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托福 tpo 历史学复习：欧亚地区早期的海洋贸易
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Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia
In the fourteenth century, a number of political developments cut Europe's overland trade
routes to southern and eastern Asia, with which Europe had had important and highly profitable
commercial ties since the twelfth century. This development, coming as it did when the bottom
had fallen out of the European economy, provided an impetus to a long-held desire to secure
direct relations with the East by establishing a sea trade. Widely reported, if somewhat distrusted,
accounts by figures like the famous traveler from Venice, Marco Polo, of the willingness of
people in China to trade with Europeans and of the immensity of the wealth to be gained by such
contact made the idea irresistible. Possibilities for trade seemed promising, but no hope existed
for maintaining the traditional routes over land A new way had to be found.
The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's
maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean,
the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of
vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques
for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial
expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create
Spices were the most sought-after commodities. Spices not only dramatically improved the taste
of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. But even
high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify
the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China.
The principal seagoing ship used throughout the Middle Ages was the galley, a long, low
ship fitted with sails but driven primarily by oars. The largest galleys had as many as 50 oarsmen
Since they had relatively shallow hulls, they were unstable when driven by sail or when on rough
water: hence they were unsuitable for the voyage to the East. Even if they hugged the African
coastline, they had little chance of surviving a crossing of the Indian Ocean. Shortly after
1400, shipbuilders began developing a new type of vessel properly designed to operate in rough,
open water: the caravel. It had a wider and deeper hull than the galley and hence could carry
more cargo: increased stability made it possible to add multiple masts and sails. In the largest
caravels, two main masts held large square sails that provided the bulk of the thrust driving
the ship forward, while a smaller forward mast held a triangular-shaped sail, called a lateen
sail, which could be moved into a variety of positions to maneuver the ship.
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The astrolabe had long been the primary instrument for navigation, having been introduced
in the eleventh century. It operated by measuring the height of the Sun and the fixed stars:
by calculating the angles created by these points, it determined the degree of latitude at which
one stood (The problem of determining longitude, though, was not solved until the eighteenth
century.) By the early thirteenth century. Western Europeans had also developed and put into
use the magnetic compass, which helped when clouds obliterated both the Sun and the stars. Also
beginning in the thirteenth century, there were new maps refined by precise calculations and
the reports of sailors that made it possible to trace one's path with reasonable accuracy. Certain
institutional and practical norms had become established as well.
A maritime code known as the Consulate of the Sea, which originated in the western
Mediterranean region in the fourteenth century, won acceptance by a majority of sea goers as
the normative code for maritime conduct; it defined such matters as the authority of a ship's
officers, protocols of command, pay structures, the rights of sailors, and the rules of engagement
when ships met one another on the sea-lanes. Thus by about 1400 the key elements were in place
to enable Europe to begin its seaward adventure.
Paragraph 1: In the fourteenth century, a number of political developments cut Europe's
overland trade routes to southern and eastern Asia, with which Europe had had important and
highly profitable commercial ties since the twelfth century. This development, coming as it
did when the bottom had fallen out of the European economy, provided an impetus to a long-held
desire to secure direct relations with the East by establishing a sea trade. Widely reported,
if somewhat distrusted, accounts by figures like the famous traveler from Venice, Marco Polo,
of the willingness of people in China to trade with Europeans and of the immensity of the wealth
to be gained by such contact made the idea irresistible. Possibilities for trade seemed promising,
but no hope existed for maintaining the traditional routes over land A new way had to be found.
1. The word impetus in the passage is closest in meaning to (3)
○Return
○Opportunity
○Stimulus
○Obstacle
2. According to paragraph 1 why was it necessary to find a new way for European merchants
to reach the East? (4)
○People in China were finally ready to trade with Europeans
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○The European economy was failing because there was no trade with the East
○Traditional ways of trading with the East had becomevery costly
○Commercial routes over land had become blocked because of political events
Paragraph 2: The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East?
Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the
Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the
Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's
way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took
to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West
trade could create Spices were the most sought-after commodities. Spices not only dramatically
improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain
medicines. But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk
in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the
way to India and China.
3. According to paragraph 2. what was the main difficulty Europeans had to overcome in order
to develop a new way of trading with the East? (2)
○Europeans were unwilling to invest in large-scale commercial ventures.
○Europeans lacked the means for navigating long distances across oceans.
○Europeans were unwilling to experiment with new business techniques.
○Europeans lacked knowledge about the commercial methods of other peoples.
4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out
essential information. (1)
○The high cost to investors of developing trade by sea between East and West indicates
the great size of the profits that such trade could produce.
○The profits that could be created by sea trade between East and West were immense compared
with the investment required to develop such trade.
○The increase in commercial activity by using sea routes reflects the importance trade
between East and West had for investors seeking great profits.
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○Because people made large investments in sea commerce between East and West. They expected
to make immense profits.
5. The word dramatically in the passage is closest in meaning to (2)
○Artificially
○Greatly
○Immediately
○Regularly
6. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that spices from Asia were desirable in Europe in
the Middle Ages because they (2)
○were easily transported in large quantities
○could not be produced in European countries
○could be traded for products such as perfumes and medicines
○were expected to increase in value over time
Paragraph 3: The principal seagoing ship used throughout the Middle Ages was the galley,
a long, low ship fitted with sails but driven primarily by oars. The largest galleys had as
many as 50 oarsmen Since they had relatively shallow hulls, they were unstable when driven by
sail or when on rough water: hence they were unsuitable for the voyage to the East. Even if
they hugged the African coastline, they had little chance of surviving a crossing of the Indian
Ocean Shortly after 1400, shipbuilders began developing a new type of vessel properly designed
to operate in rough, open water: the caravel. It had a wider and deeper hull than the galley
and hence could carry more cargo: increased stability made it possible to add multiple masts
and sails. In the largest caravels, two main masts held large square sails that provided the
bulk of the thrust driving the ship forward, while a smaller forward mast held a triangular-shaped
sail, called a lateen sail, which could be moved into a variety of positions to maneuver the
ship.
7. According to paragraph 3, all of the following statements comparing the caravel with
the galley are true EXCEPT:(1)
○The caravel had fewer masts than the galley.
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○The caravel had a wider hull than the galley.
○The caravel could carry more cargo than the galley.
○The caravel was more stable in rough water than the galley.
8. According to paragraph 3, what did the lateen sail contribute to the caravel as a sailing
ship?(4)
○It provided stability for the front part of the ship.
○It made it possible for the hull to be wider and deeper.
○It added considerably to the speed of the wind-driven ship.
○It improved the capacity of the ship to be guided.
Paragraph 4: The astrolabe had long been the primary instrument for navigation, having been
introduced in the eleventh century. It operated by measuring the height of the Sun and the fixed
stars: by calculating the angles created by these points, it determined the degree of latitude
at which one stood (The problem of determining longitude, though, was not solved until the
eighteenth century.) By the early thirteenth century. Western Europeans had also developed and
put into use the magnetic compass, which helped when clouds obliterated both the Sun and the
stars. Also beginning in the thirteenth century, there were new maps refined by precise
calculations and the reports of sailors that made it possible to trace one's path with reasonable
accuracy. Certain institutional and practical norms had become established as well. A maritime
code known as the Consulate of the Sea, which originated in the western Mediterranean region
in the fourteenth century, won acceptance by a majority of sea goers as the normative code for
maritime conduct; it defined such matters as the authority of a ship's officers, protocols of
command, pay structures, the rights of sailors, and the rules of engagement when ships met one
another on the sea-lanes. Thus by about 1400 the key elements were in place to enable Europe
to begin its seaward adventure.
9. Why does the author include the information that Western Europeans had developed and
put into use the magnetic compass (3)
○To provide an example of an instrument that was developed after caravels had begun traveling
across oceans
○To provide an example of an improvement that resulted directly from the invention of the
astrolabe
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○To identify one of the technological advances that made sea trade with the East possible
○To explain how the problem of determining longitude was solved
10. The word refined in the passage is closest in meaning to (2)
○Completed
○Improved
○Drawn
○Checked
11. The word norms in the passage is closest in meaning to (4)
○purposes
○skills
○activities
○rules
12. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of the maritime code developed
in Europe in the fourteenth century?(2)
○It mapped out lanes in the seas for trading ships to follow.
○It defined the ways in which people should behave at sea.
○It replaced an earlier code that could not be adapted to the sea trade with the East.
○It gave instructions on how to navigate a ship.
The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's
maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean,
the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of
vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques
for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial
expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create.
■ Spices were the most sought-after commodities. ■ Spices not only dramatically improved the
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taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines.
■ But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order
to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India
and China. ■
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added
to the passage.
They were highly valued for a couple of reasons.
Where would the sentence best fit?(2)
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided
below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important
ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas
that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth
2 points.
Because land routes to Asia had been cut off in the fourteenth century. Europeans had to
find a new way to trade with Asia.
●For trade…
●Wind-driven…
●The development…
Answer Choices
○Reports by travelers indicated that people in Asia were interested in renewing trade with
Europeans.
○For trade in Asian goods such as spices to be profitable,these items needed to be transported
in large quantities by sea.
○European galleys were able to bring Asian goods across with these items needed to be
transported in large quantities by Indian Ocean and around the African coastline.
○Wind-driven caravels were developed to carry cargo across the oceans.
○The development of maps, navigational instruments, and a maritime code of conduct provided
crucial elements for long-distance navigation.
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○Europeans wanted to import spices from Asia in order to improve the taste of food and
to make perfumes and medicines.
参考答案：
1. 3
2. 4
3. 2
4. 1
5. 2
6. 2
7. 1
8. 4
9. 3
10. 2
11. 4
12. 2
13. 2
14. For trade…
Wind-driven…
The development…
参考译文：欧亚地区早期的海洋贸易
14 世纪，政治的发展切断了欧洲大陆与南亚以及东亚的贸易路线，而在 12 世纪时欧洲就已经与东亚
和南亚建立起了高度互利的商业纽带。这种政体的在将欧洲的经济带入谷底的同时，也提供了一个新的契
机，那就激发了欧洲与东方建立一个海上的航路来确保两者之间不间断的贸易往来。如果大量的报告还有
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那么一点不可信的话，那么威尼斯著名的旅行家的描述就更为形象了。马可波罗带回了中国人希望和欧洲
人通商的意愿和对于欧洲人来说只要一纸合约便可以获得的取之不尽的财富，所有的这一切，都让欧洲人
无法抗拒。但是这样的好事儿在传统的商路被封死和新的航线建立起来之前，也就只能想想了。
最主要的问题其实还是技术：怎么才能从欧洲到达东方呢?欧洲的航海传统是在那些比较容易航行的海
域中建立和发展起来的—地中海，波罗的海，以及一条比较狭长的海域—英格兰和欧洲大陆之间的北海，
而这些海都不是什么广阔的大洋。所以，新型的航船是必须的，新的定位方法也是必要的，以及这些新技
术所需要的财政支出也是十分巨大的。由于海上商业扩张而发展来的全新的发明标准反映出了东西方贸易
所能创造出的无法想象的财富。香料开始变成最为普遍的日用品。因为香料显著提高了欧洲菜肴的口感同
时也被应用于香水的制造和一些药品之中。但是即使是像香料这样的高价日用品也不得不大量的运输以平
衡绕过非洲从中国和印度所花费的巨大的成本和麻烦。
中世纪最为主要的海船是单层甲板帆船，低矮狭长的船体能够使用帆，但是操纵主要还是靠浆。最大
的单甲板帆船有 50 个划手，这么做是为使船相对更加的薄一些，这种帆船在海中或是深水中航行时并不稳
定。因此它不适合航行在去往东方的航线上。1400 年后不久，即使是紧贴着非洲的海岸线行驶，这种船也
很难穿越印度洋。造船工匠们开始研制一种严格用于水位较深而且是开放海域的新型船只---轻快帆船。这
种船只拥有一个较之单层甲板船更加宽阔更加深厚的龙骨，这样可以运送更多的货物，同时可以提升稳定
性，还能够多加一根复式桅杆和船帆。在最大型的轻快帆船上，有两根主桅杆撑起大块的船帆来提供足够
的推力来推动帆船前进，同时有一个小型的后桅杆来撑起一块三角形船帆，这个船帆叫做三角帆，它是用
来在移动中控制帆船行驶的方向的。
自从 11 世纪星象盘引入欧洲以来，已经成为了航海的基础工具之一。星象盘通过测定太阳和其他可以
作为参照的星星的高度，来计算罗盘使用者与星体之间的夹角，并以此来确定测量者所处的纬度(而测量精
度的难题，直到 18 世纪才得以解决)。在 13 世纪初，西欧人也开始使用指南针，通过指南针来帮助他们在
有雾笼罩而无法观测到太阳和星星的情况下辨别方向。同样是开始于 13 世纪的还有新的更为精准的地图的
绘制和航海日志，使航行变得可靠而准确。航海标准和实际操作指南也日趋完善。14 世纪一部起源自西地
中海地区的海运法典在赢得了大多数水手们的认可后成为了进行海运所必须的管理指南。法典规定了一艘
船的船长的职权范围，拟定命令的格式，设施的价格，水手们的权利，和当一艘船遇到另外一艘船时的交
流方式。也正是这些重要的因素使欧洲人开始他们的海上冒险。
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