Download Introduction about/to Sanskrit language

The Stylistics Analysis
Of
Bengali Language
By
SUBHABRATA BANERJEE.
The Stylistics Analysis of Bengali
Language is a dissertation submitted for
the attainment of D.Litt Degree in the
Univerity of Calcutta India under the kind
guidance of Professor Somnath
Bhattacharya and Professor Subhadra
Kumar Sen in the Department of
Linguistics on the Subject of Natural
Language Processing.
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Summary
Introduction about/to Sanskrit language
The laborers of the general school of Sanskrit grammar reached a climax in
the grammarian Panini, whose textbook, containing the facts of the language
cast into the highly artful and difficult form of about four thousand algebraic
formula – like rules (in the statement and arrangement of which brevity alone
in had in view, at the cost of distinctness and unambiguousness), because for
all after time the authorative, almost sacred, norm of correct speech. By the
term “classification” or “later” languages, as constantly used in grammar is
meant the language of those literary monuments which are written in
conformity with the rules of the native grammar: virtually, the whole proper
Sanskrit literature.
Phonology of Sanskrit Grammar
If more constants than one precedes the vowel, forming with it a single
syllable, their characters must be combined in to a single compound
character.
the short a has no written sign at all; the consonant sign itself implies a
following a unless some other vowel sign is attached to it. In some cases,
however, there is more or less abbreviations or disguise independent form of
a consonant sign in combination. The Hindu grammarians call the different
sounds, and the characters representing the, by a kara (smaller) added o the
sound of the letter, if a vowel, or to the letter followed by a, if consonant. Thus
the sound or character a is called akara, and a, ka, etc. are used alone.
Declensions
Gender. Declensional forms are made by the addition of endings to the stem,
or base of inflection.
Paradigm
According to the distributionalists, discovers of syntagmatic relationship
constitutes the fundamental object of linguistic investigation, for language is
above all a combinatorial system. The general subject of declension includes
nouns, adjectives, and pronouns all of which are inflected in essentially the
same manner. detail treatment of case is given while treating paninian aspect.
(ii) Conjugation : The subject of conjugation or verbal inflection involves, as in
the other languages of the family, the dissentions of voice, tense, mode
number and person. The middle forms outside the present system (for which
there is a special passive inflection) and sometimes also within that system,
are liable to be used likewise in a passive sense.
a So -called pluperfect. The Present System : it is composed of the present
tense with its modes, its participles, and its preterit which we have called the
imperfect.
The perfect system: It is composed of the perfect tense (with, in the Veda, its
modes and its preterit, the so-called pluperfect) and its participle.
The aorist system: It is simple reduplicated and sibilant composed of the
aorist tense along with, in the later language, its "precaution" optative (but in
the verb with its various modes and its principles).
The future systems: 1. In the classical Sanskrit, there remains a single
infinitive, of accusative case - form, having nothing to do with the tensesystems.
A so-called gerund (or absolute) - being, like infinities, a stereotypes case from of a derivative noun - is a part of the general verb-system. The
secondary conjugation. 1. the passive; 2. the intensive, 3. the derivative, 4.
the causative. In these, a conjugation-stem, instead of the simple root,
underlies the whole system of inflection. Under the same general head
belongs the subject of denominative conjugation, or the conservation of noun
and objective - stems into conjugation - stems. The characteristic of a proper
(finite or personal) verb-form in its personal ending. The general participle
endings are ant.
Augment: The augment is a short a, prefixed to a tense - stem - and if the
latter begin with a vowel, combining with the vowel irregularly into the heavier
or viddhi diphthong. The general principle of reduplication in the prefixation to
a root of a part of itself repeated - if it begins with consonants, the initial
consonant and the vowel, if it begins with a vowel, that vowel, either alone or
with a following consonant. Derivative or Secondary Conjugation
Causative; V. Denominative.
1. Passive: The passive has a special present system, the stem of which in
present only, and did not made the basis of any of the remaining forms: this
stem is formed with the accounted class - sign ya', and it takes the middle
endings. This present-system is treated with the others.
In the remaining tenses, the middle forms are used also in a passive sense.
It is decidedly less extended beyond the limits of a present-system than any
other of the derivative conjugation.
The grammarians tenth that any noun stem is the language may be
converted, without other addition than that of an a (as union vowel enabling it
to be inflected according to the second general conjugation) into a presentstem and conjugated as such.
Demonstratives are formed at every period in the history of the language,
from the earliest down.
DIVISION OF VEDIC AND CLASSICAL SANSKRIT AND SCOPE OF VEDIC
An Introduction to Vedic Grammar
Hundreds of Panini's sutras deal with the language of the Vedas; but the
account they give of it in anything but comprehensive. Phonology in Vedic
Grammar
Evidence throwing light on the phonetic character of the language of the
Samhitas is furnished not only by the pronunciation of its sounds by the
Brahmanas of to-day, who still recite those texts, but also by the transcription
of Sanskrit words in foreign languages, particularly Greek, in ancient times; by
the summary information contained in the works of the old Sanskrit
grammarians, Panini and his successors, and more especially by the detailed
statements of the Pransakhyas and the Siksas. CLASSICAL SANSKRIT
Panini composed the bulk of the classical Sanskrit literature at a period very
much later than the fixing of the language. We have therefore in the Epics
extensive documents of Sanskrit belonging to a period wearer to Panini than
the classical literature in the narrow sense. Among the common deviations of
the Epic language a few characteristic types may be quoted. The distinction
between the active and middle forms of the verb, which was still fully alive in
Panini's time, and for which he later in some detail, in beginning to be blurred
in the Epic, Active forms are used for middle and vice-versa, and even the
passive verb sometimes takes active endings. The careful rules of Panini
concerning the use of the alternative forms ate and anti in forming the
feminine of present particles are not strictly observed.
The language of the Epics served also as a model for the language of the
puranas, of which the earliest core dates to the same period. The special
characteristics of classical Sanskrit arise from that most of the literature dates
from a period very much later than the period in which the form of the
language was fixed. If Kalidasa is to be dated (AD 450 a period of no loss
than sight hundred years separates him from the grammarian Panini. The
earliest Sanskrit inscriptions (e.g. of Rudradaman, A.D. 150) show the
existence of a developed Sanskrit Kavya.
The dates given for Panini are pure guesses. Panini was a Sanskrit
grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics,
phonology, and morphology. Sanskrit was the classical literary language and
Panini is considered the founder of the language and literature. It is interesting
to note that the word "Sanskrit" means "complete" or "perfect" and it was
thought of as the divine language, or language of the gods.
A treatise called Astadhyayi (or Astaka ) is Panini's major work. Panini gives
formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar. Starting
with about 1700 basic elements like nouns, verbs, vowels, consonants he put
them into classes. The construction of sentences, compound nouns etc. is
explained as ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner
similar to modern theory. [Sanskrit's] potential for scientific use was greatly
enhanced as a result of the thorough systemisation of its grammar by Panini.
On the basis of just under 4000 sutras [rules expressed as aphorisms], he
built virtually the whole structure of the Sanskrit language, whose general
'shape' hardly changed for the next two thousand years. An indirect
consequence of Panini's efforts to increase the linguistic facility of Sanskrit
soon became apparent in the character of scientific and mathematical
literature. Joseph goes on to make a convincing argument for the algebraic
nature of Indian mathematics arising as a consequence of the structure of the
Sanskrit language. In particular he suggests that algebraic reasoning, the
Indian way of representing numbers by words, and ultimately the development
of modern number systems in India, are linked through the structure of
language.
Panini should be thought of as the forerunner of the modern formal language
theory used to specify computer languages. There are other works which are
closely associated with the Astadhyayi which some historians attribute to
Panini, others attribute to authors before Panini, others attribute to authors
after Panini. We also promised to return to a discussion of Panini's dates. One
can use this technique and see who Panini mentions.
There are ten scholars mentioned by Panini and we must assume from the
context that these ten have all contributed to the study of Sanskrit grammar.
Well of course Panini uses many phrases to illustrate his grammar any these
have been examined meticulously to see if anything is contained there to
indicate a date. There are references by others to Panini. Let us end with an
evaluation of Panini's contribution by Cardona in [1]:-
Panini's grammar has been evaluated from various points of view. It was
written circa 400 BC by the Indian grammarian Panini, and it describes the
grammar completely. It has 3,995 language rules but also covers historical,
social, and geographical subjects.
Panini
The Astadhayi, also called Astaka in a grammar of Sanskrit. It consists of
eight (asta) chapters (ad hyaya), further subdivided into quarter chapters
(pada) and contains about 4,000 rules called Sutra, preceded by a catalog of
sounds itself subdivided into 14 groups and variously called the pratyahara sutras ("abbreviation sutras"), Siva-sutras, and mahesvara - sutras. In those
rules Panini refers to groups of verbs and nominal bases in various ways.
These bases appear in two ancillaries to the corpus of rules, a catalog of roots
called the dhath-patha and a catalog of nominal bases called gana-patha.
(a) A detailed survey of Panini's grammar.
(b) Panini on Ellipsis and stylistics
(c) Application of rules in Bengali and Hindi
General Review of Panini
Panini's grammar is descriptive, not prescriptive (Staal, 1965: 109). The rulers
of the grammar serve to derive forms, which accord with correct usage. These
rules (sutra) are also called laksana characteristic, that by which... is
characterise, that is, to explain by derivation, the forms of correct usage.
These correct forms are, accordingly, called laksya that which is to be
characterized. Basic to this derivational system is the distinction between
bases (prakrti) and affixes (pratyaya). The grammar provides for introducing
affixes after bases under given conditions to derive items terminating in verbal
or nominal endings. These are called pada. The bases themselves are of two
general types: verb roots (dhatu) and nominal bases (pratpadika). In addition,
bases are either primitive or derived primitive verb roots appear in the dhaterpatha. Applying rules of the grammar gets derived bases. Derived verb roots
are formed from both primitive roots and nominal forms. Derived nominal
bases too are gotten from both verb roots and nominal forms. Bases such as
pak-a-'cooking', pac-aka 'cook' are derived from the root pea by introducing
the primary affixes (called krt) ghan (=a and nvul (=aka) respectively. From
nominal forms are derived compounds such as raja purus a 'king's man' and
items such as anpagava 'descendent of upagu, tatra 'there' which contain
affixes called taddhitas. Some rules state meanings as conditions: affix A is
introduced after I when meaning M is denoted. Some rules state co
occurrence conditions : affix A is introduced after item I if item] is introduced.
Similarly, to the pada upagu - as can be introduced the taddhita affix a form
upagu - as - a, when we derives aupagava. In introducing affixes to denote
Quarks, primly is granted to verb affixes. The substituted r and replacements
can be bases, affixes or sounds alone. Panini' System; Studies of general
aspect.
There has not been published to date in European language a single work in
which Panini's total system is et froth clearly an with insight . The most
ambitious work attempting to give a full picture of Panini's system in a
European language is by Vidya Niwas Misra (1966). Panini operates with a
syntactic system, and his principal aim was to provide a word analysis, but he
also notes that Panini's karaka system implies a sentences analysis. It cannot
be defined that Panini does deal with syntactic relations and relations among
certain kinds of sentences. In recent years, several papers have appeared in
which is treated Panini' derivational system is general, including syntax, S.D.
Joshi (1969) deals with Panini's syntactic system and illustrates the complete
derivation of a sentence by Paninian rules.
Rules of the section beginning with 3.1.1 through the fifth chapter, introduce
units classed as affixes. This large section of rules has subsections ; rules
which introduce post verbal affixes denoting in and ap, taddita addition rules.
Rules under the heading of 6.1 .84 . Rules of the section beginning with 6.4.1
state operation for padas. The final three quarter chapters-called the hiptadi constitute a separate section, the rules of which don not generally operands
for rules of the preceding seven and one quarter chapters.
The major types of rules are: definition (samjna - sutra), metarules(paribhasa),
headings (adhikara - sutra), operational rules (vidhi - sutra), restrictions
(niymma - sutra), extension rules (desa - sutra), negation rules (nisedha-
sutra). In Paninian parlance, a definition or meta rule forms a single utterance
(eka-vakya) with the rules it serves to interpret Two views are hold concerning
this. The partyachara sutra: These fourteen aphorisms contain the
arrangement of Sanskrit alphabets for grammatical purposes.
The Sutras
Sutra no. 1 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
Sutra n. 22 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
Sutra No. 2b. (Book 1 Chapter 1).
The affixes xta and ktavatu are called NisthA
Sutra no. 27 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
The words sarva, 'all' and the rest are called Sarvanama or pronouns
Sutra no. 28 (Book 1. chapter 1)
Sutra No. 29 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
The words srav & c are not sarvanama. Sutra no. 30
Sutra no. 31 (book 1 Chapetr 1)
Sutra no. 32
Sutra no. 33
Sutra no. 35
Sutra no. 36
Sutra no. 42
The affix Si is called sarvanamasthana
Sutra no. 58
Sutra no. 59
Before an affix, having an initial vowel, which causes reduplication, the
substitute which takes the place of a vowel in like the original vowel even in
form, only for the purposes of reduplication and no further.
Sutra no. 60
Book 1. Sutra No. 49
Sutra no. 50
Sutra no. 51
Sutra no. 52
Sutra no. 63
Sutra no. 64
Book 1. Sutra no. 6
The lit or perfect Tense affixes after the roots indhi 'to kindle' and buce' to
become' are also kit.
Sutra no. 7
Sutra no. 8
Sutra no. 9
The affix san beginning with a letter of Pratyahara jhal in like kit, after verbs
ending in ik vowels.
Sutra no. 10
And after a root ending in a consonant and preceded by a vowel of the pratya
hara ik, the affix san beginning with a jhal consonant, is like kit.
Sutra no 11
After roots ending in a consonant, the adjoins a vowel of ik prtyahara, the
substitutes of lin and sich when they begin with a consonant of jhal
pratyahara, are kit, when the atmanepada affixes below.
Sutra no. 12
Sutra no. B
Sutra no. 14
The sich atmanepada affixes are kit after the root has 'to kill'.
Sutra no. 15
The affix sich before Atmanepada affix as, is kit after the verb yam, when
meaning 'to divulge'.
Sutra no.16
Sutra no. 17
The affix sich before Atmanepada affixes, in kit after stha ' to stand' and ghu
verbs, and these verbs change their A in to 1 before these terminations.
Sutra no. 18
The affix ktva when it takes the argument it is not kit.
Sutra no. 19
Sutra no. 20
Sutra no. 21
Sutra no. 22
Sutra no. 23
Sutra no. 24
AShTAdhyAyI (AD) and Indian Linguistic Tradition (ILT)
Panini's grammar AD (approximately 7th BCE) is important for
linguistic computation for two reasons. One, it provides a
comprehensive and rule based account of a natural language in
about 4000 rules - the only complete grammatical account of
any language so far.
SOUND CLASSES (phonetic module)
|
RULE-BASE (parser/grammar module)
|
LEXICONS (lexical interface modules)
The possibility that a Natural Language (NL) parser based on Panini
can help analyze Indian languages has gained momentum in recent
years.
Panini was a culmination of a long tradition of unbroken tradition of
linguistic thought in India which started with the Vedas about 5000
years ago. Kapoor (1993) has divided the Indian linguistic tradition in
four phases -
Phase I: earliest times up to Panini
Speculations in shruti texts, four of the six vedangas
(vyAkaraNa, chanda, nirukta, shikShA), work of Yaska, Rk
PrAtishAkhya, AcAryas mentioned by Panini.
Phase II: PANini up to Anandavardhana (9th CE)
AD of PANini, vArttika of Katyayana, mahAbhAShya of Patanjali,
mImAmsAsUtra of Jaimini, vAkyapadIya of Bhartrhari, works on
poetics from Bharata up to Annandavardhana.
Phase III: Ramachandra (11th CE) to Nagesh
Bhatta (18th CE)
Pedagogical grammars based on Panini's AD.
Phase IV: Franz Kielhorn onwards
Modern textual interpretations and machine
analysis of language.
AD has 8 chapters divided into 4 padas. For example sUtra
1.1.1 (vRRiddhirAdaic) is adhyaya one, pada one and sUtra
one.
akSharasamAmnAya (14 sUtras called shiva-sUtras) (AS)
sUtrapATha (4000 sUtras - 3983 in kAshikAvRRitti) (SP)
dhAtupATha (1967 verb roots - 2014 including kaNDvAdi roots) (DP) .
gaNapATha (other pertinent items like primitive nominal bases,
avyayas) (GP)
The SP is Panini's comprehensive rule base for Sanskrit.
Panini tells us how to form a pratyAhAra (sigla) -
where Nj=Number of sounds in group j (like 3,2,2,2...in the 14 groups) i
= element number in group j, k = group number of it. Panini uses these
sound classes for calling in his rules using this mechanism. For
example the sUtra
Here Panini has used the pratyAhAra 'aK' [a I u RRi LLi] from SS 1 -2
and says that the operation of vowel lengthening will operate on the list
called 'aK'
la] from SS 1 - 6 ? Panini has given the answer. sUtras are verbless sentences unlike those in natural language and give an
impression of formulae or program like code.
samjna (introduce class and conventions)
Example: supti~Nantam padam(1.4.14) ' bases ending in
nominal case affixes (suP) or verbal affixes (ti~N) are called
padas (syntactic words)
This rule restricts the application of previous rule
sheShoghyasakhi (1.4.7).
The DP lists about 1967 verb roots (2014 including kaNDvAdi roots)
distributed in 10 conjugation classes (gaNas) to undergo peculiar
operations. Other technical devices of Panini
Besides, Panini uses many abbreviations like suP, ti~N, kRRit etc for
different sets of affixes for the purpose of brevity. Similarly, 'ti~N'
denotes verb affixes from `tiP' to `mahi~N'.
Panini's samj~nA sUtras introduce various other such classes and
abbreviations that are to be called in the sUtras - vRRiddhi (1.1.1),
guNa (1.1.2), anunAsika (1.1.8), savarNa (1.1.9), hrasva-dIrgha-pluta
(1.1.27), udAtta-anudAtta-svarita (1.2.29-31), samprasAraNa
(1.1.45),prAtipadika (1.2.45), pada (1.4.14), amredita (8.1.2), niShThA
(1.1.26) etc. In case of a match, the words of dissimilar case endings
from the previous sUtra will be understood in the later sUtra. For
example, the rule `AdguNaH' (3.1.87) will read `at' (abl.sing.5-1) `aci'
(loc.sing.7-1 from `ikah yaNaci' 6.1.77) `samhitAyAm' (loc. sing. 7-1)
`pUrvaparayoH'(loc. sing.7-1) `ekaH'(nom.sing.1-1 from 6.1.84)
`guNaH'(nom.sing.1-1 from 6.1.87) `bhavati'(part of convention).
The sandhi or euphonic combination of sounds can take place between
vowels and vowel, vowels and semivowels, semivowels and
semivowels, consonants and consonants, and between visarga and
other sounds. Among some of the general rules for such
morphophonemic combinations, the following can be noted -
vowel lengthening: akaH savarNe dIrghaH (6.1.101)
+cons -> +voice /- +voice
+cons -> +cons /- +cons
dental retroflex retroflex
+cons -> +cons /- +cons
-nas +nas +nas
The purpose of Panini's derivational process is to generate complete
syntactic words called padas which Panini defines as `supti~Nantam
padam' (that is, bases with either 21 suP affixes or 9+9 ti~N affixes).
Padas with suP affixes constitute the NPs (subanta pada), and those
with the ti~N affixes can be called VPs (ti~Nanta pada). The verb roots
also are either basic or derived. The affix `L' is introduced after a verb
root to mark temporal situations (by ten lakAras like laT,liT...) agent.
which consists of related padas (p) in which the nominal affixes (En)
and verbal affixes (Ev) follow the respective bases.
`vAkya' does not come under Panini's samj~nA category.
Panini's rules pertaining to kAraka explain a situation in terms of
action (kriyA) and factors (kArakas) which have a function in the
accomplishment of action. The present tense equivalent in
Panini, `laT', expresses agent-ship, goal, or goal-less state
(intransitivity). Panini's is an essentially formal system which
suits very well for computation with little formalization. This fact
leaves ample scope for language processing insights from
Panini. The NLP/Computational Linguistics community has
already started using Panini as a model for Indian languages
with reasonable success.
It may be interesting to see if Paninian formalism will work for other
languages of the Indo European family.
Introduction about/to Sanskrit language
The name “Sanskrit” (san skrta, 1087d, adorned, elaborated, perfected) which
is popularly applied to the whole ancient and sacred language of India,
belongs more properly only to that dialect which, regulated and established by
the labours of the Indian grammarians, has led for the last two thousand years
or more an artifical life, like that of the Latin during most of the same period in
Europe, as the written and spoken means of communication of the learned
and priestly caste; and which even at the present day fills that office. It is thus
distinguished, on the one hand, from the later and derived dialects – as the
Prakrit, forms of language, which have datable monuments from as early as
the third century before earliest, and which are represented by inscriptions
and coins, by the speech of the uneducated characters in the Sanskrit dramas
and by a limited literature, the Pail, a Parrot dialect which became the sacred
language of Buddhism in Middle India and is still in service and yet later and
more altered tongues forming the transmission to the languages of modern
India. And, on the other hand, it is distinguished, but very much less sharply
and widely, from the older dialects or forms of speech presented in the
canonical literature, the Veda and Brahmana.
This act, of the fixation of learned treatment of an authorized mode of
expression, which should henceforth be used according to rule in the
intercourse of the educated, in the cardinal one in Indian linguistic history; and
as the native grammarian literature has determined the form of the language
by European scholars.
Much in the history of the learned movement is still obscure, and opinions are
at variance even as to points of prime consequence. Only the concluding
works in the development of the grammatical science have been preserved to
us; and though they are evidently the perfect fruits of a long series of learned
labours, the records of the latter are lost beyond recovery. The time and the
place of the creation of Sanskrit are unknown; and as to its occasion, we have
only our inferences and conjectures to rely upon. It seems, however,
altogether likely that grammatical sense of the ancient Hindus, was awakened
in great measure by the study of traditional sacred texts, and by their
comparison of its different language with that of contemporary use. It is
certain that the grammatical study of those texts (cakhas, branches), phonetic
and other, was zealously and effectively followed in the Brahmanic schools,
this is attested by our possession of a number of phonetico-grammatical
realizes, tactical khyas (prati sakhan belonging to each each other several
text), each having for subject one principal vedic text, and nothing all its
peculiarities of form; these both by the depth and exactness of their own
researches and by the number of authorities which they quote, speak plainly
of a lively scientific activity continued during a long time. What past, on the
other hand, the notice of differences between the correct speech of the
learned and the altered dialects of the vulgar may have borne in the same
movement is not easy to determine; but it is not customary that a language
has its proper usages fixed by rule until the danger is distinctly fact of its
undergoing corruption.
The laborers of the general school of Sanskrit grammar reached a climax in
the grammarian Panini, whose textbook, containing the facts of the language
cast into the highly artful and difficult form of about four thousand algebraic
formula – like rules (in the statement and arrangement of which brevity alone
in had in view, at the cost of distinctness and unambiguousness), because for
all after time the authorative, almost sacred, norm of correct speech.
Especially his period, nothing really definite and trustworthy is known; but he
is with much probability held to have lived some time (two or more centuries)
before the Christian era. He has had commentators in abundance, and has
undergone at their hands some measure of amendment and completion; but
he has not been overthrown or superceded. The chief and most authoritative
commentary on his work is that called the Mahabhasya great comment, by
Patanjali. A language, even if not a vernacular one, which is in tolerably wide
and constant use for writing and speaking in, of course, kept in life principally
by direct tradition, by communicating from teacher to scholar and the study
and imitation of existing texts, and not by the learning of grammatical rulers;
yet the existence of grammatical authority, and especially of a single one,
deemed infallible and of prescriptive value, could not fail to exert a strong
regulative influence, leading to the avoidance more and more of what was,
even if lingering in use, inconsistent with us teachings,
and also, in the
constant reproduction of texts, to the gradual effacement of whatever they
might contain that was unapproved. Thus the whole more modern literature of
India has been paninianized, so to speak, pressed into the would prepare by
him and his school. What are the limits of the artificiality of this process is not
yet known.
By the term “classification” or “later” languages, as constantly used in
grammar is meant the language of those literary monuments which are written
in conformity with the rules of the native grammar: virtually, the whole proper
Sanskrit literature. For although parts of this are doubtless earlier than Panini,
it is impossible to tell just what parts, or how far they have escaped in their
style the leveling influence of the grammar. The whole, too, may be called so
far as artificial literature as it is written in ‘a phonetic form which never can
have been a truly vernacular and living one. Nearly all of it is metrical: not
poetic works only, but narratives, histories (so far as anything deserving that
name can be said to exist), and scientific realizes of every variety are done
into verse; a prose and a prose literature hardly has an existence (the
principal exceptions, aside from the voluminous commentaries, are a few
stories, as the Da,Ca Kemaracarita and the Vasavadatta) of linguistic history
there is next to nothing is it all; but only a history of style, and this or the most
part showing a gradual depravation, n increase of artificiality and an
intensification of certain more undesirable features of the language – such as
the use of passive constructions and of principles instead of verbs, and the
substitution of compound for sentences.
The results of the very earliest literary productiveness of the Indian people are
the hymns with which, when they had only crossed the threshold of the
country, and when their geographical horizon was still limited to the river basin
of the with its tributaries, they praised their gods, the defied powers of nature,
and accompanied the rites of their comparatively simple worship. At what
period these were made and sung cannot be determined with any approach to
accuracy. It may have been as early as 2000 B.C. They were long handed
down by oral tradition, preserved by the care, and increased by the additions
and limitations with, the change of habits and beliefs and religious practices
was becoming variously applied – sung in chosen extracts, mixed with other
material in to liturgies, adapted which was coming to be of immense
calibration and iambically. And, at some time in the course of this history,
there was made for preservation a great collection of the hymn-material,
mainly its oldest and most genuine past, to the extent of over a thousand
hymns and ten thousand users, arranged according to traditional authorship
and to subject and length and meter of the hymn: this collection is the RigVeda of verses (arc) or of hymns. Other collections were made also out of the
same general mass of traditional material: doubtless later, although the
interrelations of this period are as yet too unclear to allow of our speaking with
entire confidence as to anything concerning them. Thus the Sam – Veda of
chants (Sman) containing only about a sixth as much, its verses nearly all
found in the Rig Veda also, but appearing here with numerous differences of
reading : these were passages put together for chanting at the sama
sacrifices. Again, collection called by the comprehensive named of Yajur –
Veda, veda of sacrificial formulas (yajus): these contained not the verses
alone, but also numerous prose utterances, mingled with the former, in the
order in which they aere practically employed in the ceremonies; they were
strictly liturgical collections. Of these, there are in existence, several texts,
which have their mutual differences: the Vajsaneyi – Samhita and the
Tattariya – Samhita, Maitrani Samhita , the Kapisthala Samhita. Finally
another historical collection, like the Rig Veda but made up mainly of later and
less accepted material, and called (among other less than current names) the
Atharva – Veda of the Atharwas (a legendary priestly family); it is somewhat
more than half as bulky as the Rig Veda and contains a certain amount of
material corresponding to that of the latter, and also a number of brief prose
passages. To this last collection, is very generally refused in the orthodox
literature the name of Veda; but form it is the most interesting of all, after the
Rig Veda; but for contains the largest amount of hymn material (or matra as it
is called, in distinction from the prose trakmana) and in a language which,
through distinctly less antique than that of the other, is nevertheless really
Vedic. Two versions o it are extant, one of them in only a single known
manuscript.
The labour of the schools in the conservation of their sacred texts was
extraordinary, and has been crowned with such that the text of each schools,
in virtually without various readings, preserved with all its peculiarities if
dialect, and its smallest and most exceptional traits of phonetic form, pure and
unobscured. It is not the place were to describe the means by which, in
addition to the religious care of the sectaries, this accuracy was secured:
forms of text, lists of peculiarities of dialect, and its smallest and most
exceptional traits of phonetic form, pured and unobscured.
When this kind of care began in the case of each text, and what of original
character may have been effaced before it, or lost in spite of it, cannot be told.
But it is certain that the Vedic records furnish, on the whole, a wonedrfully
accurate and trustworthy picture of a form of ancient Indian Language (as well
as ancient Indian beliefs and institutions) which was a natural and undistorted
one, and which goes back a good way behind the classical Sanskrit. Beside
the Brhmanas are sometimes found later appendices, of a smaller character,
called Aranyaceas (forest sections) as the Aitarey a – Aranyalla, Terittiriya –
Arnyalla, Brhad – Aranyalla and so on.
Another line of transition is shown in the Sutras (lines, rules). The works thus
named are analogs with the Brahmanas is that they belong to the schools of
the vedic study and are named from them, and that they deal with the
religious ceremonies: treating them, however, in the way of prescription, not of
dogmatic explanation. They, too contain some mantra or hymn-material, not
up to occur elsewhere, In part (Sutra or kalpa – sutras) they take up to the
great sacrificial ceremonies with which Brahmnas have to do; in part (grhya –
sutras), they taken the minor duties of a pious householder, in some cases
(smayacarika – sutra) they lay down the general obligations of one whose life
is in accordance wit prescribed duty. And out of the last two, or especially the
last, come by natural development the law books (dharma – Sastras), which
make a conspicuous figure in the later literature: the eldest and most noted of
them being that called b the name of Manu (an outgrowth, it is believed by
many of the manava Vedic Schools);to which are added that of yajnavallya,
and many others.
Two of the leading departments of Sanskrit Scientific literature, the legal and
the grammatical, have been already sufficiently noticed; of those remaining,
the most important by far is the philosophical.
Phonology of Sanskrit Grammar
The natives of India write their ancient and sacred language in a variety of
alphabets – generally, in each part of the country, in the same alphabet which
they use for their own vernacular. The mode of writing, however, which is
employed throughout the heart of Aryan India, or in Hindustan proper, is alone
adopted by European scholars, It is called Devanagari. Whitney explains deva
– nagari as the nagaric of the brods, or the Brahmans. Our explanation for
deva – nagari differs. The theory of the Devanagari as of the other Indian
modes of writing in syllabic and consonantal. That is to say, it regards as the
written unit, not the simple sound, but the syllable (aksara), and further, as the
substantial part of the syllable, the consonant, which precede the vowel this
latter being merely implied, or if written, being written by a subordinate sign
attached to the consonant.
A. The forms of the vowel characters given in the alphabetical scheme above
are used only when the vowel forms a syllable by itself, or is not combined
with a preceding consonant: that is, when it is either initial or preceded by
another vowel. In combination are used.
B. If more constants than one precedes the vowel, forming with it a single
syllable, their characters must be combined in to a single compound
character.
Under A it is to be noticed that the modes of indicating a vowel combined with
a preceding consonant are as follows:
a. the short a has no written sign at all; the consonant sign itself implies a
following a unless some other vowel sign is attached to it. Thus, the
consonant signs are given above in the alphabetic sentence are really the
signals of the syllables ka, kha, etc, etc.
b. The lonh a is written by a perpendicular stroke after the consonant: thus
ka, dha, ha.
c. Short I and long I are written by a similar stroke, which for short is paced
before the consonant and for long is placed after it, and in either case is
connected with the consonant by a hook above the upper line: thus, ki, ki,
bhi, ni, ni.
d. The u-sounds short and long , are written by books attached to the lower
end of the consonant sign : thus ku, ku, du, du. On account of the
necessities of combination, du and su are somewhat disguised, thus, d
and the formation of r and h are slice more irregular: thus ru, ru, hu, hu.
The r –vowels, short and long are written by a sub joint book, single or double,
opening toward the right, thus, kr, kr, dr, dr in the h-sign, the books are usually
attached to the middle. Thus, hr, and hr.
The! – vowel is written with a reduced from its full initial character; thus kt; the
corresponding long has no real occurrences but would be written with a
similar reduced sign.
The diphthongs are written by strokes, single or double, above the upper line,
combined, for o and au, with the a – sign after the consonant: thus ke, ko,kau.
A consonant sign, however, is capable of being made to signify the consonant
sound alone, without and added vowel, by having written beneath it a stroke
called the virama (rest, step) thus k, d, h. Under B, it is to be noticed that the
consonant combinations are for the most part not at all difficult too make or to
recognize for one who is familiar with simple signs. The characteristic part of a
consonant sign that is to be added to another is taken (to the exclusion of the
horizontal or of the perpendicular framing –line or of both) and they are put
together according to convenience, either side by side, or one above the
other, in a few combinations either arrangements is allowed. The consonant
that is to be to be pronounced first in set before the other in the one order,
and above it in the other order.
In some cases, however, there is more or less abbreviations or disguise
independent form of a consonant sign in combination. The semivowel r, in
making combinations with other consonants, is treated in a wholly peculiar
manner, analogous with that in which the vowels are treated. If pronounced
before another consonant or combination of consonants, it is written above
the latter, with a book opening to the right (much like the sign of the vowel r,
as written under a consonant) thus, rka, rsa, rtva, rmya, rtsma.
Further combinations, of three, or four, or each five consonant –signs, are
made according to the same rules of three consonants, Hva, ddhya, dya,
drya, dhrya, psva.
A sign called the avagraha (separator) – is commonly used in the
manuscripts, Sometimes in the manner of a hypmen, sometimes as a mark of
hiatus, sometimes to mark the elision of initial a after final e or o, is printed
texts, specially European, it is ordinarily applied to the use last mentioned,
and to that above, tus, the ‘bruva’, so ‘bravit for to abruran, so abravit.
The numeral figures are used in combination to express large numbers; they
are used in precisely the same way as European digits.
The Hindu grammarians call the different sounds, and the characters
representing the, by a kara (smaller) added o the sound of the letter, if a
vowel, or to the letter followed by a, if consonant. Thus the sound or character
a is called akara, and a, ka, etc. are used alone. The r however, is not called
ratata, but only ra, or repha. These also know the anusara and visarga.
Declensions
The general subject of declension includes nouns, adjectives, and pronouns,
all of which are infected is essentially the same manner. But which the
correspondence of nouns and adjectives is so close that they cannot well be
separated treatment, the pronouns.
Declensional forms show primarily case and numbers; but they also indicate
gender – since, though the distinctions of gender are made partly in the stem
itself, they also appear, to no inconsiderable extent, in the changes of
inflection.
Gender. The genders are three, namely masculine, feminine, and neuter, as
in the other older Indo-European languages; and they follow in general the
same laws of distribution as, for example in Greek and Latin.
The cases are including the relative are eight: they are nominative, allusive,
instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative and vocative.
Declensional forms are made by the addition of endings to the stem, or base
of inflection.
a. The stem itself, however, in many words and classes of words, is liable to
variation, especially as assuming a stronger form in some cases and
weaker in others.
b. And between stem and ending are sometimes inserted connecting
elements (or what, in the reorded condition of the language, have the
aspect of being such).
Paradigm
In the broad sense, we may call every class of linguistic elements a paradigm,
whatever the principle that leads us to group them together. In this sense, we
will regard as paradigms the associative groups of which saucer spell, whose
elements are hardly linked by anything except association of ideas.
Jackobson, too, sometimes seems to base the paradigmatic relationship on
simple similarity, on that association by resemblance referred to by
associations Psychology. Faced with the multitude of divergent criteria on
which such paradigms could be based, many modern linguistics have sought
to define a principle of classification that would be linked uniquely to the role
of the units within a language. Given that the syntagmatic relationship seems
to be in large measure specific to individual languages, linguists have come to
base the linguistic paradigm on them, In this narrow sense, two units u and u’
belong to the same paradigm, if and only if, they are capable of replacing
each other in the same syntagma; that is if there exist two syntagmas VUW
and Vu’W. The argument heads to the now classic image of two srant strips,
the horizontal representing the syntagmatic order of the units, the vertical
representing the paradigm of U, that is, the set of units that could have
appeared in its place. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships: Although
there is a big consensus in favor of subordinating paradigmatic study to
syntagmatic study in practice, linguists diverge on the meaning that sub
deviation should have.
According to the distributionalists, discovers of syntagmatic relationship
constitutes the fundamental object of linguistic investigation, for language is
above all a combinatorial system. The establishment of paradigm must
therefore be understood only as a convenience to aid in the compact
formulation of syntagmatic relationships, constitutes the fundamentals object
of linguistic investigation, for language is above all a combinational system.
The establishment of paradigms must therefore be understood only as
convenience to aid in the compact formulation of syntagmatic relationships.
Instead of spelling out each unit's possibilities of combinations with all the
others, it is more economical to constitute classes of units having
approximately the same combinational possibilities, even if one must then
establish sub classes, whose units would have stronger combinatory
analogies among themselves, and so on, each new sub division
corresponding to a refinement of the approximation.
Most European linguistics, on the other hand, have made an effort to give the
paradigmatic organisation of language an intrinsic justification. It is
remarkable (and paradoxical) that this tendency appears even among the
glossematiciaus, for whom however, as for the distributionalists, the
fundamental reality of language - its form - is purely combinatorial in nature.
For example, constructs two distinct combinatorial, one syntagmatic and other
paradigmatic.
C. POS
In the part of speech segment of Sanskrit (OIA), we shall try to look briefly in
to the Declension , conjugation and Derivations.
1) Declensions.
The general subject of declension includes nouns, adjectives, and pronouns
all of which are inflected in essentially the same manner. But while the
correspondence of nouns and adjectives is so close that they cannot well be
separated in treatment. The pronouns on the other hand have many
peculiarities.
Declensional forms show primarily case and numbers but they also indicate
gender - since, though the distinctions of gender are made partly in the stem
itself, they also appear, to no inconsiderable extent, in the changes of
inflection.
Genders are three, namely masculine, feminine, and neuter as in the other
older Indo - European languages; and they follow in general the same laws of
distribution as, for example in Greek and Latin. The cases are (including the
vocative) are eight in number; they are nominative, accusative, instrumental,
dative, ablative, genitive; octave and vocative. detail treatment of case is
given while treating paninian aspect.
(ii) Conjugation : The subject of conjugation or verbal inflection involves, as in
the other languages of the family, the dissentions of voice, tense, mode
number and person. further, besides the simpler or ordinary conjugation of a
verbal root, there is certain more or less fully developed secondary or
derivative conjugation.
There are (as in Greek) two voices, active and middle, distinguished by a
difference in the personal endings. This distinction is a pervading one, there is
no active personal form which does not have its corresponding middle, and
vice versa; and it is extended also in part to the participles (but not to the
infinitive). Some verbs are conjugated in both voices, others in one only;
Sometimes a part of the tenses are inflected only in one voice, others only in
the outer or in both; of a verb usually inflected in one wice sporadic forms of
the other occur and sometimes the voice differs according as the verbs in
compounded with certain prepositions.
The middle forms outside the present system (for which there is a special
passive inflection) and sometimes also within that system, are liable to be
used likewise in a passive sense.
The tenses are as follows: a. Present with 2. an imperfect, closely related with
it in form, having a prefixed argument; 3. a perfect, made with reduplication (to
which in the Veda is added , 4. a So -called pluperfect. mode from it with
prefixed argument; 5. an aorist, of three different formations a. simple b.
reduplicated
c. sigmatic or sibilant 6. a. future with 7. a conditional, an
argument tense, standing to it in the relation of an imperfect to a present; and
8. a second, a periphrastic, future (not found in the Veda).
In respect to mode, the difference between the classical Sanskrit and the
older anguses of the Veda - and , in a less degree, of the Brahmans especially great. In the classical Sanskrit, the present adds to its indicative
and optative and an imperative - of which last, moreover, the first persons are
a remnant of the old subjective. And the aorist has also an operative, of
somewhat peculiar inflection, usually called the preactive (or benedictive)
The present, perfect and future tenses have each one of them, alike in the
earlier and later languages, a pair of participles, active and middle, sharing in
the various pemtiariies of the tense formations; and in the Veda are found
such participles belonging also to the aorist.
The tense system: The tenses, then with their accompanying modes and
participles, fall in to certain well-marked groups or systems.
I.
The Present System : it is composed of the present tense with its
modes, its participles, and its preterit which we have called the
imperfect.
II.
The perfect system: It is composed of the perfect tense (with, in the
Veda, its modes and its preterit, the so-called pluperfect) and its
participle.
III.
The aorist system: It is simple reduplicated and sibilant composed of
the aorist tense along with, in the later language, its "precaution"
optative (but in the verb with its various modes and its principles).
IV.
The future systems: 1. The old or sibilant future, with its accompanying
preterit, the conditional, and its participle, and 2. The new periphrastic
future.
Number and person: The verb has, of course, the same three persons, first,
second and third. All of these are made in every tense and mode-except that
the first persons of the imperative numbers are supplied from the adjunctive.
The participles belonging to the tense systems have been already spoken of
above. There is besides, coming directly from the root of the verb, a participle,
prevailing of past and passive (or sometimes mentor) meaning. Future
passive participles, or gerundives, of several different formations are also
made.
Infinitives. In the older languages, a very considerable variety of derivative
abstract nouns - only in a few sporadic instances having anything to do with
the tense - systems - are need in an infinitive or quasi-infinitive sense; most
often in the dative case, but sometimes also in the alleviative, in the genitive
and ablative (and very rarely) in the locative. In the classical Sanskrit, there
remains a single infinitive, of accusative case - form, having nothing to do with
the tense-systems.
Gerunds.
A so-called gerund (or absolute) - being, like infinities, a
stereotypes case - from of a derivative noun - is a part of the general verbsystem. In both the earlier and later languages, being especially frequent in
the later language, where it has only two forms, one for simple verbs, and the
other for compound. Its value is that of an indeclinable active participle, of
indeterminate but prevailingly past tense-character.
The secondary conjugation. The secondary or derivative conjugations are as
follows. 1. the passive; 2. the intensive, 3. the derivative, 4. the causative. In
these, a conjugation-stem, instead of the simple root, underlies the whole
system of inflection. Yet there is clearly to be seen in them the character of a
present-system, expanded into a more or less complete conjugation and the
passive in so purely a present system that it will be described later.
Under the same general head belongs the subject of denominative
conjugation, or the conservation of noun and objective - stems into
conjugation - stems. Further, that of compound conjugation, whether by the
prefixation of preposition to roots or by the additions of auxiliary verbs to noun
and adjective stems. And finally, that of periphastic conjugation, or the looser
combination of auxiliaries with verbal nouns and adjectives.
The characteristic of a proper (finite or personal) verb-form in its personal
ending. By this alone, is determined its character as regards number and
person - and in part also as regards mode and tense. But the distinctions of
mode and tense are mainly made by the formation of tense and mode stems,
to which, rather than to the pure root, the personal endings are appended.
The general participle endings are ant.
Augment: The augment is a short a, prefixed to a tense - stem - and if the
latter begin with a vowel, combining with the vowel irregularly into the heavier
or viddhi diphthong. It is always (without any exception) the accented element
in the verbal form of which it makes a part.
Reduplication: The derivation of conjugational and declensions stems from
roots by reduplication, either alone or along with other formative elements,
has been already spoken of and the formations in which reduplication appears
have been specified: they are, in primary verb-inflection, the present (of a
certain class of verbs), the perfect (of nearly all), and the aorist (of a large
number), and the intensive and desirative secondary conjugation contain in
their stems the same element.
The general principle of reduplication in the prefixation to a root of a part of
itself repeated - if it begins with consonants, the initial consonant and the
vowel, if it begins with a vowel, that vowel, either alone or with a following
consonant. The varieties of detail, however, are very considerable. Thus,
especially, as regards the vowed, which in present and perfect and
desiderative in regularly shorter and lighter in the reduplication than in the root
syllable, in aorist in longer, and an intensive in strengthened.
Derivative or Secondary Conjugation
Secondary conjugations are that in which a whole system of forms, like that
already described as made from the simple root, is made, with greater or less
competence, from a derivative conjugation - stem; and is also usually
connected with a certain definite modifications of the original radical sense.
The secondary conjugations are: J. Passive, G. Intensive, and III.
Desiderative, IV. Causative; V. Denominative.
1. Passive: The passive has a special present system, the stem of which in
present only, and did not made the basis of any of the remaining forms: this
stem is formed with the accounted class - sign ya', and it takes the middle
endings. This present-system is treated with the others.
There is a special passive 3rd sing. Of the aorist, ending in i. In the remaining
tenses, the middle forms are used also in a passive sense.
2. Intensive: The intensive (sometimes also called the frequentive) is that one
of the secondary conjugations which is least removed from the analog of
formations which is least removed from the analog of formations already
described. It is, like the present system of the second conjugation class, the
inflection of a reduplicated stem, but of one that
is peculiar in having a
strengthened reduplication. It is decidedly less extended beyond the limits of a
present-system than any other of the derivative conjugation.
According to the grammarians, the intensive conjugation may be formed from
nearly all the roots in the language - the exceptions being roots of more than
one syllable, those conjugated only causatively and in general those
beginning with a vowel.
By the desiderative conjugation is signified a desire for the action or condition
denoted by the simple root. Thus, Pibani, (I drink) - desid - Papasami (I wish
to drink).
The desirable stem is formed from the simple root by the addition of two
characteristics i.e. reduplication, which always has the accent, 2. and
appended sa - which however (like the tense - signs of aorist and future),
sometimes takes before it the auxiliary vowel i, becoming isa.
Causative I: In the later languages, is allowed to be made from most roots a
complete causative conjugation. The basis of this is a causative stem, formed
by appending the causative sign dya to the usually strengthened root.
Denominative: A denominative conjugation is one that has for its basis a
noun-stem.
The grammarians tenth that any noun stem is the language may be
converted, without other addition than that of an a (as union vowel enabling it
to be inflected according to the second general conjugation) into a presentstem and conjugated as such.
Demonstratives are formed at every period in the history of the language,
from the earliest down.
DIVISION OF VEDIC AND CLASSICAL SANSKRIT AND SCOPE OF VEDIC
In view of the prominent position occupied by the Indo-Aryan brazen in
comparative philology and of the fact that the language of the Vedas
represents the foundations of the subsequent strata, it seems important for
the sake of clearness and definiteness that the earliest phase should be
treated as a whole independently of later developments. Our organisation will
therefore deal with the grammar of only the mantra portions of the samhitas;
that is to say, it will embrace the whole of the Rgveda, the Atharvaveda, the
Samaveda, and the Vajasanei Samhita, but will exclude those posses of the
Taittiriya Samhita, the Maitrayani Samhita and the Kathaka, which have the
character of Brahmanas. Reference will also be made to Mantra material not
found in the canonical texts of the Semites, that is, to the Chelas of the Raved
and the occasional Mantras of this type occurring in the Brahmanas and
Sutras.
An Introduction to Vedic Grammar
Vedic grammar has never till now been treated separately and as a whole.
Both in India and in the west the subject has hitherto been studied only on
connection with classical Sanskrit. Hundreds of Panini's sutras deal with the
language of the Vedas; but the account they give of it in anything but
comprehensive. In the west, Befey was the first, more than half century ago to
combine a description of the linguistic peculiarities of the Vedas with an
account of the traditional matter of Panini; but as vedic studies were at that
time still in their infancy, only the Samveda, and about one-fourth of the
Rgveda having as yet been published, the vedic material utilized in his large
grammar was necessity very limited in extent.
Phonology in Vedic Grammar
Evidence throwing light on the phonetic character of the language of the
Samhitas is furnished not only by the pronunciation of its sounds by the
Brahmanas of to-day, who still recite those texts, but also by the transcription
of Sanskrit words in foreign languages, particularly Greek, in ancient times; by
the summary information contained in the works of the old Sanskrit
grammarians, Panini and his successors, and more especially by the detailed
statements of the Pransakhyas and the Siksas. From those sources we
derived a sufficiently exact knowledge of the pronunciation prevailing about
500 B.C. This pronunication, however, need not necessarily have coincided in
every particular with that of the Samhitas, which date from many centuries
earlier. Nevertheless, judging by the internal evidence supplied by the
phonetic changes and analogical formations occurring in the language of the
texts themselves and by the external evidence of comparative philology, we
are justified in concluding that the pronunciation, with the possible exception
of a very few doubtful points, was practically the same.
There are altogether 52 sounds, 13 of which are vocalic and 39 consonantal.
As our aim is to describe Paninian grammar so we are not going into the
detail treatise of them.
CLASSICAL SANSKRIT
Panini composed the bulk of the classical Sanskrit literature at a period very
much later than the fixing of the language. An earlier period in literary and
linguistic history is represented by the two great popular epics, the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana. It does not seem that either of these two
works reached its final form until well after Christian era, but the tradition of
epic recitation goes back into the Vedic age. The Mahabharata in particular
was a long time in forming, and a good deal of what is incorporated in the final
reclusion may claim an earlier data.
We have therefore in the Epics extensive documents of Sanskrit belonging to
a period wearer to Panini than the classical literature in the narrow sense.
They provide also evidence of the wide popularity of one type of Sanskrit
literature among the masses of the people, since these works were reserved
for no special or cultivated audience, but intended for public recital to the
population in general. Their language evidences their popular character. This
is Sanskrit definitely enough as opposed to the contemporary middle IndoAryan, but it in a Sanskrit which continually violates the rules which Panini had
laid down and which were always observed in the more orthodox literary
circles. Among the common deviations of the Epic language a few
characteristic types may be quoted. The distinction between the active and
middle forms of the verb, which was still fully alive in Panini's time, and for
which he later in some detail, in beginning to be blurred in the Epic, Active
forms are used for middle and vice-versa, and even the passive verb
sometimes takes active endings. There is some confusion between the
grounds in -tva and -tya, and the rule of Panini which restricts the former to
uncompounded and the latter to compounded verbs is not always observed.
Unaugumented preterits occur, a characteristic which is also found in the
Veda, as well as in early middle into-Aryan. Conversely, the augmented forms
are occasionally found with the prohibitive particle (ma .... agaman 'do not
go'). The particle ma is not used exclusively with the unaugmented aorist
according to rule but indifferently with imperative (ma bhava) operative (ma
brliyah) future (ma draksyasi) and so on. The tenth class and causative verbs
make a middle participle in -ayana (codaya na as opposed to the connect
codayamana) a usage to which metrical convenience has contributed. The
careful rules of Panini concerning the use of the alternative forms ate and anti
in forming the feminine of present particles are not strictly observed.
The distribution of set and anit forms frequently does not conform to rule.
These and other irregular forms correspond to what is found in early middle
Indo-Aryan, indicating that Epic Sanskrit in a later form of Sanskrit than that of
Panini. No pre-paninian forms are found in the Epic, which means that
although the epic tradition goes back to the Vedic period, and although the
Mahabharata story was familiar to people before text must be distinctly later
than him. Since for centuries the transmission of the epic stories depended or
oral tradition, and not a fixed oral tradition like that f the Vedic schools, it is not
surprising that a circle of stories organizing in the Vedic period should in their
final form appear in a language of a much later date with no archaic forms
preserved.
The recitation and transmission of the Epic legends was not the business of
the Brahmans, but of the sutras, a class of royal servants whose duties had
originally included that of character. It was natural that their language should
be of a more popular nature than that of the educated class par excellence,
the Brahmanas.
The language of the Epics served also as a model for the language of the
puranas, of which the earliest core dates to the same period. It is continued in
the same numerous later compilations, and further in a variety of sectarian
agamas, etc. Linguistically, these compilations are not of great interest,
except occasionally in the matter of vocabulary, and many, particularly the
later ones, testify to the deficient education of their authors in grammar.
The special characteristics of classical Sanskrit arise from that most of the
literature dates from a period very much later than the period in which the
form of the language was fixed. If Kalidasa is to be dated (AD 450 a period of
no loss than sight hundred years separates him from the grammarian Panini.
The work of Kalidasa stands almost at the beginning of the body of classical
literature which is preserved, and the greater part of this is separated by more
than a millenium from the regular of the language. This accounts largely for
the artificially of style and language which is not absent from the best authors,
and which in some is exaggerated beyond reason.
The literary gap in the period immediately preceding and succeeding the
Christian era is due to the loss of the bulk of the pre-Kalidasan literature,
since it is known that kavya in all its forms was actively practised during all
time. The earliest Sanskrit inscriptions (e.g. of Rudradaman, A.D. 150) show
the existence of a developed Sanskrit Kavya. Patanjali (C. 150 BC) quotes
some Kavya fragments and mentions by name a poet varruci. His own work is
a valuable example of the prose style of the period, and it enables us to form
a picture of early Paninian Sanskrit at a time when it was still a fully living
language. The works of Asvaghosa who flourished under Kaniska (A.D. 78+)
preserved in Nepal (and fragmentation in Central Asia), though long forgotten
in India, have been preserved by fortunate chance, as the sole example of
Sanskrit Kavya literature in its earlier phase.
Panini was born in Shalatula, a town near to Attock on the Indus river in
present day Pakistan in 520 BC. The dates given for Panini are pure guesses.
Experts give dates in the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th century BC and there is also no
agreement among historians about the extent of the work which he undertook.
What is in little doubt is that, given the period in which he worked, he is one of
the most innovative people in the whole development of knowledge. We will
say a little more below about how historians have gone about trying to
pinpoint the date when Panini lived.
Panini was a Sanskrit grammarian who gave a comprehensive and scientific
theory of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Sanskrit was the classical
literary language and Panini is considered the founder of the language and
literature. It is interesting to note that the word "Sanskrit" means "complete" or
"perfect" and it was thought of as the divine language, or language of the
gods.
A treatise called Astadhyayi (or Astaka ) is Panini's major work. It consists of
eight chapters, each subdivided into quarter chapters. In this work Panini
distinguishes between the language of sacred texts and the usual language of
communication. Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to
describe Sanskrit grammar. Starting with about 1700 basic elements like
nouns, verbs, vowels, consonants he put them into classes. The construction
of sentences, compound nouns etc. is explained as ordered rules operating
on underlying structures in a manner similar to modern theory. In many ways
Panini's constructions are similar to the way that a mathematical function is
defined today. Joseph writes in [2]:-
[Sanskrit's] potential for scientific use was greatly enhanced as a
result of the thorough systemisation of its grammar by Panini. ...
On the basis of just under 4000 sutras [rules expressed as
aphorisms], he built virtually the whole structure of the Sanskrit
language, whose general 'shape' hardly changed for the next
two thousand years. ... An indirect consequence of Panini's
efforts to increase the linguistic facility of Sanskrit soon became
apparent in the character of scientific and mathematical
literature. This may be brought out by comparing the grammar of
Sanskrit with the geometry of Euclid - a particularly apposite
comparison since, whereas mathematics grew out of philosophy
in ancient Greece, it was ... partly an outcome of linguistic
developments in India.
Joseph goes on to make a convincing argument for the algebraic nature of
Indian mathematics arising as a consequence of the structure of the Sanskrit
language. In particular he suggests that algebraic reasoning, the Indian way
of representing numbers by words, and ultimately the development of modern
number systems in India, are linked through the structure of language.
Panini should be thought of as the forerunner of the modern formal language
theory used to specify computer languages. The Backus Normal Form was
discovered independently by John Backus in 1959, but Panini's notation is
equivalent in its power to that of Backus and has many similar properties. It is
remarkable to think that concepts which are fundamental to today's theoretical
computer science should have their origin with an Indian genius around 2500
years ago.
At the beginning of this article we mentioned that certain concepts had been
attributed to Panini by certain historians which others dispute. One such
theory was put forward by B Indraji in 1876. He claimed that the Brahmi
numerals developed out of using letters or syllables as numerals. Then he put
the finishing touches to the theory by suggesting that Panini in the eighth
century BC (earlier than most historians place Panini) was the first to come up
with the idea of using letters of the alphabet to represent numbers.
There are a number of pieces of evidence to support Indraji's theory that the
Brahmi numerals developed from letters or syllables. However it is not totally
convincing since, to quote one example, the symbols for 1, 2 and 3 clearly do
not come from letters but from one, two and three lines respectively. Even if
one accepts the link between the numerals and the letters, making Panini the
originator of this idea would seem to have no more behind it than knowing that
Panini was one of the most innovative geniuses that world has known so it is
not unreasonable to believe that he might have made this step too.
There are other works which are closely associated with the Astadhyayi which
some historians attribute to Panini, others attribute to authors before Panini,
others attribute to authors after Panini. This is an area where there are many
theories but few, if any, hard facts.
We also promised to return to a discussion of Panini's dates. There has been
no lack of work on this topic so the fact that there are theories which span
several hundreds of years is not the result of lack of effort, rather an indication
of the difficulty of the topic. The usual way to date such texts would be to
examine which authors are referred to and which authors refer to the work.
One can use this technique and see who Panini mentions.
There are ten scholars mentioned by Panini and we must assume from the
context that these ten have all contributed to the study of Sanskrit grammar.
This in itself, of course, indicates that Panini was not a solitary genius but, like
Newton had "stood on the shoulders of giants". Panini must have lived later
than these ten but this is absolutely no help in providing dates since we have
absolutely no knowledge of when any of these ten lived.
What other internal evidence is there to use? Well of course Panini uses
many phrases to illustrate his grammar any these have been examined
meticulously to see if anything is contained there to indicate a date. To give
an example of what we mean: if we were to pick up a text which contained as
an example "I take the train to work every day" we would know that it had to
have been written after railways became common. Let us illustrate with two
actual examples from the Astadhyayi which have been the subject of much
study. The first is an attempt to see whether there is evidence of Greek
influence. Would it be possible to find evidence which would mean that the
text had to have been written after the conquests of Alexander the Great?
There is a little evidence of Greek influence, but there was Greek influence on
this north east part of the Indian subcontinent before the time of Alexander.
Nothing conclusive has been identified.
Another angle is to examine a reference Panini makes to nuns. Some argue
that these must be Buddhist nuns and therefore the work must have been
written after Buddha. A nice argument but there is a counter argument which
says that there were Jaina nuns before the time of Buddha and Panini's
reference could equally well be to them. Again the evidence is inconclusive.
There are references by others to Panini. However it would appear that the
Panini to whom most refer is a poet and although some argue that these are
the same person, most historians agree that the linguist and the poet are two
different people. Again this is inconclusive evidence.
Let us end with an evaluation of Panini's contribution by Cardona in [1]:-
Panini's grammar has been evaluated from various points of
view. After all these different evaluations, I think that the
grammar merits asserting ... that it is one of the greatest
monuments of human intelligence.
"The Ashtadhyayi" is one of the first works on descriptive linguistics. It was
written circa 400 BC by the Indian grammarian Panini, and it describes the
grammar completely. Its mathematical structure has been pared to that of the
Turing machine.It is still used today in the teaching of Sanskrit.
It has 3,995 language rules but also covers historical, social, and
geographical subjects.
Although this course presupposes no background in either philosophy or
religion, it would be beneficial for the student to have had a standard
introductory philosophy course. It is not at all necessary for the student to
have previously taken a course in Eastern religions The course provides a
survey of the main philosophical traditions that have their inception in the
subcontinent of India. The student will thus be introduced to the distinctive
philosophical ideas, doctrines, and arguments of these major schools of
thought. The main objective of the course, however, is to bring to light a
fundamental philosophical debate (over the most basic issues, including the
issue of the "definition" of philosophy) between a particular interpretation of
the central philosophy of Buddhism and all the other schools that subscribe to
the authority of the Vedas. (I put the materialistic Carvaka school and Jainism
in the camp of the latter, because they share essentially the same approach
to philosophy) Since Advaita Vedanta is arguably the most important
philosophical school of the Brahmanic tradition the contrast between it and
what I contend is the central philosophy of Buddhism is the most striking,
more attention is devoted to these two philosophies.
The reading assignments consist of secondary sources used to provide a
survey of a school of philosophy, critical studies of a problem or concept in
Indian thought, and original writings of philosophers in the various schools
and traditions.
Panini
The Astadhayi, also called Astaka in a grammar of Sanskrit. It consists of
eight (asta) chapters (ad hyaya), further subdivided into quarter chapters
(pada) and contains about 4,000 rules called Sutra, preceded by a catalog of
sounds itself subdivided into 14 groups and variously called the pratyahara sutras ("abbreviation sutras"), Siva-sutras, and mahesvara - sutras. In those
rules Panini refers to groups of verbs and nominal bases in various ways.
These bases appear in two ancillaries to the corpus of rules, a catalog of roots
called the dhath-patha and a catalog of nominal bases called gana-patha.
(a) A detailed survey of Panini's grammar.
in phonology
in syntax
in semantics
(b) Panini on Ellipsis and stylistics
(c) Application of rules in Bengali and Hindi
(d) Algorithm
General Review of Panini
Panini's grammar is descriptive, not prescriptive (Staal, 1965: 109). The rulers
of the grammar serve to derive forms, which accord with correct usage. These
rules (sutra) are also called laksana characteristic, that by which... is
characterise, that is, to explain by derivation, the forms of correct usage.
These correct forms are, accordingly, called laksya that which is to be
characterized. Basic to this derivational system is the distinction between
bases (prakrti) and affixes (pratyaya). The grammar provides for introducing
affixes after bases under given conditions to derive items terminating in verbal
or nominal endings. These are called pada. The bases themselves are of two
general types: verb roots (dhatu) and nominal bases (pratpadika). In addition,
bases are either primitive or derived primitive verb roots appear in the dhaterpatha. Primitive nominal bases would appear in a lexicon; the gan a pa tha
represents a partial lexicon of items which undergo particular operations.
Applying rules of the grammar gets derived bases. Derived verb roots are
formed from both primitive roots and nominal forms. Examples of the first are
causatives such as kar-i; (make do, have do' (<kr 'do, make') desideratives
such as cikir-sa-'wish to do', examples of the latter are denominatives such as
putriya - 'wish to do'; examples of the latter are denominatives such as putriya
- 'desire a son (putra) for oneself' putrakamya - 'idem'. Derived nominal bases
too are gotten from both verb roots and nominal forms. Bases such as pak-a'cooking', pac-aka 'cook' are derived from the root pea by introducing the
primary affixes (called krt) ghan (=a and nvul (=aka) respectively. From
nominal forms are derived compounds such as raja purus a 'king's man' and
items such as anpagava 'descendent of upagu, tatra 'there' which contain
affixes called taddhitas. The conditions under which affixes are introduced are
of the following types. Some rules state meanings as conditions: affix A is
introduced after I when meaning M is denoted. Some rules state co
occurrence conditions : affix A is introduced after item I if item] is introduced.
Such affixes are said to be introduced redundantly, the meaning denoted by
the derivative in the same as that denoted by the item to which the affix is
added. For example, tatra' there' is derived by affixing ra to a form (tad-i)
which contains a locative ending denoting locus : tatra too denotes a locus.
The meanings which serve as condition for affixation are themselves of two
general kinds, most rules which introduce affixes under such condition Panini
uses term such as bhutha 'past' bhavisya at 'future', vartamana 'current,
present', vidhi' command', which are not introduced in the grammar by
definition. Such rules involve purely semantic notions. other notion is not
purely semantics and the terms used for them require definition. These are
the terms denoting karkas. The padas to which result from affixation are
subject to morphonemic rules where by are gotten items as they occur in
actual usage. For example, the strings.
(1) rajnah puruso graman gaeehati 'The king's man is going to the village'.
(2) Upagor apatyan graman gacchati 'A descendent of upagu is going to
village'
derive from
1. a) rajan - as pursa - s grama -am gam - a - te
2. a) upagu - as apatya - s grama - am g am - ati
Which contain the pads rajan - as (gen. sg. of rajan 'king') purusa - s(non-eg.
of puras 'man), gramam - am (all - sg of grama 'village'), gam - a - ti (srd sg.
pres.of gam 'go'), upagi - as (gen. eq. of the name upagu), ap aty a-s (nom,
sg. of apatya 'descendent') themselves consisting of bases and affixes
introduced to denote a relation (genitive - as), an object (accusative - am) and
n agent (verb ending-ti). O the other hand, related pandas such as rajan - as
and purusa - s are subject to other rules, where by are formed compounds.
Given these padas, then, one can also form the compound raj an - as purusas, where derives raja-purusa. Similarly, to the pada upagu - as can be
introduced the taddhita affix a form upagu - as - a, when we derives
aupagava. The pertinent rules are optional, so that raja-purusa, aupgava and
the sequences rajas purusas , upagor apatyam are derived as alternates.
Also derived as alternates are active and passive sentences such as
(3) devdatta odanam palati ' Devdatta is cooking rice'.
(4) odnam palayate devattah ' Rice is being cooked by Devdatta'.
In introducing affixes to denote Quarks, primly is granted to verb affixes. For
deriving(3), then the L-suffix but is introduced to denote an agent; the
accusative ending am is introduced after Dana to denote an object - But in
deriving (4) the L - suffix latte is introduced to denote an object; here the
instrumental ending in introduced after Deviate to denote agent. This is not
done in not (3) since an agent is denoted by the post verbal affix, lat. There is
no other hierarchical relation between (3 ) and (4), however, and one
sentence is not derived from the other. They are alternative derivations in any
given derivation such as illustrated earlier substitution rules can be involved. I
Pinion’s system a unity is allowed to occur in place of another unit X,
respectively termed Addis 'substitute' and 'Shannon' substituted. The
substituted r and replacements can be bases, affixes or sounds alone. For
example, the derivation of (1) and (2) involves stages still earlier than (1 a)
and (2 a), at which the root gum is followed by the L-suffix lat. This is then
replaced by an ending ti. In deriving (1) the -s of rajan - as is relaced by - r, i
turn replaced by -h; the -s of the purusa - s replaced by -r, which is then
replaced by -u, -o then substitutes for the sequence an; and the two sounds a-1 and -a2 is grammar - are both replaced by a1. Moreover, there are zero
replacements. The -a- of rajan in rajan - as is deleted, as is the -n of rajan in
the compound raja - purusa. Similarly the endings contained in this compound
(rajan - as - purusa - s) and in the taddhita derivative upagava (upagu - as - a)
are also replaced by zero. In all such cases paniniyas consider that the
substitute occurs instead of the substituted, which is said tentatively to occur
in he given contact. That in, on the level of grammatical operations one can
speak of y replacing x, but what this accounts for is that, in the given context,
X does not occur, y being used instead. It has been recognized that Panini's
substitution procedure in different from and probably later than another
procedure wherein another element X is said to become y.
Panini' System; Studies of general aspect.
There has not been published to date in European language a single work in
which Panini's total system is et froth clearly an with insight . the most
comprehensive work of this sort to have appeared in Charudeva Shastri(1969
- 73), an excellent survey of Paninian grammar, in which are incorporated the
thoughts of major Paniniyas and copious examples are given to illustrate
grammatical statements. The most ambitious work attempting to give a full
picture of Panini's system in a European language is by Vidya Niwas Misra
(1966). However, this suffers from two drawbacks. The author is so intent on
presenting
parallel's
between
Panini's
system
and
various
western
approaches to linguistics and the book is organized in such a manner that the
work suffers and one who is not already well known with Panning cannot
easily gain an understanding. There is, nevertheless, a considerable number
of articles in which are considered particular aspects of paining general
system and attitudes.
Paniniyas such as Patanjali refer to Panini's grammar as a Sabdannsasana
(treatise on) instruction (concerning the formation of correct words. Panini
operates with a syntactic system, and his principal aim was to provide a word
analysis, but he also notes that Panini's karaka system implies a sentences
analysis. It cannot be defined that Panini does deal with syntactic relations
and relations among certain kinds of sentences. On the other hand, it is also
pertinent that in basic derivational procedure consists in introducing affixes to
bases so that he also deals essentially with the relations among padas, which
constitute sentences. This is important for appreciating the limits of his
syntactic and semantic interests. In recent years, several papers have
appeared in which is treated Panini' derivational system is general, including
syntax, S.D. Joshi (1969) deals with Panini's syntactic system and illustrates
the complete derivation of a sentence by Paninian rules.
Concerning meaning conditions for the introduction of affixes has devoted a
paper to demonstrating that Panini's statement are not the type of predicate
logic but of a linear equation.
The Astadhayi consists of eight chapters subdivided in to quarter chapters.
The major divisions in these chapters are evident from the major headings
(adhitara), included therein. For example, rules 2.1.3 and following,, to the
end of the second chapter, applying to four compounds. Rules of the section
beginning with 3.1.1 through the fifth chapter, introduce units classed as
affixes. This large section of rules has subsections ; rules which introduce
post verbal affixes denoting in and ap, taddita addition rules. 6.1.1 and
following provide for doubling certain elements in given contexts. Rules under
the heading of 6.1 .84 . Let a single replacement substitute for two sounds in
contiguity. Rules of the section beginning with 6.4.1 state operation for padas.
The final three quarter chapters-called the hiptadi - constitute a separate
section, the rules of which don not generally operands for rules of the
preceding seven and one quarter chapters.
Such general features of the Astadhayi's organisation are well known.
The major types of rules are: definition (samjna - sutra), metarules(paribhasa),
headings (adhikara - sutra), operational rules (vidhi - sutra), restrictions
(niymma - sutra), extension rules (desa - sutra), negation rules (nisedhasutra). Definition and meta rules have this in common that they do not function
independently. They have to be considered together with rules they serve to
interpret. In Paninian parlance, a definition or meta rule forms a single
utterance (eka-vakya) with the rules it serves to interpret Two views are hold
concerning this. First, definition and matarules are considered to take effect at
the place in the grammar where they are stated. Alternatively, they are
considered to take effect at the time rules requiring them come in to play.
Some Important Slokas and their Interpretations
In the following section, I am trying to discuss some important sutras of
Panini's with their English translation. For the general readers the Sutras are
written in Roman and not in Devnagari,
(i)
The partyachara sutra: These fourteen aphorisms contain the
arrangement of Sanskrit alphabets for grammatical purposes.
(ii)
The discussion of pragrihya in done.
The Sutras
Sutra no. 1 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
Adyantavadeksmi t padani Adi ant bat ekasmin
An operation should be performed on a single letter upon an initial and a final.
Sutra n. 22 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
The tarap and ta,ap ate dha.
Sutra No. 2b. (Book 1 Chapter 1).
The affixes xta and ktavatu are called NisthA
Sutra no. 27 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
The words sarva, 'all' and the rest are called Sarvanama or pronouns
Sutra no. 28 (Book 1. chapter 1)
The above words are optionally sarvana when they occur in a bahubrihi
compound signifying direction
Sutra No. 29 (Book 1. Chapter 1)
The words srav & c are not sarvanama. When occuring in a Bahubrihini
compound.
Sutra no. 30
In determinative compounds the words sarva & c. are not sarvanama.
Sutra no. 31 (book 1 Chapetr 1)
And in collective compound, II 2.26 the words sarva & c. are not sarvanama.
Sutra no. 32
(Their dvandva compounds) are optionally sarvanama when the nominative
plural termination jas follows?
Sutra no. 33
And also the words prathama ‘first’; charama'last' words ending with the addi
taya9v.2.42); alp 'few ardha 'half' Katipaya 'some' and nema 'half' are
optionally sarvanam, the noun. pt. termination.
Sutra no. 35
The word sva'own', when it doesnot mean a kinsman or property is optionally
sarwanama before the affiix jas.
Sutra no. 36
The word autara beinng always a sarvanama, when meaning "outer" or "a
lower garment" is optionally so before the affix jas.
Sutra no. 42
The affix Si is called sarvanamasthana
Sutra no. 58
Not so, in rules relating to the finals of words, to the doubling of letters, to the
affixing of Vera, to the elision of ya, to accent to homogeneous letters, to
anusvara, to the lengthening of vowels and to the substitution of jas and char
letters.
Sutra no. 59
Before an affix, having an initial vowel, which causes reduplication, the
substitute which takes the place of a vowel in like the original vowel even in
form, only for the purposes of reduplication and no further.
Sutra no. 60
The substitution of a blank (lopa) signifies disappearance
Book 1. Chapter 2
Sutra No. 49
When a tadhita affix is elided by the word lux, there tk replace the elision by
luck of the feminise affix of upsrajana.
Sutra no. 50
The short is substituted in the place of goni, when Taddhita affix is elided but
luk.
Sutra no. 51
When a Taddhita affix is elided by using the word 'lup' then the gender and
member (of the derivative word) agree with those of the original word.
Sutra no. 52
And of adjectives, (the gender and number are the same as of the word
formed by 'lup' elision of the Taddhita and which they qualify) so far as the jati
(or kind or species) is concerned; (or when not expressing jat)
Sutra no. 63
In the Dvandva compounds of the stars Fishy a and Punarvasu, the dual
constantly comes in the place of plural.
Sutra no. 64
Of the words having the same form, and all in the same one case termination, the last one is only retained.
Book 1. ch. 3
Sutra no. 6
The lit or perfect Tense affixes after the roots indhi 'to kindle' and buce' to
become' are also kit.
Sutra no. 7
The affix ktva in kit after nrd ' to be gracious' nrid ' to squeeze' gudh 'to wrap
up 'to tear' klis ' to suffer; rad ' to speak' and was 'todwell'.
Sutra no. 8
The affixes ktva and sou are kit after and ' to keep' vid ' to know' much ' steal'
grah ' to size' svap ' to sleep' and pracnchh ' to ask'.
Sutra no. 9
The affix san beginning with a letter of Pratyahara jhal in like kit, after verbs
ending in ik vowels.
Sutra no. 10
And after a root ending in a consonant and preceded by a vowel of the pratya
hara ik, the affix san beginning with a jhal consonant, is like kit.
Sutra no 11
After roots ending in a consonant, the adjoins a vowel of ik prtyahara, the
substitutes of lin and sich when they begin with a consonant of jhal
pratyahara, are kit, when the atmanepada affixes below.
Sutra no. 12
And after verbs ending in ri, the substitutes of lin and the affix such, are kit,
when they begin with jhl, and the At manpada affixes follow.
Sutra no. B
Optionally after the verb gan, the lin and sich beginning with jhal consonants,
in the Atmanepada are kit.
Sutra no. 14
The sich atmanepada affixes are kit after the root has 'to kill'.
Sutra no. 15
The affix sich before Atmanepada affix as, is kit after the verb yam, when
meaning 'to divulge'.
Sutra no.16
The sick before Amanepada affixes in kit optionally, when you means ' to
espouse'.
Sutra no. 17
The affix sich before Atmanepada affixes, in kit after stha ' to stand' and ghu
verbs, and these verbs change their A in to 1 before these terminations.
Sutra no. 18
The affix ktva when it takes the argument it is not kit.
Sutra no. 19
The sst Nistha A affixes are not kit after the verbs s to lie down, svid ' to
Aweat' mid ' to melt' ksbvd ' to be unctous' and dhrisa ' to offend'.
Sutra no. 20
The Set Nishtha is not kit after the verbs Irish when meaning ' to for bear'.
Sutra no. 21
The set Nishtha is optionally not kit, after the verbs with a penultimate i if used
impersonally or denoting the beginning of action.
Sutra no. 22
The set Nishtha and the seit ktva are not kit after the verb pu m 'to purify.
Sutra no. 23
The set ltva is optionally kit, after the verbd having a penaltimate 'nu' ad
ending in 'th' and 'pha'.
Sutra no. 24
The set ktva is optionally kit, after the verbs vanch 'to cheat', lunch 'to pluck'
and rit' to dare or abhor.
AShTAdhyAyI (AD) and Indian Linguistic Tradition (ILT)
Panini's grammar AD (approximately 7th BCE) is important for
linguistic computation for two reasons. One, it provides a
comprehensive and rule based account of a natural language in
about 4000 rules - the only complete grammatical account of
any language so far. Two, the model of a 'grammar-in-motion'
that it provides seems to closely mimic a fully functional Natural
Language Processing (NLP) system -
SOUND CLASSES (phonetic
module)
|
RULE-BASE (parser/grammar
module)
|
LEXICONS (lexical interface
modules)
The possibility that a Natural Language (NL) parser based on
Panini can help analyze Indian languages has gained
momentum in recent years.
Panini was a culmination of a long tradition of unbroken tradition
of linguistic thought in India which started with the Vedas about
5000 years ago. Kapoor (1993) has divided the Indian linguistic
tradition in four phases -
Phase I: earliest times up to Panini
Speculations in shruti texts, four of the six
vedangas (vyAkaraNa, chanda, nirukta, shikShA),
work of Yaska, Rk PrAtishAkhya, AcAryas
mentioned by Panini.
Phase II: PANini up to Anandavardhana (9th
CE)
AD of PANini, vArttika of Katyayana,
mahAbhAShya of Patanjali, mImAmsAsUtra of
Jaimini, vAkyapadIya of Bhartrhari, works on
poetics from Bharata up to Annandavardhana.
Phase III: Ramachandra (11th CE) to Nagesh
Bhatta (18th CE)
Pedagogical grammars based on Panini's AD.
Investigations into principles of grammar and also
attempts to apply Paninian model to describe other
languages.
Phase IV: Franz Kielhorn onwards
Modern textual interpretations and machine
analysis of language. Works of Kielhorn,
Bhandarkar, Carudev Shastri, Katre, Dandekar,
among many others.
For details on the preceding classification refer Kapoor(1993)
and Kapoor (2004 - in print).
Structure and Organization
AD has 8 chapters divided into 4 padas. A sUtra or rule is
referenced as x.x.x (x adhyaya, x pada, x sUtra). For example
sUtra 1.1.1 (vRRiddhirAdaic) is adhyaya one, pada one and
sUtra one. The components of AD are as follows -

akSharasamAmnAya (14 sUtras called shiva-sUtras) (AS)

sUtrapATha (4000 sUtras - 3983 in kAshikAvRRitti) (SP)

dhAtupATha (1967 verb roots - 2014 including kaNDvAdi
roots) (DP) .

gaNapATha (other pertinent items like primitive nominal
bases, avyayas) (GP)
The AS, DP, and the GP can be called the three most basic
databases of the Paninian system containing duly arranged and
structured data. The SP is Panini's comprehensive rule base for
Sanskrit.
akSharasamAmnAya
The AS contains a sound catalog with 14 classes of sounds
based on their phonological properties. Panini's 'shiva SUtras'
(SS) or the repertory of phonemes have 14 classes of strings
beginning with a i u N (simple vowels), and ending with haL
(voiced fricatives). This sound catalog does not include long and
prolated vowels, or the anusvAra, visarga, jihvAmUlIya and
upadhmAnIya or the supra segmental features. The vowels
represent phoneme classes, including features of length,
nasality, and the three accents (rising /, falling \, level -).
1. aiuN
2. RRiLLik
3. eo~N
4. aiauc
5. hayavaraT
6. laN
7. ~nama~NaNanam
8. jhabha~n
9. ghaDhadhaSh
10. jabagaDadash
11. khaphachaThathacaTatav
12. kapay
13. shaShasar
14. hal
These sUtras (called by different names - 'shiva sUtras',
'mAheshvara sUtra', 'pratyAhAra-sUtra') allow Panini to form
pratyaharas or keys representing various sets of sounds to be
called in the operations.
Panini tells us how to form a pratyAhAra (sigla) -
Adirantyena sahetA (1.1.71)
Take a phoneme from a sUtra and add one of the anubandhas
(the sound which ends a sUtra). The two letter pratyAhAra thus
formed includes all the phonemes including the first phoneme in
the pratyAhAra name and up to the last phoneme excluding the
anubandha. Even if there is any intervening anubandha, it will
be excluded from the list. For example, ac = [a I u RRi LLi e o ai
au ] includes
[a I u] from aiuN (SS 1)
[RRi LLi] from RRiLLik (SS 2)
[e o] from eo~N (SS 3)
[ai au ] from aiau (SS 4)
These rules generate sigla (whose number can run into three
figures) needed for grammatical operations The possible sound
groups generated by them can be given as follows -
1+ d13 { dNj ( Nj - i +1) + d14 Nk } j =
1, i = 1, k = j + 1
where Nj=Number of sounds in group j (like 3,2,2,2...in the 14
groups) i = element number in group j, k = group number of it.
AD uses 41 (42 including rA according to later Paniniyas)
obtained by applying 1.3.2, 1.3.3 along with 1.1.71.
Panini uses these sound classes for calling in his rules using
this mechanism. Some of them can be interpreted as follows -
aC ' vowel phoneme classes with suprasegmental
features of length (hrasva dIrgha pluta), accent
(udAtta, anudAtta, svarita) and nasality
(anunAsika)) - 1.1.10
eC 'diphthongs - 8.3.17
jash' voiced unaspirated stops - 1.1.58/8.2.39
jhash'voiced stops - 8.4.53
yaN'semivowels - 1.1.45
shaR'sibilants - 7.4.4
haL'consonants - 1.1.7
pratyAhAras are also used for precision and brevity similar to
the use of arrays in programming. For example the sUtra
akaH savarNe dIrghaH (6.1.101)
Here Panini has used the pratyAhAra 'aK' [a I u RRi LLi] from SS
1 -2 and says that the operation of vowel lengthening will
operate on the list called 'aK'
Problem with aN
By this mechanism of pratyAhAra expansion, how do we
interpret aN ? Does it mean [a I u] from SS 1 or [a I u RRi LLi
…..la] from SS 1 - 6 ? That is does it include only vowels or
vowels plus semivowels? Panini has given the answer. This
pratyAhAra includes add semivowels to the vowel list only in
1.1.69 (anuditsavarNasya cAapratyayaH). Elsewhere it includes
only vowels.
sUtrapATha
The SP contains about 4000 sUtras arranged in chapters
(adhyAya) and sub-chapters (pAda) in a particular order.
Faddegon (1936) gave a general sketch of what is covered in
different sections of the grammar and also analyzed the
subsections. In the arrangement of SP he noted a "tendency
towards dichotomy" and divided the rules in to two main sections
- Chs1-5 and 6-8 which he called analytic and synthetic parts
respectively. Kapoor(1992) has reduced the treatment of subject
matter into four divisions: Chs1-2 dealing with classification and
enumeration of bases and categories, Chs3-5 consist of prakrtipratyaya enumeration, and derivation of bases, Chs 6-8.1 deal
with the synthesis of prakrti-pratyaya, and Chs 8.2-8.4 deal with
the rules of morphophonemics.
sUtras are verb-less sentences unlike those in natural language
and give an impression of formulae or program like code. They
are of following types -
vidhi (operational)
Example: akaH savarNe dIrghaH (6.1.101) ' simple
vowels [a I u RRi LLi] will be lengthened if they are
followed by a similar (savarNa) vowel
samjna (introduce class and conventions)
Example: supti~Nantam padam(1.4.14) ' bases
ending in nominal case affixes (suP) or verbal
affixes (ti~N) are called padas (syntactic words)
paribhAShA (metarules)
Example: vipratiShedhe param kAryam (1.4.2) 'if
two rules of equal power conflict then latter
prevails
adhikAra (headings)
Example: pratyayaH (3.1.1) ' henceforth starts the
topic of 'pratyaya'
atidesha (extensions)
Example: kartur Ipsitatamam karma (1.4.49) tathA
yuktam cAnIpsitam (1.4.50) ' that which is most
desired by kartA (agent) is called 'karma' (1.4.49).
And also that which is undesired (1.4.50).
niyama(restriction)
Example: patiH samAsa eva (1.4.8) . This rule
restricts the application of previous rule
sheShoghyasakhi (1.4.7).
niShedha (negation)
example: tulyAsya prayatnam savarNam (1.1.9)
nAjjhalau (1.1.10) ' savarNa is class of sounds with
comparable place and manner of articulation
(1.1.9). This can not be across vowels and
consonants even if they happen to have
comparable place and manner of articulation
(1.1.10)
dhAtupATha
The DP lists about 1967 verb roots (2014 including kaNDvAdi
roots) distributed in 10 conjugation classes (gaNas) to undergo
peculiar operations. Each gana (class) takes its name from the
first member of the class like Bhvadi (`bhu'etc), Curadi (`cur'etc).
Following four gaNas account for most of the verb roots -
bhvAdi (1000)
divAdi (140)
tudAdi(150)
curAdi (410)
The position of root in the DP and their control characters and
accents determine the morphological processing they will
undergo.
gaNapATha
The primitive nominal bases are contained in the GP. The
various classes like kRRiT, taddhita, strI, suP, ti~N and the 18
upasargas operate on these bases (including 23 pronouns).
Other technical devices of Panini
Adapting the sUtraic style was for brevity or lAghava (brevity),
as for ancient grammarians brevity even by half a syllable was
like celebrating the birth of a son (`ardha mAtra lAghavena
putrotsava manyante vaiyAkaranAH'). In this respect, Panini's
system may be a little opaque to understanding if not decoded
using a particular set of conventions. For each of these
aphorisms the stages of reverse- sandhi, identification of
AdhikAra and AnuvRRitti, inserting of adhikAra, anuvRRitti
padas, rearranging the vibhakti order (5-7-6-1 manner), adding
of verb `be' and finally, interpreting the sUtra by the metalinguistic meaning of cases.(Kapoor 92)
Patanjali (pashpashAhnika of MB) highlights the necessity of
positing a finite number of sUtras to account for an infinite
linguistic output. Panini was able to abstract his mother tongue
in just about 4000 linguistic statements by using some technical
devices - the pratyAhAras being the most important of them.
Besides, Panini uses many abbreviations like suP, ti~N, kRRit
etc for different sets of affixes for the purpose of brevity. `suP'
for example, is made up of `sU' which is the first case affix, and
of `P' which is the marker of the last case affix `suP'. Similarly,
'ti~N' denotes verb affixes from `tiP' to `mahi~N'.
Panini's samj~nA sUtras introduce various other such classes
and abbreviations that are to be called in the sUtras - vRRiddhi
(1.1.1), guNa (1.1.2), anunAsika (1.1.8), savarNa (1.1.9),
hrasva-dIrgha-pluta (1.1.27), udAtta-anudAtta-svarita (1.2.2931), samprasAraNa (1.1.45),prAtipadika (1.2.45), pada (1.4.14),
amredita (8.1.2), niShThA (1.1.26) etc. The construct `Adi'(etc)
as part a compound with a technical word is used to denote a
bigger class like `bhU AdayaH dhAtavaH' (1.3.1) which refers to
the entire DP, as the latter begins the root `bhU'. A similar
technique has been applied in designating smaller classes. For
example, `adiprabhRRitibhyaH' (2.4.72) which refers to a
subgroup in the DP beginning with `ad' (eat), and `kaNDAraaH'
(2.2.38) referring to a group of items beginning with `kaNDAra'.
Affixes ending in a common `it' will undergo similar processing.
The compactness of the SP and the kind of ekavAkyatA that we
find in it could be attributed a lot to the devices like adhikAra,
anuvRRitti, as well as particle `ca' which are used to avoid
unnecessary repetition. The concept of adhikAra is intended to
regulate the meaning of the rules to follow in the sense that the
whole of adhikAra rule to be read with the subsequent sUtras.
For example, the rule `pratyayaH' (3.1.1) is an adhikAra sUtra
which applies till the end of the fifth book. That is, anything
treated after this rule will get the designation `pratyaya' (except
3.1.5, 3.2.24, 3.2.25). The next sUtra is `parashca' (3.1.2) which
is itself an adhikAra, and along with 3.1.1 will be read as
`pratyayaH parashca' meaning that an affix will be placed after a
base. The next sUtra `adyudAtashca' (3.1.3) if read along with
3.1.1 and 3.1.2 means that a pratyaya (3.1.1) which is to be
placed after a base (3.1.2) has an acute accent on its first
syllable (3.1.3).
Through anuvRRitti, Panini passes on the vibhakti based
information to the following sUtra (whether immediate or not)
having the same vibhakti type. In this case, there has to be
some recursive searching for the same case ending in a sUtra.
In case of a match, the words of dissimilar case endings from
the previous sUtra will be understood in the later sUtra. For
example, the rule `AdguNaH' (3.1.87) will read `at' (abl.sing.5-1)
`aci' (loc.sing.7-1 from `ikah yaNaci' 6.1.77) `samhitAyAm' (loc.
sing. 7-1) `pUrvaparayoH'(loc. sing.7-1) `ekaH'(nom.sing.1-1
from 6.1.84) `guNaH'(nom.sing.1-1 from 6.1.87) `bhavati'(part of
convention).
The use of the particle `ca' (as conjunction or disjunction) at the
end of a rule requires that the immediately preceding sUtra
along with adhikAra, if any, is to be read with the sUtra with `ca'.
For example, `Dati ca' (1.1.25) is to be read along with `ShnAntA
ShaT'(1.1.24) which provides that numerals (1.1.23) with `Sha'
or `Na' in as final are called `ShaT' along with the numerals with
`Dati' as suffix.
Morpho-phonemics
The sandhi or euphonic combination of sounds can take place
between vowels and vowel, vowels and semivowels,
semivowels and semivowels, consonants and consonants, and
between visarga and other sounds. Sandhi is necessary for
internal structuring of constituents like roots, and padas (internal
sandhi), as well as for the combination of two words (external
sandhi). Among some of the general rules for such
morphophonemic combinations, the following can be noted -
vowel lengthening: akaH savarNe dIrghaH
(6.1.101)
+voc -> +len /- +voc +savarNa
Example: rAma + avatAra ' rAmAvatAra
voicing: jhalAm jashonte (8.2.39)
+cons -> +voice /- +voice
Example: vAk + IshaH ' vAgIshaH
Retroflexization: ShTunAShTuH (8.4.41)
+cons -> +cons /- +cons
dental retroflex retroflex
Example: rAma-s- + ShaShTha -> rAma-ShShaShTha
Palatalization: stoH shcunAshcuH (8.4.40)
+cons -> +cons /- +cons
dental palatal palatal
Example: sat + cit ' saccit
Nasalization: yaro'nunAsike'nunAsiko vA (8.4.45)
+cons -> +cons /- +cons
-nas +nas +nas
Example: ya-t- + nAsti -> ya-n-nAsti
Derivational Process
The purpose of Panini's derivational process is to generate
complete syntactic words called padas which Panini defines as
`supti~Nantam padam' (that is, bases with either 21 suP affixes
or 9+9 ti~N affixes). Padas with suP affixes constitute the NPs
(subanta pada), and those with the ti~N affixes can be called
VPs (ti~Nanta pada). In a subanta pada the base is called
prAtipadika(pdk), which are either primitive(as stored in GP) or
derived through primary (kRRit), secondary (taddhita), feminine
(strI) affixations, and by compounding (samAsa). These
prAtipadikas undergo suP affixation under conditions of case,
gender, number and the end-characters of the bases to return
syntactic words. For example:
Derivation of `RAmaH'
rAma (pdk) + sU (4.1.2/4.1.3) ' rAma + s
(1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' rAma + rU (8.2.66) ' rAma + r
(1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' rAmaH (1.4.110/8.3.15).
The verb roots also are either basic or derived. The former are
stored in the DP distributed in 10 gaNas each with a fixed infix
called vikaraNa. The affix `L' is introduced after a verb root to
mark temporal situations (by ten lakAras like laT,liT...) agent.
The rule `lasya' (of `la') replaces affix `L' by a set of 9+9
(parasmai and Atmane padins) affixes distributed according to
person and number (3x3). The ten lakAras are grouped into two
- sArvadhAtuka (sdk), and ArdhadhAtuka (adk) of 5 each taking
a particular set of arguments. Let
Derivation of 'paThati'
paThA ' paTh (1.3.1/1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' paTh +
laT (3.1.91/3.2.123/4.1.2/4.1.3) ' paTh + la
(1.3.2/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' paTh + tiP (3.4.79) ' paTh +
shaP + tiP (3.1.68) ' paTh + a + ti
(1.3.8/1.3.9/1.1.60) ' paThati (syntactic word
meaning `reads').
Thus the string `RAmaH paThati' is a complete basic sentence.
Cardona (1988) posits the following formula for such formation -
( N - En )p ... ( V - Ev )p
which consists of related padas (p) in which the nominal affixes
(En) and verbal affixes (Ev) follow the respective bases.
kAraka and vAkya
`vAkya' does not come under Panini's samj~nA category. Such
and other non-technical words like `yoga', `samartha',
`sAkA~NkSha', `sambandha', `anabhihita',`samAnAdhikaraNa',
and `kAraka' etc are used in AD to express relationship between
syntactic constituents. Panini's rules pertaining to kAraka explain
a situation in terms of action (kriyA) and factors (kArakas) which
have a function in the accomplishment of action. In other words,
the six Paninian kArakas, that is, apAdAna (source, 1.4.24),
sampradAna (beneficiary, 1.4.32), karaNa (means, 1.4.42),
adhikaraNa (location, 1.4.45), karman (patient, 1.4.49), and
kartRRi (agent, 1.4.54) specify the possible semantic
relationship that hold between the nouns and the verb in a
grammatical sentence.
For example, the sentence `devdattaH odanam pacati'
(Devadatta cooks rice) can be described as `devadattaH' (agent
or kartRRi), `odanam' (patient or karman), `pacati' (action or
kriyA in present tense). The present tense equivalent in Panini,
`laT', expresses agent-ship, goal, or goal-less state
(intransitivity). The ti~Nanta component will take the root `pac'
with `laT' (and related morphological specifications) to generate
the action `pacati' with affix `tiP'. Similarly, the subanta
component will generate the goal (object) by adding accusative
singular (2-1) case affix `am' to `odana' and the agent by adding
nominative singular (1-1) `sU' to `devadatta'. Thus
devadatta + sU odana + am pac + tiP ' devadattaH
odanam pacati
Panini's is an essentially formal system which suits very well for
computation with little formalization. This fact leaves ample
scope for language processing insights from Panini. The
AShTAdhyAyI is also important for its linguistic insights into the
structure and functioning of many Indian languages
genealogically related to Sanskrit. The NLP/Computational
Linguistics community has already started using Panini as a
model for Indian languages with reasonable success. It may be
interesting to see if Paninian formalism will work for other
languages of the Indo European family.
REFERENCE OF PANINI:
READING ASSIGNMENT:
I. What is Unique about the Philosophies of India?
A. Sourcebook: pp. xxii-xxx. "The Spirit of Indian Philosophy" and "The
Value of the Study of Indian Philosophy"
Christopher Isherwood: "The Wishing Tree"
(From Isherwood, The Wishing Tree)
B. Jacob Needleman: "Why Philosophy is Easy?"
"Psychiatry and the Sacred"
(From Needleman, Consciousness and Tradition)
II. The Sources and Traditions of Indian Philosophy
A. Sourcebook: pp. xvii-xxii. "History of Indian Thought"
P.T. Raju: Chapt. II - The Vedas and Other Sources
Chapt. III - The Central Ideas of the Upanisads
(From Raju, The Philosophical Traditions of India)
III. Carvaka: Materialism and skepticism
A. P.T. Raju: Chapt. V - "The Materialistic Tradition of the Carvaka"
Sourcebook: pp. 227_249 "Carvaka"
IV. Nyaya-Vaisesika: Realism
A. Mysore Hiriyanna: "Nyaya-Vaisesika" (From Hiriyanna, Outlines of
Indian Philosophy) Sourcebook: pp. 356_370.
B. Sourcebook: pp. 356-385 "Nyaya" pp, 397-423 "Vaisesika"
C. J. N. Mohanty: "Reflections on the Nyaya Theory of Avayavipratyaksa
("perception of a whole")" (From Mohanty, Phenomenology and
Ontology) Bimal Matilal: "Material Bodies and Their Atomic
Constituents" and ""Inseparable_Relations (Samavava) (From Matilal,
Epistemology Logic, and Grammar in Indian Philosophical Analysis)
V. Jainism: Relative Realism
A. Hiriyanna: "Jainism" P.T. Raju: "The Heterodox Tradition Jainism"
B. Sourcebook: pp. 260_271 "Jainism"
VI. Sankhya_Yoga: Dualism
A. Troy Organ: "The Self in Sankhya_Yoga" (From Organ, Philosophy
and the Self: East and West)
Hiriyanna: "Sankhya"
B. Sourcebook: pp. 424_452. "Samkhya"
VII. Avaita Vedanta: Absolutism
A. Das: "Introduction" and "Introduction to the Commentary"
Sourcebook: pp. S06_509 Deutsch: "Brahman"
B. Selection from Das Deutsch: "Levels of Being" and "Brahman and the
World"
C. Selection from Das and the Sourcebook Deutsch: "The Self" and
"Karma"
D. Selection from Das and the Sourcebook Deutsch: "Aspects of
Advaitic Epistemology" and "Moksa and Jnana_Yoga"
E. Thomas Nagel: "The Objective Self" and "Thought and Reality" (From
Nagel, The View From Nowhere)
VIII. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism
A. K.N. Jayatilleke, "The Historical Context of the Rise of Buddhism"
(From Jayatilleke, The Messaqe of the Buddha) A.L. Herman: "The
Philosphical Environment of the 6th Century B.C.E." pp, 27-53 A.L.
Herman: "The Later Life" pp. 55-83 (From Herman, An Introduction to
Buddhist Thouqht)
B. Sourcebook: 272-292. "Buddhism: Hinayana"
C. Vasubandhu: The Soul Theory of the Buddhist Derek Parfit: "Personal
Identity"
D. Bimal Matilal: "Negation and the Madhyamika Dialectics" (From
Matilal, Epistemology, Logic. and Grammar in Indian Philosophical
analysis)
E. David Kalupahana: "The Emergence of Absolutism" and "Nagarjuna
and the MulamadhYamakarika" ("Verses on the Fundamentals of the
Middle Way")"
F. Sourcebook: pp. 340-345. "The Madhyamika_sastra or Treatise on the
Middle Doctrine" David Kalupahana's translation of the above taken
from his Nagarjuna
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_________, The Structural Depths of Indian Thouqht, Albany: SUNY
Press, 1985
Nina Smart, Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy, 2nd edition,
Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992
Walter Stace, Mysticism and Philosophy, London: Macmillan, 1960
Vasubandhu, The Soul Theory of the Buddhist: Appendix to the VIII
Chapter of the Abhidharmakosa, trans. Tscherbasky, Varanas, Bharatiya
Vidya Prakasan, 1970
Cardona, George, 1965, On translating and formalizing Paninian rules.
Journal of Oriental Institute, Baroda, vol 14, 306-14.
Cardona, George, 1970, Some Principles of Panini's Grammar. Journal of
Indian Philosophy, vol 1, 40-74.
Cardona, George, 1974, Panini's Karakas: Agency, Animation and
Identity. Journal of Indian Philosophy, vol2, 231-306.
Cardona, George, 1976, Some features of Paninian Derivations. History of
thought and contemporary Linguistics.
Cardona, George, 1987, Panini: His work and its traditions (vols 1-3, first
edn 1987, Motilal Banarasidass, 1988.
Deshpande, Madhav M. 1992, Panini in the context of Modernity.
Language and text. ed. R.N.Srivastava et al, Kalinga Publications, Delhi.
Faddegon, Barend, 1936, Studies on Panini's Grammar. Amsterdam.
Jha, Girish Nath, 1993, Morphology of Case Affixes: a computational
analysis, M.Phil. thesis submitted to J.N.U. New Delhi
Joshi, S.D. 1969, Sentence structure according to Panini. Indian
Antiquary.
Kanthan, K.L., Formal language system of Panini. Chemical Bank,
Information Technology Management, New York.
Kapoor, Kapil, 1991, Panini Vyakarana: Nature, Applicability and
Organization. Course notes for NLP-91, IIT-Kanpur, 1991.
--------------------, 1992, Norm and Variation: A Classical Indian Debate.
Language and Text. ed. R.N.Srivastava et al, Kalinga Publications, Delhi.
--------------,1993, Text and Interpretation: The Indian Tradition, under
publication, D.K. Print World, Delhi.
--------------,2004, Essays on Panini's Ashtadhyayi, under publication D.K.
Print World, Delhi.
Katre, Sumitra, M. 1985, Astadhyayi of Panini (first Indian edn. Motilal
Banarasidass, 1989.
Mishra, Vidya, Niwas, 1966, The Descriptive Technique of Panini: An
Introduction. Mouton & Co., The Hague, Paris)
Sangal, R. 1991, Karaka Theory - sentence and nominals. Course notes
for NLP-91, IIT-Kanpur.
Sharma, Ram, Nath, 1987, The Astadhyayi of Panini. Vol I, Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Sharma, Ram, Nath, 1990, The Astadhyayi of Panini. Vol II, Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Appendix: Phonetic chart (ITRANS 5.0)
Vowels
a A i I u U RRi RRI LLi LLI e ai o au aM aH
Consonants
k
kh g
gh ~N
c
ch j
jh ~n
T
Th D
Dh N
t
th d
dh n
p
ph b
bh m
y
r
l
v
sh
Sh s
h
kSh j~n shr
L
The main source of the original writings is Radhakrishnan and Moore's
Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy.
THE TEXTS FOR THE COURSE:
1. Radhakrishnan and Moore, Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy
2. Rashviri Das, Introduction to Shankara
3. Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta
4. Vasubandhu, The Soul Theory of the Buddhist
5. Selected Readings. (The source for each selection will be given with
the assignment of the selection)
*Note that Das is a "free" translation of Sankara's commentary to the
Brahma Sutra, so it covers the same material (and more) that is found in
the Sourcebook's section on Sankara.