Download anaphora in English and Arabic

Islamic university
Faculty of education
English department
Anaphora
in English and Arabic
Bone by
Eman Elshourafa 220062576
Summer Mohesen 20061259
Submitted to
Mrs. Eman El zannen
2009-2010
1
Outline
Anaphora
Although the topic of anaphora is very essential in English language , it is more profound in
Arabic language
1- anaphora in English
a- the meaning of anaphora
b- the importance of anaphora
c- the devices of English anaphora
I- pronominal
II- lexical
III- ellipses
III-
substitution
d- indirect anaphora
2- Anaphora in Arabic
a- the meaning of Arabic anaphora
b- types of Arabic anaphora
I- pronominal anaphora
II- verbal anaphora
III- lexical anaphora
IV- comparative anaphora
IV-
zero anaphora
3- similarities and differences between English anaphora and Arabic
anaphora
4- errors committed by students
a- intra-lingual errors
b- inter-lingual errors
5- Solutions and suggestions to teach anaphora
2
What is anaphora? What is the importance of anaphora ? what are the various types of
anaphora ? Do we have anaphora in Arabic ? dose English anaphora equals Arabic anaphora ?
what kinds of problems the Arab learners of English face when dealing with such topic ? what
are the suggested solutions for teaching anaphora in appropriate way ? All these questions and
more will be answered throughout this paper . Many researchers have engaged in the anaphora
topic either in English or Arabic since it is considered a significant subject in language The
problem of anaphoric relations has been discussed in linguistics for a long time and still is on the
agenda of the cognitive and linguistic research (Sidorov and Gelbukh). Although the topic of
anaphora is very essential in English language , it is more profound in Arabic language.
. Through this paper, some issues related to anaphora are introduced to provide the reader/learner
with general concept about this profound topic both in English and Arabic .
Anaphora in English
Linguistically , anaphora is often defined as an expression referring to the occurrence of
given information in the sentence or the context . This item comes from the Greeks which means
" a carrying back " . Simply , it is a device that is used to point to a previous item . Hall B.T
(1997) . There is a relationship between the anaphora ( the source of the relation , the component
referring to ) and the antecedent (the target of the anaphoric relation , the component referred to )
. These examples will clarify the definition of anaphora :
1- Soha went to the cinema yesterday . She didn’t like the film .
2- Ahmed looked out the window . The sky looked threatening , so he decided to take an
umbrella .
In example (1) , the pronoun she is the anaphor and the noun phrase Soha is the antecedent , so
one can understand what she is referring to . Similar to , example (2) as anaphora the name for
the relationship between he and Ahmed . The word he refers back to the word Ahmed without
repeating the same word .
"In literary criticism , anaphora is seen as a repetitive device , particularly the repetition
of the first word or words of each line of a poem " Hall B. T(1997). This kind of anaphora is
called rhetorical anaphora which is "repeating a sequence of words at the beginning of
neighboring clauses , thereby lending emphasis on them ".
To illustrate :
3
Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition!
William Shakespeare, King John,
II, I
What the hammer? what the chain?
In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? what dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp?
William Blake, "The Tyger"
The importance of using anaphora
The importance of using anaphora implies in its usage to achieve variety of expressions as
a cohesive or linking device . " It is important in language teaching because of the role it plays in
cross-reference in spoken or written texts " Hall B .T(1997).Actually, it is useful to save efforts
and to avoid possible misunderstanding since anaphoric devices are not presenting a new
character . For example , consider the effect of repeating a large gray cat
A large gray cat was lying on the stairs , and I had to step over a large gray cat
Repeating the extra words are indeed not needed
since they make confusion in writing ,
speaking , and understanding , so it would be better with a pronoun as follow:
A large grey cat was lying on the stairs , and I had to step over it .
Devices of English anaphora
Many anaphoric devices are introduced in linguistics such as using pronouns , definiteness ,
lexical relationships , ellipsis , and substitution . To begin with , pronouns are the most
commonly used anaphoric device to keep the understanding of the words chain . For instance :
Once upon a time there was an old woman who had a lazy son . She was forever scolding him .
But it made no difference – he spent all his time lying in the sunshine , ignoring her . His main
job was to look after her goats, but he preferred to sleep in the sun .
The two chains in this text are as follows :
An old woman – she – her – her
A lazy son – him –he – his – he .
Note : The third person pronoun is only used as an anaphoric pronoun since it s not used
initially . Conversely to the second and first pronoun which are not considered as anaphoric
4
expressions . The sentence that includes first and second person pronoun is clearer than a
sentence with third person pronoun . For example :
"Hello, how are you ? I am so pleased to see you . How long is it since we last met ? didn’t you
ring me about six months ago? ".
Pronouns are not the only anaphoric device that is available ; Definiteness are also used .
The definite article the is considered as a reference to already known character/thing while
indefinite articles like a and some are used to indicate a new element . The definiteness articles
prevent the confusion that occurs in the sentence chain . Here in the example below the definite
article helps in building a reference chain , out of full noun phrases :
Once upon a time , there was an old woman who had a lazy daughter . The woman used to scold
the daughter all day long .
An old woman ---------- the woman
An lazy daughter --------- the daughter .
Moreover , lexical relationship as an anaphoric device means to use synonyms whose
meaning may be either broader or narrower than that of the word replaced . It is also effective to
avoid monotonousity if the chain is extended as well as to avoid the impression of limited
vocabulary . the lexical relationship is clear in the following example
Once upon a time an old king was very ill . The old man sent for his councilors when they came
before him , their ruler told them that he wanted to divide his kingdom
In addition , using word family will be helpful like :
Their king won an important battle . his victory made him the most powerful person in the whole
country – indeed his power was greater than of any ruler before him.
Ellipsis is the omission of words which can be understood from the context . They are very
effective in both providing an anaphoric link and also reducing the number of words . For
example : They didn’t want to go into the water , and he didn’t force them .
In the previous example , the ellipsis has replaced the words to go into the water after force .
In English the ability to use such words to be substituted for other words , phrases , and
clause is available . As in the given example , the meaning of the expression yes is based on
anaphora instead of repeating the whole sentence as in :Do you love me ? yes
5
The indirect anaphora shows a kind of anaphoric relation between words in case when the
antecedent conceptually differs from the anaphora ; there is no direct reference or conceptual
identity between them . It is called hidden , implicit , or associative anaphora ; anaphora as it
implies a reference of one word in the text to another one , and indirect as the exact antecedent is
not presented in the text . According to this relationship , the anaphora either a metaphor or a
part of the lexical meaning of the antecedent .For example ; I bought a house ; the hall is very
wide .here the " hall" is an anaphora for the " house ". there is a relationship between the two but
it is hidden , indirect .
Arabic Anaphora
Anaphora depends on using a pronoun or similar word instead of replacing a word used
earlier . In Arabic syntax , the verbal sentences consist of the head verb followed by the subject
and the object or the complement .However, in many cases the subject is omitted and replaced by
a pronoun appears as a suffix to the head verb Chalabi states :
Arabic is a relatively free-word order language allowing the
position of the subject either before or after its owner verb . Whenever
the subject precedes its verb , a personal pronoun has to be associated
with the verb to play the role of its subject …sometimes such subject
pronoun is explicit appearing as a suffix to the verb .
Types of Arabic anaphora
Steven levinsion says "In reference to pronoun an anaphoric relationship occurs when a
pronoun is interpreted in terms of its relation to a referent noun phrase carrying the same
semantic and syntactic information in the discourse " similar to what Hassan (255) already says
:" ‫ضمير الغائب صاحبه غير معروف فال بد لهذا الضمير من شيء يفسره و يوضح المراد منه و األصل في هذا المفسر‬
‫الموضح أن يكون متقدما على الضمير ليبين معناه أوال و يكشف المقصود منه ثم يجيء بعده الضمير مطابقا له و يسمى ذلك‬
‫"المفسر مرجع الضمير‬Anaphora in Arabic takes many various shapes ; the main types are the
pronominal anaphora , the verbal anaphora, the lexical anaphora , the comparative anaphora ,
and the zero anaphora.
The pronominal anaphora is a very wide used type in Arabic language depending on a
pronoun ,as an anaphora, to refer to the main subject . According to Hammami , Belguith and
6
Hamadou " pronouns form a special class of anaphora because of their empty semantic structure
; they don’t have an independent meaning from their antecedent" . This pronoun could be a third
person pronoun ‫ ضمير الغائب‬, a relative pronoun ‫ اسم موصول‬or a demonstrative pronoun ‫اسم اإلشارة‬
.
The third person pronoun consists of two types : the disjoint personal pronoun and the joint
personal pronoun . The disjoint personal pronoun can be nominative e.g. "1"
) ‫ هم‬, ‫هن‬, ‫ هما‬, ‫ هي‬, ‫ ضمير منفصل في محل رفع ( هو‬or accusative e.g. "2"
)‫إياهن‬,‫إياهم‬,‫ إياهما‬, ‫ إياها‬, ‫ضمير منفصل في محل نصب ( إياه‬
e.g. "1
‫ذهب أحمد إلى المدرسة مبكرا حيث سلك هو و زميله محمد الطريق األيسر‬
e.g. "2" ‫أعجب أحمد باللوحة التي رسمتها فأهديته إياها‬
while the joint person pronoun can be classified into three types . Nominative e.g."3"
)‫نون النسوة‬, ‫واو الجماعة‬,‫; ضمير متصل في محل رفع (ألف االثنين‬this pronoun works as anaphora if and if
only it is followed by verb . And accusative e.g. "4" ‫ ضمير متصل في محل نصب‬or genitive e.g."5"
‫ كاف المخاطبة ) ;ضمير متصل في محل جر‬, ‫ ياء المتكلم‬, ‫هم‬, ‫ هن‬, ‫ هما‬,‫ ها‬, ‫( ه‬
e.g."3" ‫أحمد و محمد ذهبا إلى المدرسة مبكرا‬
e.g."4" ‫سار أحمد إلى المدرسة حيث قابله زميله محمد‬
e,g,"5" ‫سار أحمد إلى المدرسة و لحق به زميله محمد‬
There is another subtype of pronouns which can be suitable for all cases ; nominative ,
accusative and genitive which is " ‫ "ناء الفاعلين‬e.g. "6"
e.g."6" "‫ "ربنا ال ؤااذذنا إن نسينا أو أذطأنا‬: ‫ ربنا‬genitive ‫ ؤااذذنا‬accusative ‫ نسينا‬genitive
It's clear that the joint pronouns cant begin a sentence and must be attached to a noun ‫ زميله‬, a
verb ‫ قابله‬or a proposition ‫ به‬unlike the disjoint pronouns .
The relative pronouns is a kind of pronominal anaphoric pronoun ;Hammami , Belguith
and Hamadou comment "The relative pronouns in Arabic is always anaphoric and is referring to
the immediate previously mentioned noun phrase ". Those relative pronouns are classified into
singular" ‫ الذي‬, ‫" التي‬, dual " ‫ اللذين‬, ‫ اللتين‬, ‫ اللذان‬, ‫ " اللتان‬, and plural ‫ اللواؤي‬, ‫ الالؤي الالئي‬, ‫" الذين‬ones .
All can appear in nominative e.g. "1" , accusative e.g. "2" or genitive e.g."3" .
e.g. "1" : ‫ؤسابق الطالبان و فاز الذي في المقدمة‬
e.g. "2" ‫شكر أحمد الرجل الذي ساعده‬
e.g. "3" ‫ امتأل البحر بالسفن الالت ؤشقه طوال و عرضا‬/ ‫ذهب أحمد إلى المدرسة التي ؤجاور منزله‬
But When the relative pronoun occurs at the beginning of the sentence , the question that will
attract the reader is "De we consider it as anaphora?". According to what Hassan (340:1975)
7
states :" ‫االسم الموصول غامض المعنى مبهم الداللة لكن حين أؤينا بعده بجملة ؤشمل على ضمير يعود عليه رأينا المعنى قد‬
" ‫اؤضح‬
The relative pronoun at the beginning of the sentence is ambiguous till a following sentence/
word clarify its meaning .So , in this case it cant be considered as anaphora. Notice this example
" ‫" الذين آؤيناهم الكتاب يتلونه حق ؤالوؤه‬
The demonstrative pronouns are basically anaphoric in Arabic language Hassan
(321:1975) states " ‫"اسم اإلشارة اسم يعين مدلوله ؤعيينا مقرونا بإشارة حسية إليه‬. Sidorov and Gelbukh states "
the use of a demonstrative pronoun is possible if and only if the antecedent denotes a process or
situation , and the anaphora refers to a part of its lexical meaning ".They can refer to the near
person or thing such as : ‫ هاالء‬, ‫ذين‬, ‫ذان‬,‫ هاؤين‬, ‫هذين‬, ‫ هاؤان‬, ‫ هذان‬, ‫ذي‬, ‫ؤه‬, ‫ ؤا‬, ‫ؤي‬, ‫ذه‬, ‫ هذه‬, ‫ ذا‬,‫ هذا‬e.g. "1"
or the far/ distant person or thing like :
‫ أولئك‬, ‫ أوالك‬, ‫ذ ِل ِك‬, ‫ ؤلك‬, ‫ ذاك‬e.g. "2" . In addition , they
can refer to the near place such as : ‫ هنا‬e.g. "3" or the far/ distant place like : ‫ هنالك‬, ‫ هناك‬e.g."4"
.
e.g."1" ‫رأيت أحمد و محمد في المكتبة هذين طالبين مجتهدين‬
e.g."2" ‫سار أحمد مع محمد إلى المكتبة ذاك الطالب المجتهد الذي حصل على أعلى الدرجات‬
e.g."3" ‫زارنا الطالب في المكتبة و أعدوا التقارير المطلوبة هنا‬
e.g."4" ‫ذهب أحمد إلى المدرسة و هناك قابل زميله محمد‬
So demonstrative pronouns also is anaphoric as it is used to refer to something mentioned before
in any case ; nominative , accusative or genitive. If the demonstrative pronouns can occur at the
beginning of the sentences , it doesn't work as anaphora.
The other main Variety of anaphora is the verbal anaphora which depends on the usage of
the verb ' did ‫ ' فعل‬instead of repeating the same verb ;for example,
-ُ "‫سالَتَه‬
ُ ‫الر‬
َّ ‫"ََ يا أ َ ُّي َها‬
َ ‫نز َل ِإلَيْكَ ِمن َّر ِبكَ َو ِإن لَّ ْم ؤَ ْف َع ْل فَ َما َبلَّ ْغتَ ِر‬
ِ ُ ‫سو ُل َب ِل ْغ َما أ‬
-‫يجب على الطالب ؤسليم واجباؤهم في الموعد المحدد فإن لم يفعلوا فهم وحدهم الملومون‬
In the two previous examples the verbs " ‫ يفعلوا‬, ‫ " ؤفعل‬are used as anaphora as they refer to the
head verbs .This kind of anaphora is used to vary the writing and to avoid repetition .
"Lexical anaphora is released when the referring expressions are definite descriptions or
proper names " Hammami , Belguith and Hamadou state. Theses expressions are used to
increase the cohesive of the text and to give extra information for instant , ‫ العالمة‬is used to refer
to ‫ ابن ذلدون‬and to tell the reader that he is a great educated person.
E.g.1 ‫ولد ابن ذلدون في ؤونس ثم هاجر العالمة إلى مصر‬
8
The comparative anaphora is another type of Arabic Anaphora ; it depends on using words
such as "‫ أذرى‬, ‫ " آذر‬to refer to the previously mentioned words . Hammami , Belguith and
Hamadou mentioned " it represent anaphora in which the anaphoric expressions are introduced
by lexical modifiers ."This type reflects the relationship between the anaphora and the antecedent
" ٌ ‫س ِبي ِل اّللِ َوأ ُ ْذ َرى كَافِ َرة‬
َ ‫" ََ قدْ َكانَ لَ ُك ْم آ َيةٌ فِي فِئَتَي ِْن ْالتَقَت َا فِئ َةٌ ؤُقَاؤِ ُل فِي‬
Zero anaphora, a major kind of anaphora , is restricted to the subject position when there is a
following verb ; in other words , there is no surface noun or pronoun filling the subject Hassan
(219:1975)says " ‫ "الضمير المستتر هو ما يكون ذفيا غبر ظاهر في النطق و الكتابة‬. This type ‫"ضمير الغائب‬
"‫ المستتر‬is used to reflect and maximize the importance of the action over that of the subject .
ُ ِ
ِ ُ‫ض َذ ِليفَةً قَالُواْ أَؤَجْ عَ ُل فِي َها َمن يُ ْف ِسد ُ فِي َها َو َي ْس ِفك‬
ِ ‫ََ "و ِإذْ قَا َل َربُّكَ ِل ْل َمالَئِ َك ِة ِإنِي َجا ِع ٌل فِي األ َ ْر‬
ُ ‫س ِب ُح ِب َح ْمدِكَ َونُقَد‬
َ ُ‫الد َماء َونَحْ نُ ن‬
" َ‫لَك‬In the previous example, the pronoun " ‫ "هو‬is not presented , so it's called zero
anaphora.
Similarities and differences between English and Arabic anaphora
Arab learners of English language face some difficulties when dealing with such topic ; any
similarity between two languages can facilitate the learning of the target language while any
difference can cause difficulties in learning the second language . Both Arabic and English
language includes the topic of anaphora but with a little differences .
English and Arabic language include various types of anaphora the thing that facilitate
understanding that of the target language . Lexical , verbal , comparative , indirect , and zero
anaphora are included in both languages . the clearest type is the pronominal as it is used widely
in both languages ; this facilitate the process 0f translation. The other common type is the
verbal one as it is used in order to avoid repetition for example
a- I miss you
b- I do too
Comparative anaphora is reflected by the usage of other = ‫ أذرى‬as it is mentioned previously .
the most interesting is the zero anaphora which is used when the speaker mention a series of
verbs without repeating the subject every time like we one says : Ali writes , reads , and listen to
music ; the subject of " reads, listen " is hidden but refers to َِ َAli
so that it is called zero
ِ
anaphora .
9
However , English and Arabic differ in many cases especially in the anaphoric third person
pronouns including the number and the gender . According to the gender , In Arabic language ,
there is a feminine singular pronoun ‫ هي‬and masculine singular pronoun ‫ هو‬which can be used
for both rational and irrational subjects . While in English language , there is a feminine singular
rational pronoun "she " , a feminine singular irrational pronoun "it" , a masculine singular
rational pronoun " he" and a masculine singular irrational pronoun " it". According to the number
, the singular English third person pronouns are : he , she and it , and the plural third person
English pronoun is only "they" . On the other hand , Arabic is richer than English in this case as
the third person Arabic pronoun can be classified into : singular including ‫ هي‬, ‫ هو‬, dual
including ‫ هما‬and plural including ‫ هن‬, ‫ هم‬. See the following table .
The third person
English
Arabic
pronoun
Singular
Dual
"F+M" It
_
"F" She
‫"هي‬F"
"M" he
‫"هو‬M"
_ "F+M"
‫"هما‬M+F"
"they"
plural
"F+M"
They
‫"هم‬M"
‫"هن‬F"
Intra-lingual and inter-lingual problems
Arab learners and even English native speakers face problems with anaphoric expressions .
These problems are considered as intra-lingual ( related to the misunderstanding of the English
language itself ) or inter-lingual problems ( related to the difference between Arabic and English
) .Firstly , the intra-lingual problems resulting from realizing different patterns of references and
reserving the meaning of the context . On the other hand , inter-lingual problems leads to trouble
in translation such text from Arabic to English or vice verse.
Most of Arab learners are facing difficulties in realizing the reference of such patterns .
This problem leads them to misunderstanding the passage since the exact meaning of such
expression will be escaped through reading or speaking .Hall B.T (1997) . furthermore , pupils
even they know well the patterns and apply them in their writing and conversation ; difficulties
will be increased as well as the characters on the stage increased too . So , lack of clarity in the
10
reference of the anaphoric devices is one of the most common problems faced by Arab learners.
For example :
London had snow yesterday
It also had fog ( It=London )
It fell to a depth of 1 meter ( It= snow )
It will continue cold today (It= the weather)
In the London snow example , even native English speakers have difficulty in understanding
what it is referring to in each sentence . Sarokin D.(2007)
According to the inter-lingual errors, Chalabi(2004) believes that Arab learners of English
language face two major problems related to the anaphora especially in translation . Firstly , the
decision whether there is an omitted pronoun or not .Secondly , the pronominal ambiguity of
morphological nature that needs resolution for the correct generation of the target language
sentences .
The first problem is that " is there an omitted pronoun ?"
In Arabic language syntax, the agreement between the subject and its verb is basic in
number , gender, and person , while in English the verb take only one shape ; notice the below
examples
‫ البنات يكتبن‬/ ‫ األوالد يكتبون‬/‫الولدان يكتبان‬/ ‫ البنت ؤكتب‬/ ‫الولد يكتب‬
He write/ she write/ they write
Iin addition to the association of specific case ending , nominative , accusative and genitive,
according to their syntactic role In the sentence .To clarify this point Chalabi (2004)illustrated a
simple two-word Arabic sentence ‫ جاء الرجل‬Which has two possible interpretations : either that
there is no omitted pronoun , so it means : " the man came " or that there is an omitted pronoun
‫ هو‬so it means " someone came to the man " . This sentence produces two different possible
syntactic structures depending on the decision of whether there is a zero anaphora or not; the
thing that makes it difficult for learners in the process of translation .
11
"a"
"b"
Another related point is the errors cased by the usage of verbs accepting both abstract ‫فعل‬
"‫ مجرد "فعل‬and augmented
"‫ فعل مزيد " فعل‬. the Arab learners of English face difficulties when
translating such verbs ; for example ,
1- ‫جلس الولدُ على المقعد‬
2- ‫جلًس الرجل الولدَ على المقعد‬
The second problem is associated with the irrational pronoun "it " . Chalabi (2004)states
that the only way to determine the rationality and number features is to find their referents . As it
is mentioned previously , in Arabic language there is no irrational pronoun "it" , while it is
existed in English and this cases a problem in translation process . If the beginner students are
asked to translate the following sentence they may commit this mistake by replacing the rational
pronoun with the irrational one .
‫كشف ؤقرير في مجلة علمية أن باحثين انتخبوا حبوب معدلة جينيا يقولون أنها ؤحتوي على كميات أقل من الكافيين‬
A report in a scientific magazine revealed that researchers produced genetically engineered
coffee grains which they say that she contains less quantities of the caffeine .
Solutions and suggestions to teach anaphora
As English students face many difficulties in anaphora , extra efforts from teachers and the
students themselves will help to vanish this phenomena . Firstly , curriculums should focuses
in their systems on the comprehension and communication skills .Ministry of education has also
a great role in this process by providing teachers with some techniques to improve their ways of
teaching for such topics .Anaphora often occurs in speaking and reading , so mastering these
skills will ease their understand if they are given in an early grade
12
For instance ,( Winn K , 2009) says that since most anaphora are pronouns which point to
the person/thing discussed previously in the context . Therefore , teachers should show students
how to stop at anaphora and refer such expressions to their antecedents .This actually helps
students to overcome the problems of anaphoric references then this passing will lead to develop
their skills . Another way could be implemented in TEFL classes is by engaging the students in
various games , then asking them to recall characters , setting , or facts from the story or the
game they play .
In addition , Hall B.T (1997) advices the teachers to provide their students with extra
materials including exercises to help them in realizing and producing different patterns of
anaphora . So teachers should go step by step in teaching anaphoric devices . They should begin
\with the use of simple patterns then turns to use more complex forms like ellipsis or substitution
. This table is considered as an example to ease keeping such patterns as given in an early stage .
Personal pronouns as subject and object
Ahmed is active he has finished his
(he/him , they /them )
homework early
Possessive pronouns (his /her/their)
Their songs are still popular
Demonstrative pronouns ( this , that , these
This group from Rafah
Adverbs of time and place (then, there )
It was unusual then for groups based
outside London to achieve recognition
Indefinite pronouns (one , some , any )
Which goup is the most talented one
To sum all up , anaphora is a linguistic relation between two textual entities which is
defined when a textual entity refers to another entity of the text which usually occurs before .
The importance of this deep topic existed in understanding the item in both languages Arabic and
English , then in identifying the devices of that topic in each language . the cruel point is to know
that the same topic differs in the two languages although having the same meaning . so one must
be careful of the differences coming out from both languages.
13
References
Chalabi , A.(2004), Jep-taln , Arabic language processing. Egypt: Sakhr com.
Hammami S, Belguith L, and Ben Hamadou A. ANAPHORA IN ARABIC LANGUAGE:
DEVELOPING A CORPORA ANNOTATING TOOL FOR ANAPHORIC LINKS
.Tunisia :Multimedia Information & Advanced Computing Laboratory
www.ldc.upenn.edu/acl/P/P99/P99-1048.pdf [ accessed 29th December 2009]
autistic-students.suite101.com › Autistic Students [ accessed 26th December 2009]
www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/.../anaphora/anaphora.htm [ accessed 30th December 2009]
Haal , B.(1997) eltj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/51/4/406.pdf [ accessed 31stDecember
2009]
Abbas , H. (1975) Al Naho Al Wafi . Egypt: Dar Al Maaref
14