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Table 1. Experimental matrix and response for the hydrothermal conversion of Pongammia oil
cake to biocrude
S. Temperature Pressure
Time
°
2
No.
( C)
(kg/cm ) (Minute)
1
300
20
20
2
400
20
20
3
300
30
20
4
400
30
20
5
300
20
40
6
400
20
40
7
300
30
40
8
400
30
40
9
300
20
20
10
400
20
20
11
300
30
20
12
400
30
20
13
300
20
40
14
400
20
40
15
300
30
40
16
400
30
40
17
250
25
30
18
450
25
30
19
350
15
30
20
350
35
30
21
350
25
10
22
350
25
50
23
350
25
30
24
350
25
30
25
350
25
30
26
350
25
30
27
350
25
30
28
350
25
30
29
350
25
30
30
350
25
30
*fraction between 68-316ºC
Water/
Biomass ratio
(mass/mass)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
Biocrude
Yield (wt %)
Experimental
22.1
38.6
25.3
38.8
26.0
37.3
33.5
37.8
24.2
36.9
29.4
35.9
27.2
39.1
294
35.7
16.2
34.8
34.4
31.2
33.3
34.7
13.1
36.6
38.5
38.2
38.7
38.1
38.6
38.4
TGF*
Yield (wt %)
Experimental
18.6
23.3
24.8
26.4
22.7
26.4
27.6
29.2
22.3
26.9
25.6
27.4
24.8
26.3
28.9
30.6
19.8
26.5
16.7
24.6
26.9
32.8
24.4
31.7
29.3
29.8
29.2
29.7
29.3
29.5
Table 2. FTIR spectra analysis and class of compounds of TGF fraction and its subfractions
Wave number
(cm-1)
3300-3600
Infrared Absorption
Class of
compounds
Polyemric O-H
Amides
Aromatics and
alkanes
Ketones,
aldehydes,
carboxylic acid
Nitrogeneous
A
B
C
D
E
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
3000-2800
O-H stretching
N-H stretching
C-H stretching
1730-1700
C=O stretching
1575-1525,
1675-1600
N-H bending
-NO2, C-C
conjugated, aromatic
conjugated or C-N
conjugated or cyclic
double bond vibrations
C=C stretching
Alkenes
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
-
+
+
Bending O-H, -CH2
and -CH3 bending
(CH3)3–C–R
C-O stretching
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
1550-1490
1575, 1675
1390, 1480
1280
1275-1100
900-750
675-730
Phenols
Primary,
secondary and
tertiary alcohols
Substitutes in aromatic Aromatics,
ring
esters, ether
Bending out of the C- Aromatic
H plane
compounds
A=TGF fraction; B= Aliphatic fraction; C= Aromatic fraction; D= Oxygenated fraction
and; E= Polar fraction