bribery involving nearly every member of the legislature, two US Senators, and
many state and federal judges (including one Supreme Court justice), sold 35 million acres (present Mississippi and Alabama)
to four land companies for 1.5 cents per acre.
b. Corrupted legislators were defeated at the polls and the legislature voided the Yazoo grant (1796).
c. Georgia ceded its western lands to the US Congress (1802) which tried to settle with the claimants of the earlier land deal.
d. Congressional "Quids" blocked the settlement (1804-05), delaying it until 1814
e. Fletcher vs Peck March 1810
(1) Several purchasers had sold off millions of acres, however, and.buyer, Robert Fletcher , sued his seller, John Peck , for
breach of warranty of title.
(2) Using the "Contracts Clause" of the Constitution, the Supreme Court (4-1, 2 abstentions) ruled on the only question, that
of title -- Could legislatures deprive bona fide investors of the lands they had acquired under the corrupt grant?.
(a) Buyers were innocent of the wrong doing of others;
(b) All titles would be insecure, and the intercourse between man and man would be very seriously obstructed, if this principle
be overturned;
(c) The original grant was a valid contract, thereby voiding the later rescission of the action, what Fletcher was really hoping
for.
(d) Political corruption could be remedied through the polls, not the courts.
(3) This benchmark in the protection of property and contracts from legislative interference contin-ued to indicate Marshall's
preference for national powers over state powers.
(4) The decision provoked a public outcry, especially from states' rights advocates.
3.
Debate over the National Bank - January - February 1811
a. The charter's renewal, due to expire on 4 March, was endorsed by Treasurer Gallatin.
b. Opponents to Renewal
(1) "Old Republicans" viewed the bank as the last vestige of Federalist power, declared it an unconstitutional act, and sought to
remove Gallatin from office;
(2) Anglo-phobes pointed to the fact that because 2/3 of the stock was owned by Britons, the bank's renewal would actually aid
an enemy;
(3) Those favoring state-chartered banks
c. The bill to renew it was pushed in the Senate by William Henry Crawford (GA) but the Senate's 17 - 17 tie resulted in VicePresident Clinton's tie-breaking no vote.
d. The bank concluded its business and expired.
4. Northwest Indian Problems
a. Many in the West suspected that the British were arming and stirring up anti-American activity in the Old Northwest
territory.
(1) Britain had removed all remaining troops after Jay's Treaty went into effect.
(2) Britain kept friendly relations with the Indians to keep them detached from the US, but did not foster revolts against the
US although British fur traders and Canada's governor aided them.
b. A Shawnee known as the "Prophet" and his brother, Tecumseh , united several Indian tribes west of the Appalachians
against white settlers.
c. Settlers in the Ohio Valley thought that war with Britain would end their economic depression and damage or end the
British-Indian alliance.
d. General William Henry Harrison , governor of Indiana Territory, with 1000 men defeated an Indian dawn surprise attack at
the Battle of Tippecanoe on 7 November 1811, burning the Indian headquarters before returning to Fort Harrison
e. This temporarily slowed the Indian revolt, many of whom went to Canada, where British authorities tried to cut off aid to
the Indians.
f. It was thought that if the Indian's Canadian base were destroyed, the Indian menace would be removed, thus Westerners
pushed for aggressive action against Canada, perceived as weakened and defenseless, and open to easy attack.
C. First Term -- Foreign Policy - Continued Problems with France and Britain
1. Background
a. Madison inherited the deteriorating situation with Britain as well as the growing discontent among US citizens over the
embargo and over the issue of war.
b. When the British Minister to the US, David M. Erskine , assured Secretary of State Robert Smith , that the Orders in
Council of 1807 would be revoked in June 1809, Madison proclaimed legalized trade with Great Britain.
c. But when British Foreign Secretary George Canning stated that Erskine had exceeded his authority and ordered him back to
Britain in May 1809, Madison, appearing foolish, revived the Non-Inter-course Act against Britain in August 1809.
2. Macon's Bill NO. 2 (May 1810)
a. When the Non-Intercourse Act was about to expire, Congress, after much Federalist opposition, authorized the President to
resume trade with France and Britain, but added that if, before March 1811, either nation modified or revoked its edicts which
violated US neutrality rights, the President could prohibit trade with the other nation.
b. If after 3 months, the other power failed to withdraw its edicts, non-intercourse would be revived against it.
3. Napoleon's Deception
a. The French regarded it as favorable to Britain because of its naval superiority.
b. Upon learning of Macon's Bill No. 2, Napoleon instructed his Foreign Minister, Duc de Cadore , to notify the US minister
to France, John Armstrong, that the Berlin and Milan Decrees would be revoked after 1 November, if the US withdrew its
Non-Inter-course act against France.
c. On the same day, however, Napoleon signed the Decree of Trianon which sequestered all US vessels that called upon French
ports between May 1809-10.
d. The ambiguously-worded letter made it appear that the decrees had already been revoked
(1) Madison accepted the communication at face value and issued a proclamation in November that reopened trade with
France and halted trade with Britain in three months (February 1811).
(2) Napoleon's duplicity was not discovered until the new US minister to France, Joel Barlow, arrived in September 1811 and
sought clarification about the Berlin and Milan Decrees.
(3) The Decree of St. Cloud , allegedly signed by Napoleon, voided the decrees against the US, but had not been published or
sent to the US.
(4) By the time the US realized what had happened, Napoleon was involved in his Russian campaign and the US was at war
with Britain.
e. Britain immediately renewed its blockade of New York and increased its practice of impressing US citizens into service on
British naval vessels.
D. War of 1812
1. Causes of the War of 1812 can be traced back to Jefferson's administration
a. British Impressment practices as noted above.
(1) Maritime and commercial issues were the most important cause.
(2) Madison was not a tool of expansionists (see below) but he supported their agenda
b. Anti-British Feelings in the West
(1) Western settlers faced three problems in the early 1800s:
(a) Economic depression caused by a poor transportation system which was now interrupted by the British seizure of American
ships.
(b) Indian attacks , esp. in the Ohio Valley, which settlers were convinced were caused by British inciting the Indians against
Americans.
(c) American fur traders clashed with British fur traders in the Ohio Valley in an area now regarded as US territory (although
Jay's Treaty allowed this)
(2) In the elections of 1812, many new Western and Southern congressmen, like Henry Clay , John C. Calhoun and Andrew
Jackson , from agrarian frontier areas, were pro-expansionist, anti-British, and pushed for war with Britain.
(3) These congressional war hawks (so-called by John Randolph), although a minority in Congress, became more vocal in their
pursuit of war with Britain.
(4) Although not really affected by the maritime issues, as the Atlantic seacoast, they viewed British maritime seizure and
impressment as an outrage against national honor, equated US security with land hunger and combined their desire for
Canada with southerners desire for Florida from Spain, Britain's ally.
c. Some scholars also have suggested that the War of 1812 was a second American war of Independence .
(1) Some in the US, perhaps even Madison himself, were fearful that Britain was taking the US too leniently and did not
perceive them as a serious nation.
(2) While certainly not the major consideration, the War of 1812 did end all hostilities between Britain and the US, after which
both nations grew closer together diplomatically.
2. Declaration of War
a. Congressional war hawks, 40 newly elected representatives from the west and south elected to the 12th Congress, led by
Henry Clay, Speaker of the House, pushed Madison to call for a declaration of war against Britain, because only a vigorous
demonstration in behalf of American rights would show the vitality of the new republican experiment.
b. Congress authorized the President to call up state militias for 6 months service (April 1812).
c. Pro-British maritime and commercial interests in the East forced a close vote.
(1) On 18 June, the House voted for war 79-49 and the Senate voted 19-13.
(2) PA and VA represented thirty of the pro-war vote.
(3) NY and MA represented twenty of the anti-war vote.
(4) SC, GA, OH, KY and TN unanimously voted for war.
(5) DE, RI and CN unanimously opposed it.
d. On 19 June a state of war was declared by Madison.
e. Four major causes were listed -- (1) impressment; (2) violation of US neutrality rights and territorial waters; (3) blockade of
US ports; and (4) refusal to revoke Orders in Council
f. Ironically one cause, Orders in Council, was removed two days before war was declared
(1) On 11 May 1812, the British Prime Minister, Spencer Perceval was assassinated, which threw the British government into
turmoil temporarily
(2) The new British Prime Minister, former Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh, suspended the Orders in Council, but too late
to notify the US before its declaration
3. Opposition to the War
a. Opponents to the war were mainly from New England and mid-Atlantic states (the area north and east of the Hudson River
almost entirely sat out the war).
(1) In New England the charge of British impressment was viewed as exaggerated.
(2) New England merchants, in spite of the embargoes and importation bans, were profiting through Canada and the British
West Indies.
(3) Pro-British Federalists viewed the pro-French Republican stance as the major problem.
(4) To many, Napoleon was a "Corsican butcher," the "anti-Christ of the age."
(5) The addition of Canada was opposed because the creation of new states would further diminish the power of the older
states.
4.
5.
b. Because this was the area of strength of the Federalist party, opposition to the war was connected in the popular mind with
the Federalists.
US Preparedness
a. Although the war between Britain and France had been going on since 1793, the US was inadequately prepared for war in
1812.
b. US Advantages
(1) Great Britain had tied up many resources in the European war against France.
Proximity to the theater of war
(2) Superior numbers to British citizens in Canada, the chief US target.
(3) Well trained and efficient, although greatly outnumbered, Navy.
(a) The US navy consisted of 16 regular vessels, of which only seven were seaworthy, and 100 almost worthless gunboats.
(b) Britain had over 200 ships and frigates, many of which had twice the firepower of the US navy combined.
c. US Disadvantages
(1) A small, badly administered regular Army , which was composed of volunteers and raw militia with few experienced and
capable officers, and who were poorly equipped and supplied.
(a) Republicans, who did not like a standing army, had reduced it to 6,700 men and officers, scattered throughout the states.
(b) In preparation for the war, Congress (January 1812) had authorized an increase in the army to 35,000 men but this lagged.
(2) No united support , as this war was opposed especially in New England
(a) Federalists called it Mr. Madison's War seeing him as a French tool.
(b) New England's resistance to the war deprived Madison of some of the best-trained state troops in the US.
i) MA' House of Representatives urged its citizens not to volunteer except for defensive purposes and CN's General Assembly
condemned the war.
ii) Both governors refused to let their militias leave their borders.
iii) In NH, veiled hints of disunion were made.
(3) The charter for the national bank had expired, leaving the US with no centra -lized financial machinery through which to
coordinate its finances.
Conduct of the War - Phase One
a. Plan of a three-pronged attack on Canada
(1) East, led by Gen Henry Dearborn , along the Lake Champlain route, to assault Montreal.
(2) Center, led by Gen Stephen Van Rensselaer , along the Niagara River frontier, to attack Canadians.
(3) West, led by Gen William Hull , from Detroit against Upper Canada.
b. Unfortunately, US troops were composed mainly of ill-trained militia and the campaign against Canada was a failure.
(1) Hull's surrender of Detroit (August 1812) left Britain in control of Lake Erie and Michigan country, allied with the
Northwest Indians, led by Tecumseh.
(a) Hull was court-martialed for cowardice and neglect of duty (1814), missing death only because of his Revolutionary War
record;
(b) His name was dropped from the army roll.
(2) The Niagara campaign failed when New York's State militia did not reinforce the American force of 600, who were crushed
by the Canadians
(a) Van Rensselaer resigned his commission, replaced by Alexander Smythe
(b) Smythe was indecisive, relieved of command and dropped from the roll
(3) Dearborn with the largest US force under arms arrived at the Canadian frontier, but US troops refused to proceed further,
forcing Dearborn to return to Plattsburg (November).
(4) These disasters revealed the need for well-trained regular troops.
c. Naval Successes
(1) CPT Isaac Hull of the USS Constitution won a much-needed victory over the British frigate Guerriere.
(2) CPT Stephen Decatur of the USS United States defeated the British frigate Macedonian off the Madeira Islands;
(3) CPT William Bainbridge , new commander of the Constitution , defeated the British frigate Java , a battle which earned the
ship the name Old Ironsides .
d. Fruitless Peace feelers
(1) Madison instructed Jonathan Russell, US minister to Great Britain, to negotiate a settlement, if the British would abandon
impressment and agree to pay damages for any spoiled ships.
(2) Russell also indicated that the US would stop naturalizing British citizens.
(3) Lord Castlereagh rejected both proposals, and Britain made a counter offer to an armistice and negotiations but Madison
indicated the US would accept only if Britain suspended impressment
6.
7.
Conduct of the War - Phase Two
a. British Blockade, beginning December 1812
(1) The blockade of Chesapeake and Delaware bays shut off commerce and was marked by British raids along the shores of the
upper Chesapeake.
(2) Its extension to the mouth of the Mississippi to New York harbor (November 1813), did not include New England yet,
hoping to encourage disunion.
(3) When the Northeast failed to remove itself from the union, Britain extended the blockade to include New England (1814).
(4) The British blockade was highly effective in spite of a US blockade of England.
(a) The US dispatched cruisers to prey upon British merchant convoys in the Atlantic and South Pacific and resorted to
privateering, but these efforts did little to offset British naval superiority.
(b) US privateering only became effective in 1814 with a US naval blockade of the British coast made it unsafe for vessels to
travel to Ireland unescorted
(c) By the summer of 1814, the US had captured 825 vessels, but this did not lessen the tight British blockade of the US coast.
b. Harrison in the West
(1) Citizens commissioned William Henry Harrison after the fall of Detroit and Ft. Dearborn and appointed him to head an
expedition to Detroit.
(2) Madison and the Secretary of War concurred making him commander of the northwestern army
(3) Harrison was ordered to retake Detroit, but Harrison could not move against it while the British controlled Lake Erie.
c. Naval Defeats
(1) The USS Chesapeake , under James Lawrence , was captured by the British frigate Shannon .
(2) Lawrence's last words, Don't Give Up the Ship , became the navy's rallying cry
d. Battle of Lake Erie - the most important naval engagement on the Great Lakes and one of the bloodiest engagements of the
war.
(1) CPT Oliver Hazard Perry , commander of the USS Lawrence , inscribed the last words of Lawrence on his flag.
(2) Perry with ten vessels engaged the British for 3 hours on 10 Sept 1813 before the British surrendered, although 80% of the
flagship's crew were casualties.
(3) Perry's message to Gen. Harrison: We have met the enemy and they are ours.
e. Battle of the Thames
(1) With the US in control of Lake Erie, the threat to Canada was again real, and the British abandoned Detroit and fell back
to a line along the Niagara frontier.
(2) Harrison with a main force of 4,500 pursued the retreating British at defeated them at the north bank of the Thames River,
helped especially by the Kentucky mounted regiment under COL Richard Mentor Johnson .
(3) Tecumseh having been killed, the Indian confederacy collapsed and the Indians deserted Britain
f. Drive on Upper Canada
(1) Dearborn's combined military and naval action against York, capital of Upper Canada, led to its surrender, although the
US suffered 320 casualties including Gen Zebulon Pike when a magazine exploded.
(2) US troops against orders burned York's public buildings, giving the pretext for the British burning the public buildings in
Washington DC.
(3) When Dearborn became ill, Gen Winfield Scott took immediate command.
(4) Battle of Sackett's Harbor (May 1813) -- Gen Jacob J. Brown repulsed a landing force led by Canada's governor.
g. Second Attempt Against Montreal
(1) James Wilkinson assumed Dearborn's command and Gen Wade Hampton headed the force at Lake Champlain.
(2) A second attack on Montreal was planned by way of the St. Lawrence, but the mutual dislike of these two generals for each
other made cooperation difficult.
(3) Wilkinson was hampered by a British force about 90 miles from Montreal while Hampton, on the Canadian line, in an
untenable position, fell back to Plattsburg
(4) Several cities in New York, including Buffalo, were harassed by the British and by Indians, suffering damage, because Ft
Niagara remained in British hands.
Conduct of the War - Phase Three
a. War Embargo -- New England and New York contractors supplying beef, flour and other provisions to the British armies in
Canada and to enemy vessels off the East coast, led Madison to recommend an embargo to stop this trade with the enemy,
which, although it became law (December 1813), was unsuccessful and later repealed.
b. Creek War
(1) Tecumseh had tried to enlist the Alabama Creeks in 1811 in his Indian Confederacy.
(2) After the War began, a Creek war faction, the "Red Sticks," about 2,000 warriors from the Upper Creek country, began a
general uprising along the frontier.
8.
(3) A clash between settlers and Indians (July 1813), 80 miles north of Pensacola, led to the Creek War, beginning on the east
bank of the Alabama river, 35 miles north of Mobile, in August.
(4) Andrew Jackson , major general of the Tennessee militia, called out 2,000 volunteers, and these forces fought the major
engagements against the Creeks.
(a) A major effort in early 1814 penetrated the heart of Upper Creek country.
(b) Battle of Horseshoe Bend resulted in the deaths of almost 900 warriors and capture of 500 women and children with less
than 200 US casualties, ending the campaign.
(5) Two Treaties
(a) Treaty of Ft. Jackson - signed by part of the Creeks, who ceded 2/3 of their lands to the US and agreed to withdraw from
southwestern Alabama
(b) Treaty of Greenville - in the Northwest, restored peace with the US and required the Miami, Seneca, Shawnee and the
Wyandot Indians to declare war on the British.
(6) Jackson was promoted to major general of the regular army.
c. US troop strength - The authorized regular army strength was 58,254 with an enlistment of only 11,000, but it was increased
to 62,773 (actual enlistment of 34,000 by October).
d. British Offensive -- April 1814
(1) Napoleon's defeat allowed the British to concentrate resources in North America
(a) In the summer, 14,000 British troops from the Duke of Wellington's Peninsular campaign arrived in North America.
(b) The British plan was aimed at Lake Champlain, Chesapeake Bay and New Orleans with an increased enforcement of the
blockade.
(2) Northern Campaign -- American offensive toward Canada
(a) MG Jacob Brown and BG Winfield Scott were responsible for the Niagara sector.
(b) Before the British reinforced, the Americans offensively invaded Canada
(c) Battle of Chippewa - July - US forces severely defeated the British in the only battle of the war in which almost equal
numbers of troops, neither enjoying an advantage, engaged in close combat in extended order.
(d) US naval forces's failure to cooperate on Lake Ontario forced US troops to retreat from the Canadian side of the Niagara
frontier.
(e) Battle of Lundy's Lane - July - the most sharply contested land action of the war pitted 2,600 US forces under Brown
against 3,000 British troops in a 5-hour battle which ended in a draw, although the American withdrawal left the British in
possession of the field.
(f) Siege of Fort Erie - August - Retreating US forces fell back on Ft. Erie before the British force of 3,500 laid an unsuccessful
siege to the fort, forcing a British withdrawal, but the US later abandoned Ft. Erie and destroyed it, ending their drive on
Canada.
(g) Lake Champlain and Plattsburg - Britain's offensive pitted 11,000 men against 3,300 US regulars and militia (4,000 having
gone to Buffalo).
(h) Battle of Lake Champlain - US control of Lake Champlain under CPT Thomas Macdonough turned the tide in favor of the
Americans in a battle lasting almost 2 1/2 hours
i) This US victory destroyed the British fleet except for its gunboats
ii) The US had undisputed control of Lake Champlain, forcing a British retreat to Canada.
(3) March on Washington - August
(a) Supporting a Canadian campaign, 4,000 British troops created a diversion on the US coast
(b) Britain's 3 aims: to seize or destroy the flotilla of gunboats under shelter in the Patuxent, to descend on Baltimore and to
raid Alexandria and Washington D.C.
(c) As the British approached, gunboats in the Patuxent were abandoned and destroyed by US forces in retreat.
(d) Battle of Bladensburg - An incompetent Gen William H. Winder US commander of the Potomac District, with a mixed
force of 7,000 was routed by 3000 British forces and forced to withdraw to Georgetown.
(e) Capture and Burning of Washington - US government officials and a panic-stricken army fled as British forces marched
unopposed into Washington DC and set fire to all public buildings except the Patent Office, inflicting over $1.5 million in
damage before a storm forced their retreat.
(4) Attack on Baltimore September
(a) While the British were destroying Washington DC, citizens in Baltimore established an elaborate defense works.
(b) British land forces bogged down while bombarding Ft. McHenry unsuccessfully, inspiring an US captive Francis Scott Key
to pen the verses to The Star Spangled Banner , sung to the tune of a British bar song.
(c) Britain abandoned the taking of Baltimore, sailing to Jamaica in October.
End of the War
a. Peace Proposals
(1) Czar Alexander I of Russia offered to mediate Anglo-US differences, because of Napoleon's declaration of war against
Russia, an ally of Britain.
(2) Castlereagh refused mediation, but, having tired of the war, offered Monroe direct mediation
(3) Madison accepted the offer, appointed John Quincy Adams , J A Bayard , Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell as peace
commissioners (later Treasurer Albert Gallatin).
b. Treaty of Ghent
(1) Ghent was chosen as the meeting place and discussions began in August 1814.
(2) US envoys were instructed to obtain satisfaction on impressment and other British maritime infractions against the US.
(3) Concerning territory the US desired status quo ante bellum (pre-war conditions)
(4) British envoys desired a neutral Indian buffer state in the Northwest and territorial concessions between Maine and Lake
Superior (about 1/3 of US territory) and insisted, especially after the burning of the US National Capital, on uti possidetis ,
(retention of territory actually held).
(5) After news of Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain, the Americans rejected British terms
(a) The Duke of Wellington told his government that the setbacks on the Great Lakes area did not entitle Britain to demand
cessation of any territory
(b) Because Britain had a depleted treasury and was diplomatically embar-rassed at the Congress of Vienna, they conceded to
the US territorial view.
(6) The terms of the treaty restored the peace but did not address the issues over which Great Britain and the United States
fought.
(a) It provided for a release of prisoners, restoration of all conquered territory (British, not Spanish) and a commission to settle
the disputed US-Canadian northeastern boundary.
(b) It left to the future the questions of disarmament on the Great Lakes and the use of the fisheries off Newfoundland.
(7) The treaty was unanimously ratified by the Senate in February 1815.
9. Results of the War
a. US casualties included 1,877 dead and 4,000 wounded.
b. The US was in greater debt, although none of the issues were settled.
c. The national capital was in shambles
d. Federalists, opposing the war, were seen as treasonous, ceasing to be viable nationally.
E. Aftermath of the War
1. Battle of New Orleans
a. Although it was fought two weeks after the signing at Ghent and did not affect the outcome of the war or treaty terms, it
powerfully restored national pride and made Andrew Jackson a national hero
b. Jackson became commander of Military District No.7 (May 1814) which included the New Orleans-Mobile area and the US
army in the southwest
(1) Against Monroe's orders, he invaded Spanish Florida and seized Pensacola.
(2) He then traveled through Mobile and arrived in New Orleans on 1 December.
c. It should be noted that England sent troops to New Orleans, even while negotiations at Ghent were being held, which
suggested that they might have ignored the terms of Ghent if they had won.
d. 7,500 veteran British soldiers under Sir Edward Packenham left Jamaica and sailed through the Gulf of Mexico in order to
assault New Orleans, although took one week to disembark;
e. Jackson with a main defense at Baton Rouge learned that the British landed 40 miles east of New Orleans, after which he
hurried his forces to New Orleans to oppose British forces massing there;
f. Martial law was proclaimed in New Orleans, although the British marched to within seven miles of the city without being
detected.
g. Jackson led 5,000 in a night attack against the British and stopped their advance
h. He quickly constructed defense works and the Americans outgunned the British on 1 January 1815 in a furious artillery
battle.
i. Jackson with 4,500 regulars, many from Tennessee and Kentucky, held off two direct assaults by the British, who suffered
heavy casualties (8 January).
j. The one-hour battle resulted in Packenham's and two other British officer's deaths and 2,036 British casualties against only
21 US casualties.
k. The British withdrew on 27 January
2. Hartford Convention (15 Dec 1814 - 5 Jan 1815)
a. Opposition to the war remained strong in New England even after its declaration
(1) Money lenders in there probably loaned more gold to Britain than to the US.
(2) Their farmers sent large quantities of goods through Canada to Britain.
(3) Many governors kept their state militias within state boundaries.
b. 26 delegates (MA, CN, RI, NH, VT) met in secret to consider several proposals including constitutional amendments to
strengthen the older states.
(1) Apportionment of direct taxes;
(2) Limit representation according to free population only;
(3) Protect against military conscription not authorized by the Constitution;
(4) Use federal revenue collected in New England only for defense;
(5) Desired interstate defense machinery, independent from federal provisions, to repel enemy invasion;
(6) An embargo could not last more than sixty days;
(7) Require a two-thirds vote in both houses before declaring war;
(8) Restriction foreign commerce and the admission of new states;
(9) Prohibit naturalized citizens from holding civil Federal office
(10) Limiting the President to a single term.
c. Extremists wanted to discuss if discontented states should secede from the union, but moderates like Harrison Gray Otis and
George Cabot (MA) who presided, prevailed.
d. A 3-man delegation, headed by Otis, went to Washington to suggest these amendments and proposals but news of the
victory at New Orleans and the signing of the Treaty of Ghent overshadowed them so that the measures were not ever
considered
e. The Hartford Convention became the brunt of popular votes.
3. Burst of Patriotism
a. News of the victory at New Orleans touched off a great national celebration
(1) Numerous American symbols became important
(a) The American flag was proudly displayed at times;
(b) American type songs, like the Star Spangled Banner;
(c) The Bald Eagle became a popular national symbol;
(d) The use of "Uncle Sam " became popular.
(e) Fourth of July celebrations became prominent
(2) American artists painted landscapes which included American birds, flora and fauna, rather than the traditional use of
European birds, flora and fauna.
(3) American writers used American themes
(a) Carson Weaver 's popular biography of George Washington became a national best seller (although it contained many
fictional anecdotes).
(b) Benjamin Stillman started the Journal of American Science , on US natural resources.
(c) Noah Webster's Dictionary noted differences in American English.
F. Domestic Issues After the War of 1812
1. Peacetime Military Establishment
a. Madison's recommended peacetime army of 20,000 was only authorized at 10,000.
b. The navy's gunboat flotilla was sold and the armed vessels on the Great Lakes was stripped of all equipment and laid up.
c. A three-man Board of Navy Commissioners was authorized to carry out general supervision of the Department of the Navy
under the Secretary of the Navy.
2. Second National Bank of America 1816
a. In October 1814, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander J. Dallas recommended a new bank capitalized at $50 million
b. When Congress only permitted a $30 million capitalization and did not agree to allow the president to suspend specie
payment or to lend 60% of the money to the government, Madison vetoed it.
c. Madison's annual address in 1815 suggested a need to reconsider the issue and Republicans reversed themselves, having
previously objected on constitutional grounds and revived the issue.
d. Congressional debate
(1) John C. Calhoun introduced a measure (similar to Dallas' recommendations) and believed it was necessary to restore a
sound and uniform circulating medium of exchange, pointing to the power of the Congress to regulate the currency;
(2) Henry Clay , who in 1811 believed that such a measure was unconstitutional, now agreed that the change in circumstances
made the bank indispensable;
(3) Daniel Webster opposed it because no currency reform was needed because of the constitutional provisions for gold and
silver currency.
e. The bill passed 80-71 in the House and 22-12 in the Senate
(1) It was capitalized at $35 million of which the government could borrow 20%.
(2) The bank was to pay a bonus to the government of $1,500,000.
(3) The President appointed 5 of the 25 directors of the bank.
(4) The Bank became a depository for government funds without paying interest.
(5) The central office was in Philadelphia and began operating on 1 Jan 1817.
(6) The first manager, William Jones, was inept and Congress threatened to repeal the charter in 1819 before reorganization
made Langdon Cleaves President.
(7) Nicholas Biddle became president (1822) until the bank expired in 1836.
3. Bonus Bill Veto March 1817
a. Although Madison supported a federally funded network of roads and canals, he wanted an amendment to make it
constitutional.
b. Calhoun introduced a bill to set aside the bank bonus and future dividends from Bank stock held by the government into a
permanent fund to be used for internal improvements, drawing upon the constitution's "general welfare" clause and from the
power to establish post roads, which demonstrates how much the Republicans had accepted the Hamiltonian doctrine of
implied powers
c. Opponents to the bill used sectional rather than constitutional grounds
(1) In New England, 34 votes against it reflected fear of Westward expansion;
(2) In the South, 23 were for it, and 25 were against it;
(3) In the West only 6 opposed the measure (42 for it).
d. Madison vetoed the bill on constitutional grounds as his last presidential act.
G. Other Foreign Policy Issues
1. Decatur's Algerine Expedition March-June 1815
a. During the War of 1812, the Dey of Algiers renewed his plunder of US Mediterranean commerce.
b. He declared war on the US, seized US vessels and enslaved US nationals on the pretext that the US was not paying
sufficient tribute.
c. The US Congress authorized action against the Dey, and CPT Stephen Decatur sailed from New York with 10 vessels,
captured several Algerian vessels and sailed into the Algerian port.
d. The Dey was forced to sign a treaty whereby he renounced molestation of US commerce and tribute, and agreed to release
all US prisoners without ransom.
e. Tunis in July and Tripoli in August also agreed to compensate the US for any US vessels which they had allowed Great
Britain to seize as prizes of war.
f. Decatur's actions brought to a close the trouble with the Barbary States.
2. A commercial convention with Britain was held in July 1815.
H. Election of 1816
1. Candidates
a. Republican party caucus selected James Monroe over William H. Crawford 65 - 54, continuing the "Virginia Dynasty," and
Daniel D. Tompkins (NY) was nominated for Vice-President.
b. Nationally Monroe was opposed by Rufus King , Federalist
2. Results
a. The discrediting of the Federalist party gave Monroe a 183-34 electoral votes four abstentions.
b. Monroe carried all states except for Mass, Conn and Delaware.
3. Monroe's Inaugural address revealed the extent to which Republicans had embraced Federalist positions, including a standing
army, adequate navy and government protection of manufacturing.
III. Era of Good Feelings Period of National Unity
A. Introduction
1.
2.
Presidential Tour (May - September 1817)
a. President Monroe toured the eastern seaboard north of Baltimore and as far west as Detroit, a symbol of the triumph of
national feeling over party animosity.
b. Americans, especially in New England, warmly received the President so that the Boston Colombian Centinel referred to the
times as the era of good feelings .
c. The designation is superficial and misleading because the seeds of sectionalism were sown during this administration.
d. Although no formal political parties existed, new party factions arose during this period and new controversies were created
as magnified in the circumstances surrounding the election of 1824.
Nation as a Whole
a. At the beginning, the US had 18 states with twice the population of 1790.
b. The West was populated rapidly, although transportation and communication remained a problem.
c. John Jacob Astor established the American Fur Company , chartered in NY.
(1) With forts and trading posts along the Missouri River to the mouth of the Colombia, he built a fur trading empire and
became very wealthy.
(2) He established Astoria on the mouth of the Colombia, although the British kept the post after the War of 1812.
3. Rise of Manufacturing
a. Groups like the Boston Manufacturing Company , Lowell Associates and Walthom Associates shifted investment from
trading to manufacturing in cotton textiles.
b. Several important trends developed
(1) The shifting of capital to the northeast
(2) The concentration of industry in a single area
(3) New machines, looms and spindles, used water power, being less dependent on humans
(4) A new source of labor resulted when the supply of New England farm girls diminished and they were replaced by the
daughters of Irish immigrants, keeping the cost of labor low.
(5) A new kind of organization emerged, the corporation which permitted limited liability and allowed smaller amounts of
investment.
c. Later industries such as boot making and shoes followed the lead of cotton textiles.
4. Beginnings of Sectionalism
a. North
(1) The financial center of the US shifted to New York City.
(2) Dependable communication with the Continent developed from New York
(a) The Black Ball Line traveled regularly across the Atlantic to England and returned every other Friday.
(b) The first ship was named the James Monroe .
(3) The Erie Canal linked Buffalo NY on Lake Erie to Albany NY on the Hudson
b. West
(1) Indian problems were waning, especially after the death of Tecumseh.
(2) Liberal land laws enabled many farmers to eventually gain land and to produce a surplus of goods, which led to a shift to
market-oriented agriculture.
(3) A demand for better roads, canals and railroads was created.
(4) Surplus produce was sold to the South as well.
c. South
(1) A one-crop economy, especially after Eli-Whitney's cotton gin made slavery "profitable."
(a) Southern cotton, a short fiber with burrlike green seeds, required much hand labor and time to remove, making its
production expensive;
(b) In 1793 a yankee visiting a Georgia plantation, Eli Whitney , invented a machine that could do the work of fifty hands who
cleaned cotton.
(2) Everyone grew cotton which became king, leading to the need to import food from the West.
(a) From 2 million pounds of cotton grown (1793) to 80 million pounds (1811)
(b) On the eve of the Civil War, 5 million 400-pound bales made the South the world's major supplier of raw cotton.
(3) This led to the purchase of additional slaves, the expansion of plantations in the South to reap greater profits and the need
for new virgin soils to the West after over-extended soil burned out, because of poor agricultural methods.
(4) Most capital for developing Southern cotton was provided by NY financiers, with major profits flowing to NY and the
West making the South dependent on both regions.
(5) These conditions led to overspeculation in slaves and land by Southerners, to an unstable financial structure dependent on
the world market price of the single-moneyed crop of cotton, and to the creation of no diversified industry.
5. Rise of Abolitionism
Those who demanded an end to slavery created stress in the South, who increasingly feared a loss of power in the Senate.
When Western and Northern legislators combined for such things as a tariff, southern resentment created a demand that the
Federal Union be reevaluated in order to consider its dissolution.
B. First Term of James Monroe (5th president)
1. Domestic Issues
a. Jackson and the First Seminole War
(1) A fort in Spanish-held East Florida, built by the English during the War of 1812, had become a refuge for runaway slaves
and hostile Indians.
(2) Because of the threat to the Georgia border, the US government sent an expedition which destroyed the fort in July 1816.
(3) Command of the forces along the Georgia and Florida border was transferred to Andrew Jackson (December 1817), with
orders to pursue hostile elements, usually Negroes and Indians, across the border as far as the Spanish posts.
(4) Jackson wrote Monroe in the Rhea Letter that if given the word that Florida was desirable to the US, he could accomplish
the task in sixty days.
(5) When nothing was said from Washington about the letter, Jackson interpreted this as approval and proceeded to seize
several Spanish posts.
(6) During the campaign, Jackson captured, court-martialed and executed 2 British traders, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert
Ambrister , for aiding the enemy.
(a) Although British public opinion was incensed, Britain took no action.
(b) A debate in the US Congress, however, led by anti-Jackson forces, especially Henry Clay in the House, produced
unfavorable reports against Jackson but no proceedings were made against him.
(c) In the southwest, however, popular approval of Jackson's Seminole campaign, which brought all of East Florida under US
military control, kept Monroe from taking action against Jackson.
(d) Jackson's raid strengthened Monroe's hand diplomatically, because while Jackson moved militarily against Spanish Florida,
Secretary of State John Adams was negotiating with Spain's Foreign Minister Luis de Onis over the Louisiana Purchase's
western boundary.
(e) After accusing Spain of aiding and abetting hostilities against the US, and asserting that the US acted in self-defense, the
US minister in Madrid issued an ultimatum -- Either protect and control Florida or cede it to the US
b. Panic of 1819
(1) Commodity inflation, wild speculation in western lands, overextended investments in manufacturing, mismanagement of
the Second Bank of the US, collapse of foreign markets and contraction of credit, led to the first real American economic
depression.
(2) The Congressional order in 1817 to resume specie payments strained the resources of state banks, caused many failures and
created hardships for debtors, especially in the southwest.
(3) To end wild land speculation, Congress canceled the easy credit terms of the land law of 1800, but kept the price at $1.25
per acre for a minimum of 80 acres.
(a) "Squatters" often settled on and improved government land, not yet for sale.
(b) Their champion was Sen Thomas Hart Benton (MO)
(4) Widespread resentment against the National bank was created in the West, where it was referred to as "The Monster" by
Benton from Missouri.
c. Dartmouth College vs Woodward February 1819
(1) In 1816 the Republican dominated New Hampshire legislature altered the royal charter (1769) of Dartmouth College,
switching the administration to a state appointed board of trustees.
(2) The old board of trustees sued the secretary of the university asserting that the legislative act was unconstitutional, in
violation of the obligation of contracts.
(3) After the state court upheld the legislature, the Supreme Court under Marshall held that the charter constituted a contract,
ruling the legislative act unconstitutional.
(4) The decision placed charters of existing private corporations outside the jurisdiction of states that chartered them,
encouraged business growth, but led to abuses of corporate privileges.
d. McCullough vs Maryland Marshall's most detailed exposition of the constitution
(1) The legislature of Maryland passed a law aimed at the Second Bank of the US.
(2) All banks not chartered by the state were required to comply with restrictions concerning note issues or pay an annual tax
of $15,000.
(3) When the Baltimore branch ignored the law, claiming it was unconstitutional, the state sued the cashier of the bank, James
W. McCullough.
(4) Two issues were at stake:
(a) Was the act of Congress establishing the national bank constitutional?
(b) Was the state tax on the bank constitutional.
(5) The Marshall court unanimously ruled (March 1819) that the powers of the national government were derived from the
people and are exercised directly on them, effectively stating the doctrine of "loose construction"
(a) Although the federal government is limited in its powers it is supreme in its sphere of action
(b) The government must have the suitable and effective means to execute the powers it has.
(6) It also denied that states could tax the bank, because the power to tax is the power to destroy .
e. Missouri Compromise March 1820
(1) Both Missouri and Maine applied for statehood by the end of 1819 when the US had eleven slave (VA, MD, DE, KY, TN,
NC, SC, GA, AL, MISS, LA) and eleven free (MASS, CO, RI, VT, NH, NY, NJ, PA, OH, IN, IL) states.
(2) While the slave-holding South had 81 votes in the House to the North's 105, a political balance was maintained in the
Senate between 1802-19 by admitting alternately a free and a slave state.
(3) The population in the north was growing at a faster pace than in the South and the South realized its political future lay in
the Senate.
(4) Talmadge Amendment
(a) Rep. James Talmadge 's (NY) bill prohibited further introducing slaves into the Upper Louisiana territory and freed at age
25 all children born of slaves in MO after statehood.
(b) The amendment passed in the House but not in the Senate.
(5) Taylor Amendment January 1819
(a) When the organization of Arkansas Territory came before congress, Rep John W. Taylor (NY) moved that slavery not be
allowed in the territory.
(b) The amendment was defeated before Arkansas territory was created with its northern boundary at 36 30' with no
restrictions on slavery.
(6) The debate over Missouri
(a) Sen Rufus King (NY) stated that Congress was empowered to forbid slavery in Missouri and should do so as a condition to
admittance.
(b) Sen William Pinckney (MD) replied that since the union was composed of equal states, Congress could not restrict
Missouri's freedom of action.
(7) Thomas Amendment
(a) In February 1820 at the same time that Maine petitioned to become a state, Alabama was admitted as the 22d state.
(b) Senator Jesse B. Thomas (IL) introduced a compromise measure to permit Missouri as a slave state, and Maine as a free
state but to prohibit slavery in the Louisiana Purchase (excluding Missouri) above the 36 30 line
(8) The Senate agreed to admit Maine as a free state if Missouri were admitted as a slave state, but the House passed a measure
similar to the Taylor amendment.
(a) In the deadlock that resulted, a congressional conference removed the Taylor amendment, inserted the Thomas amendment
and the House passed this compromise measure 90-87.
(b) The decisive vote was made final by the defection of Northern legislators whom John Randolph described as doughfaces .
(9) Maine was effectively admitted as the 23d state in March and Missouri was admitted in August, when Congress approved
its state constitution which permitted slavery but after it struck out a provision which excluded free Negroes and mulattos
f. African Slave Trade
(1) A law in March 1819 paid a bounty for information on illegal importation of Negro slaves into the US or seized at sea.
(2) The president was empowered to return all such slaves to Africa.
(3) In 1820 the foreign slave trade was declared piracy which could result in for-feiture of vessels and death penalty for all US
citizens engaged in importing slaves.
2. Foreign Policy Issues
a. Rush-Bagot Agreement April 1817
(1) Acting Secretary of State Richard Rush and British Foreign Minister Charles Bagot agreed mutually to disarm the Great
Lakes, an area threatened by a post-war arms race.
(2) Each limited their naval forces on inland waters to one vessel per Lake Champlain and Lake Ontario and two vessels on
the Upper Lakes, none to exceed 100 tons or to have more than one 18-pound gun.
(3) After the Senate's unanimous approval, giving it treaty force, it became the longest disarmed border in the world, after
extending to common land borders
b. Convention of 1818
(1) The northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase between the US and British North America was not clear and was fixed
along the 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the crest of the Rocky Mountains.
(2) The Oregon Territory was left open to citizens of both nations for ten years.
(3) The commercial treaty of 1815 was renewed with US nationals gaining fishing rights off the coasts of Labrador and
Newfoundland
c. Adams-Onis Treaty February 1819
(1) The US ultimatum regarding Florida plus Spanish colonial difficulties in South America pushed Spain to agreed to US
demands.
(a) Spain renounced all claims to West Florida, ceded East Florida to the US
(b) The US renounced its claims to Texas and assumed the claims of US citizens against Spain up to a maximum of $5 million.
(2) The western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase also was clearly defined -- from the mouth of the Sabine River on the
Gulf of Mexico, proceeding northwest-erly along the Red and Arkansas Rivers and then due west along a straight line at the
42d parallel, Spain thus surrendering claims to the Pacific Northwest to the US.
(3) The US Senate ratified it on February 1821 after many Spanish delays.
C. Election of 1820
1.
Poor attendance at the Republican Congressional caucus blurred the old party distinctions and resulted in no nominations,
leaving his candidacy unopposed
2. Results
a. With three abstentions, Monroe received 231 out of 235 electoral votes.
b. One dissenting elector from New Hampshire voted for John Quincy Adams.
c. Daniel D. Tompkins was reelected Vice President with 218 votes.
3. Inauguration -- Monroe set a precedent by postponing the inaugural exercises until 5 March because the 4th fell on a Sunday.
D. Monroe's Second Term
1. Domestic Issues
a. Cumberland Road Bill Veto May 1822
(1) Construction of the National Road or Turnpike stopped with the panic of 1819.
(2) Congress voted to repair roads, establish toll gates and collect tolls.
(3) Although supporting a national system of internal improvements, he vetoed it because Congress lacked jurisdiction without
a proper constitutional amendment.
b. Henry Clay's American System
(1) To win support for a protective tariff in 1824, Clay defined an American system
(2) It combined the protective tariff with a national system of internal improvements to expand the domestic market and lessen
US dependence on overseas sources
c. Tariff of 1824 May
(1) It increased protection on iron, lead, glass, hemp and cotton bagging, raised the 25% minimum on cotton on woolens to 33
1/3% and advanced the rate for raw wool by 15%.
(2) New England commercial interests + Southerners joined in opposition.
d. Gibbons vs Ogden 1824 -- unanimous decision
(1) It again illustrated the Marshall court's siding with the national government over states' rights.
(2) It involved Congress's power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce.
(3) Background
(a) In 1807, Robert Fulton successfully invented a practical steam-propelled craft which operated up the Hudson at the speed
proscribed by NY law, and obtained a monopoly of steam navigation on the state's waters.
(b) Many challenged the monopoly which led to litigation.
(c) One challenge involved Aaron Ogden who had a state-required Fulton-Livingston license and Thomas Gibbons who had a
federal coasting license and ran a competing boat line between New Jersey and Manhattan.
(d) New York courts upheld the state monopoly given to Fulton-Livingston.
(4) Webster, speaking for Gibbons, interpreted commerce broadly and argued that the states had concurrent power over
commerce between the states.
(5) Marshall, speaking for the court, defined commerce expansively, beyond mere exchange of goods, to include persons and
steamboats.
(6) Concurring Justice William Johnson, a nationalist (SC), added that the power to regulate interstate commerce was the
exclusive right of the national government -- Congress is supreme in all aspects of interstate commerce over state powers
which could not limit Congress .
2. Foreign Policy
a. Latin American Republics
(1) The success of the independence movements in Spanish America after 1817 led Henry Clay to advocate that the US
recognize the new Republics.
(2) Because of negotiations with Spain over the western boundary of the Louisiana purchase and the cessation of Florida to the
US, the US hesitated until 1821, when a congressional resolution expressed sympathy with Latin American republics and a
willingness to support the President when he should decide to recognize them
(3) In a special message to Congress, after the Florida treaty was finalized, Monroe proposed formal recognition of the Latin
American republics
(a) Colombia was recognized on 19 June 1822
(b) Mexico was recognized on 12 December.
(c) Chile and Argentina were recognized on 27 Jan 1823
(d) Brazil was recognized on 26 May 1824.
(e) Federation of Central American States was recognized on 4 August 1824
(f) Peru was recognized on 2 May 1826.
b. Treaty of 1824
(1) The Czar of Russia extended Russian claims along the Pacific coast to north of the 51st parallel in Oregon territory, and
closed surrounding waters including the Bering Strait, to other powers
(2) Secretary of State Adams challenged these claims, informing Russia's minister that the US contested their right to any
territorial establishment on this continent
(3) Under a treaty between the US and Russia, signed on 17 April 1824, Russia agreed to come no further than 54 40 ' and
withdrew the maritime restrictions in exchange for the US renuncia-tion of all territory north of this line.
c. Monroe Doctrine December 1823
(1) Although Great Britain was not sympathetic to the republican governments in Spain's former new world provinces, it did
not want a revival of or extension of Spanish or French power in the New World, hoping to keep open to British commerce
the rich markets of Latin America.
(2) Quadruple Alliance (France/Austria/Russia/Prussia) agreed at the Congress of Verona (November 1822) to act to restore
the Spanish authority of King Ferdinand VII, who in 1820 had been forced to accept a constitutional monarchy.
(a) France was authorized to invade Spain, but no action was taken on its request to intervene in South America.
(b) In protest, Britain broke with the other European powers on this issue.
(3) England moved to come to an understanding with the United States over the issue, having had difficulties before over
Cuba.
(a) Britain proposed joint Anglo-American action against the intervention by the Holy Alliance in the New World.
(b) US minister to Britain referred the offer to Monroe who consulted with Jefferson and Madison, both supporters of close
cooperation with Britain
(4) Secretary of State Adams believed the US should act alone to assert its strength and independence in order to create an
American system in the Western Hemisphere
(a) He also believed that Britain could not be trusted to be disinterested
Britain desired a US renunciation of plans to take Cuba in exchange for their cooperation.
(b) French were not a threat in South America because Britain controlled the Atlantic Seas, seeing Russian designs in the
Pacific as a greater threat.
(5) Polignac Agreement
(a) Britain secured from France a renunciation of all intentions to conquer or annex the Spanish-American colonies.
(b) The desire for a joint Anglo-American conference waned.
(6) Monroe announced the US policy in his annual address to Congress (1823), (essentially John Q. Adams' ideas on foreign
affairs in the western hemisphere).
(7) The Monroe Doctrine's parts:
(a) non-colonization : The American continent should no longer be seen as subjects of future colonization by European
powers;
(b) non-intervention : Because the political system in the Americas was essentially different from the Europeans, theUS would
consider dangerous to its peace and security any attempt by a European power to extend their political system to any point in
the Western hemisphere;
(c) The US would not interfere with existing colonies or dependencies of European powers in the New World, with the
internal affairs of European nations, nor take part in European wars of solely foreign interest.
(8) At the time of its announcement, the world's powers took little note of it, but it served as the classic definition of US role
in international affairs, although its major significance emerged only after the middle of the 19th century.
E. End of National Political Unity
1. Intrigues within the Cabinet Between 1820-22,
a. Political factionalism linked to Presidential ambitions caused dissensions in the Cabinet.
(1) Secretary of War John C. Calhoun 's supporters announced his candidacy (December 1821)
(2) Calhoun was attacked by supporters of Treasurer William H. Crawford .
b. The Senate, dominated by Crawford's followers, called for retrenchment of War Department expenditures and would not
approve nominations of military officers recommended by Calhoun.
c. Monroe tried to remain neutral, but the fact that he was leaving office lessened his influence.
d. One supporter of Calhoun, Senator Ninian Edwards (IL) wrote a series of articles in 1823 in the Washington Republican , a
backer of Calhoun.
(1) The articles accused Crawford of malfeasance of office.
(2) Edwards eventually preferred charges against Crawford, but he was exonerated by a House committee in May 1824.
2. Election of 1824
a. Because of the factionalism, opposition to the Congressional caucus as the means of choosing a candidate rose, and the
nominations were mostly left to state legislatures.
b. Candidates
(1) The Tennessee legislature nominated Andrew Jackson , and was endorsed by a state nominating convention in
Pennsylvania.
(2) The Kentucky legislature nominated Henry Clay .
John Quincy Adams was nominated at a meeting in Boston.
(3) The congressional caucus, the last one to nominate a Presidential candidate, met and nominated William H. Crawford .
c. Campaign
(1) Crawford was virtually eliminated by a paralytic stroke (September 1823).
(2) John C. Calhoun , who had allowed his candidacy to be announced in 1821, withdrew to run for Vice-President on the
Adams and Jackson tickets.
(3) Dissension among Southern and Western candidates strengthened Adams' position
(4) Adams' support of the "American System" brought him close to Clay, who had strong differences with Jackson.
(5) Jackson attacked "King Caucus ," supporting the right of the people to choose their own President, and received the most
popular votes.
d. Results
(1) Jackson did not receive the required majority of electoral votes.
(a) Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams received 84, Crawford 41, Clay 37.
(b) Calhoun received 182 electoral votes and was elected vice-President.
(2) The election was settled in the House of Representatives between the three highest vote getters, thus eliminating Clay who
then backed Adams.
(3) The state legislature of Kentucky was instructed to vote for Jackson, but Clay convinced them to vote for Adams instead.
(4) In February 1825, Adams received 13 votes, to Jackson's 7 and Crawford's 4.
(5) The election of Adams ended the Virginia Dynasty .
e. Corrupt Bargain
(1) Rep George Kremer (PA) charged Clay (in an unsigned letter) with making a "corrupt bargain" before the House vote,
(2) When Adams offered Clay the position of Secretary of State, the charge was given credence, a charge repeated by Jackson
in 1827.
(3) No conclusive evidence supports the charge, but it plagued Clay the rest of his political career.
(4) Over the winter of 1824-25, the Republican party divided into two factions:
(a) The Adams-Clay wing became known as National Republicans .
(b) The Jackson faction emerged as Democratic Republicans .
IV. John Quincy Adams' Administration (6th President)
A. Domestic Issues
1.
2.
3.
Civil Service Policy
a. Adams did not employ the usual practice of rotating Federal appointive offices (patronage) usually aimed at political
opponents, which cost him an essential means of building a political party.
b. He renominated any officeholder that did not warrant removal for official misconduct or incompetence, which resulted in
no more than twelve removals.
c. Unfortunately, many incumbents in the Jackson-Calhoun faction worked against Adams.
Growing Opposition
a. Adams outlined his program in his first annual address to Congress (December)
(1) Having a broad nationalist view of Constitutional powers, he recommended the construction of roads and canals, a
national university and an astronomical observatory, standardization of weights and measures and the exploration of the US
interior and the Pacific Northwest coast.
(2) He desired laws that promoted agriculture, commerce and manufacturing and encouraged the arts, sciences and literature.
b. His proposals antagonized Southern adherents of states' rights and caused his opposition in Congress to crystallize.
c. VP Calhoun, using newly granted powers to appoint Senate committees, filled half the positions with persons who did not
support Adams' programs.
d. Factionalism in the South, however, plus Northern and Western supporters of the American system, gave Adams the edge in
Congress.
e. The first issue of the United States Telegraph , edited by Duff Greene , a Calhoun supporter, became the voice of opposition
to Adams' administration.
Deaths of Adams and Jefferson 4 July 1826.
a. Thomas Jefferson died at his Monticello home hours before John Adams.
b. John Adams in Quincy Massachusetts allegedly said before death Jefferson still lives.
4.
Revival of the Tariff Issue
a. Introduction
(1) Tariff of 1824 did not stop British competition with wool-growing and woolen textile interests
(2) Northeastern interests introduced a bill in 1827 to substantially raise import duties to make the importation of those
articles virtually prohibitive.
(3) Although the Bill passed the House, VP Calhoun cast the decisive vote in the Senate, agreeing with anti-tariff forces
b. Harrisburg Convention -- 100 delegates from 13 states (July - August 1827) called for higher duties generally, a minimumvaluation principle on textiles and additional duties on hemp, flax, hammered bar iron and steel and other goods.
c. Southern Opposition
(1) The South, dependent on the world market for the disposal of its agricultural commodities, opposed a protective tariff
because it caused an increase in manufactured goods.
(2) Thomas Cooper in a speech in Columbia SC, condemned the economic ambitions of the North as a menace to Southern
equality in the Union and suggested that the South would reevaluate its role in the Federal Union -- facing either submission
or separation .
d. Tariff of Abominations May 1828
(1) The dominant Jacksonian faction in the 20th Congress exploited the tariff issue to discredit Adams, expecting New
England vote to back Adams and Southerners to agree with Jackson;
(2) The Jacksonians submitted a tariff (31 January 1828) with such high duties that no section was expected to vote for it;
(3) Adams would get blamed for the defeat of the measure and protectionists in the Pennsylvania steel industry would be
alienated from Adams;
(4) A Middle state-Southern alliance voted down every attempt to amend the tariff, expecting it to be defeated;
(5) The measure passed the House, however, 105-94 and the Senate, 25-21, raising the tariff to its highest level before the Civil
War.
Because it embodied the principle of protective tariffs, New England's legislators voted for it despite its deficiencies, to the
Jacksonian's surprise;
Western and Middle State Jacksonians voted for the measure as well to deprive the Clay-Adams faction of a campaign issue.
e. South Carolina Resolves -- SC's legislature passed 8 resolutions, calling the tariff unconstitutional, oppressive and unjust and
were joined by protests from MS, GA and VA.
f. South Carolina Exposition and Protest
(1) With the resolutions was a lengthy essay written but not signed by John C. Calhoun, espousing the theory of state
sovereignty and minority rights.
(2) Calhoun formally abandoned nationalism, maintaining that states possessed the right to determine if acts of Congress were
constitutional or not, states' rights doctrine .
(3) With it, Calhoun identified himself with the particularist views of his state and section.
B. Broadening of Democracy
1. Changes in Voting Patterns
a. Many states (NJ in 1807; MD in 1810) began removing property-holding and taxpaying qualifications for voting, even before
the War of 1812.
b. This trend continued with the admission of new western states after 1815, like IN (1816), IL (1818), AL (1819) and Maine
(1820), whose constitutions permitted white manhood suffrage.
c. Many older states liberalized their constitutions between 1816 and 1830, like CN (1818), Mass by amendments (1821) and
NY (1821) which removed property qualifications.
d. Religious qualifications for voting and officeholding also were removed by amendment.
2. Other trends
a. A trend toward counting population rather than taxpayers began.
b. An increase in popularly elected offices occurred.
c. The selection of presidential electors was gradually transferred from state legislatures to the people.
d. By 1828, only SC and DE still chose electors through state legislatures.
C. Foreign Policy Issues -- Panama Debate
1. Simon Bolivar had called for the convening of a congress of Latin American republics, and in 1825, Colombia and Mexico
extended an invitation to the US.
2. The purpose of the Congress was to unite Latin American republics against any possible recovery actions of Spain, but Adams
believed that the dominant position of the US in the hemisphere demanded US participation in this conference.
3. Adams' opponents in Congress attacked the plan
a. As a congress it would have the status of a government, a violation of American tradition of national independence and
neutrality, if the US participated.
4.
5.
6.
b. Adams had accepted the invitation to the Congress without consulting Congress.
c. Southerners were especially alarmed because some republics controlled by Negroes would be at the Panama Congress.
Adams sent two nominations for delegates to the Panama Congress, while stressing the limited and consultative nature of
American participation, but these nominations were rejected.
Senator John Branch (NC) submitted a resolution affirming the authority of the Senate to pass on the appointments of
ambassadors or other public ministers.
Although the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations reported unfavorably on the proposal in January 1826, the full Senate
approved the mission 24-19 in March and the House appropriated funds for it, although the US was never represented at it.