Download Swadeshi, Bande Mataram

The Making of Modern South Asia
Midterm Summaries
Caitlin:
* Bose & Jalal (1-7) from Week 1;
zamindar, doctrine of lapse, subsidiary alliance, intermediate groups,
permanent sultanate (IDs)
Fuada:
* Bose & Jalal (8-16) from Weeks 1 & 2;
indigo, Sufism, Bhakti, Dalhousie, Curzon (IDs)
Dan:
* Amartya Sen, "On Interpreting India's Past" from Nationalism,
Democracy, and Development;
Corwallis, Diwani (IDs)
Eunpi:
* Romila Thapar, "Imagined Religious Communities?"
Brahmo Samaj, Aligarh
Michael:
* Al-Beruni
Swadeshi, Bande Mataram
Bryan:
* Bose & Jalal (17-44) from Weeks 2 & 3
Dharma Sabha, Wellesley
Duncan:
* Chitralekha Zutshi, "Languages of Belonging";
Military Fiscalism, Ashoka
Todd:
* Susanne Rudolph, "State Formation in Asia";
Akbar, Din-Ilahi, Aurangzeb, Shivaji, Robert Clive, Plassey
Parvinder:
* Amartya Sen, "East and West: The Reach of Reason";
Ram Mohan Roy, Sati, Bahadur Shah Zafar, 1857, Saiyid Ahmad Khan
Kamilka:
* Bose & Jalal (45-77);
Alam & Subrahmanyam, "The Mughal State"
Chelsea:
* C.A. Bayly;
Ranajit Guha and Gayatri Spivak;
Roland:
* Stephen Hay;
Bose & Jalal (78-101)
Christine:
* Mridu Rai;
Bose, "Nation as Mother"
Elizabeth:
* Partha Chatterjee;
Hay, "Sources"
Rashmi:
* All the lectures
CAITLIN
Caitlin Monahan
“Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy” – Bose & Jalal
Pages 1-7
Chapter 1: South Asian History: An Introduction
This first chapter really is just an introduction to the major themes of the book (and
therefore the class). In bullet-point format….
1. “The very idea of India, and not just its wealth and wisdom, have been the site of fierce
historical contestation.”
2. “The battle to win India back was waged not only on the political plane but also in the
realm of ideas”
3. “In the fifty years since independence and partition, the political and ideational
contests among its own people for proprietorship over the continent have, if anything,
greatly intensified.”
4. “In the Western popular consciousness, the Indian subcontinent tends to evoke two
contrary images: On the one hand, it is lauded as an ancient land of mystery and romance,
extraordinary wealth and profound spirituality. On the other, it is denounced for its
irrationality and inhumanity and derided for its destitution and squalor.” “Both images,
stem from an inability to understand, or comprehend, far less explain, the normous
complexities of South Asia.” “The subcontinent defies piecemeal approaches”
5. “It is a commonplace in any introduction to South Asian history to expound on the
cliché about the region’s unity in diversity, It may be more appropriate to characterize
South Asian and its peoples as presenting a picture of diversity in unity, indeed of
immense diversity within a very broad contour of unity.”
6. “Over the millennia the peoples of the subcontinent have engaged in many cultural
exchanges with the outside world and worked out creative accommodations of cultural
difference within.”
7. “South Asia today is strategically a vital part of the world which has significant
implications for the international order at the beginning of the new millennium.”
8. “Over the millennia South Asia developed rich and complex layers of cultures which,
during recent centuries, had a dramatic historical encounter with the west. This is a book
on modern history, concentrating on the problem of change in society, economy and
politics from c. 1700 to the present in the subcontinent of South Asia.”
9.” A number of major themes have emerged in recent historical research which need to
be placed within a general context. Among these have been the role of intermediate
social groups in the construction of the British raj and that of subaltern social groups in
anti-colonial resistance; the part played by the colonial states in the reinvention of
communal and caste categories; the refashioning of social relations of class by the linking
of Indian economic regions to wider capitalist systems; and the impact and interplay
between national, communal, and regional levels of politics on the process of
decolonization.”
10. “A meaningful framework for conceiving the history of modern South Asian on a
subcontinental scale may be provided by the twin dialects of centralism and regionalism
and of nationalism and communitarianism.”
IDs
1. Zamindar: Zamindars were “literally landlords, whose main task was the collect
revenue from the locality” in the mansabdari system that was enacted under Akbar’s rule.
Akbar built a network of alliances with the Hindus in part through the mansabhari
system. (pg 30)
2. Doctrine of Lapse: “The wars against Punjab, Sind and Afghanistant had naturally
drained the treasury. Dalhousie sought to recoup some of the costs of these expensive
military adventures by annexing the more attractive subsidiary states. Utilizing the
doctrine of lapse by which subsidiary states without a natural male heir conveniently fell
into the hands of the company, Dalhousie took over Satara in 1848, Jhansi in 1853 and
Nagpur in 1854 – which brought in some 5 million pounds of revenue.” By 1856
”with the annexation of Awadh the roar of the British lion could be heard throughout the
length and breadth of the Indian subcontinent.” (pg 51)
3. Subsidiary Alliance: “At first the company sought to control a state such as Arcot
through a mechanism known as a ‘subsidiary alliance’, by which, in return for a subsidy
or a tribute, the English would ‘protect’ the nawab from outside threats. The subsidiary
alliance system was, however, inherently unstable, since the search for revenues to fund
the subsidy alientated the puppet nawabs from key groups in society. The arrangement
was also inadequate in warding off the more powerful independent regional states of the
late eighteenth century.” (pg 48)
4. Permanent Settlements (the list said, permanent “sultanates” but I think it meant
“settlements”): “The military and bureaucratic institutions of the company state in the
directly ruled areas were instruments designed to bolster selective but deep administrative
interventions in Indian economy and society. The early colonial state’s chief concern
was the security and stability of land revenue. A variety of mechanisms were created in
different parts of India to achieve this end. The earliest and most controversial
arrangement was the ‘permanent settlement’ of 1793, by which a private property right in
revenue collection was assigned to the zamindars of Bengal. The revenue demand from
these zamindars was settled in perpetuity; they were expected to collect rent form the
raiyats and remit a part of it as revenue to the states. Cornwallis, the author of the
permanent settlement with the zamindars, also hoped that they would become improving
landlords modeled after the estate-holders of England. But the disjunction between
property and production meant that these hopes were misplaced. … Consequently, it was
not also easy for the Zaminars to collect rent.” (pg 55)
FUADA
Fuada Kasollja
Bose, 8-16
Indo-Aryan Society
In 1922, the age of Indian history was extended by a millennium. Attention has not been
given to “the original inhabitants of India” until the Aryans first started settling in the
Indus Valley Region. Information about these settlers is in the Vedas (these religious
scriptures that form part of the core of the Brahminical and Vedic Traditions). During
the Vedic Period, the Aryans “made the transition from nomadic pastoralism to settled
agriculture in the Gangetic Plain.”
Vedic Society: divided in a tripartite system of warriors, priests and the third branch
comprising of agriculturalists, traders, and cattle-raisers. This caste system was first
mentioned in Rig Veda, which listed four varna (means color). In order of hierarchy: the
Brahmans(priests of the sacerdotal elite), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (agricultural
and merchant groups) and Shudras (providers or menial labor). Caste by birth (jati) “was
more relevant to social practice” as it included subcategories for the different
occupations. This rigid system of classification was justified by the Upanishad in terms of
karma- caste was decided from the quality of actions in the previous life.
Gender: Women were the inferior half but society expressed conscience regarding this. In
the Epic of Mahabharatta, the main female character “portrayed as possession”, and in
some parts of the epic, when she “escapes humiliation through the intervention of
Krishna” shows the conscience of society.
Vedic Religion: at one level version of animism (the belief that supernatural beings
inhabit objects and govern their being). Also, the Upanishad “enunciates the notion of a
Supreme Being”-Brahma. Also Moksha was one characteristic, where the supreme soul
Brahma merges with the individual- Atman and the individual is released from the cycle
of rebirths.
Social and religious movements in this era: Two kshatriyas, Buddha and Mahavira
questioned the caste system and shunned the Vedic religious rituals. Buddha founded
Buddhism: In his view human life was full of suffering. A soul could achieve perfection
and be released from the cycle of rebirths- Nirvana. The difference between Nirvana and
Moksha is that Nirvana does not mention a Supreme Being or unification of the two
souls. Faith was later split in two: the Theravada or Hinayana ( the lesser vehicle) which
focused on Buddha’s teachings and the Mahayana (greater vehicle) which focused on the
character of Buddha.
Politics: The kingdom of Magadha with its capital in Pataliputra. It expanded under the
Maurya dynasty (3rd and 4th centuries BC), especially under Ashoka. Ashoka converted
into Buddhism and banned animal sacrifice. He was the first ruler to unify so many parts
of ancient India, surpassing the territories of present day India. After Ashoka, the
Mgadhan kingdom was decentralized. It was later renewed from the Gupta Dynasty (320
AD- 6th century). The Guptas didn’t attempt to “impose centralized control” throughout
the parts of the lands. They brought back Vedic rituals, animal sacrifice and the caste
system. Influential during the Gupta age was The Bhagavad Gita which represented the
departure of the soul from the caste system by means of love and personal devotion to the
supreme being. In terms of gender it was not egalitarian. The Guptas whatsoever were
tolerant to other practices and religious beliefs. At this time Hinduism was taking form
from the Shramanik tradition. Hinduism is a monotheistic religion with three separate
cults (Shiva, Vishnu/Krishna and Mother Goddess) and the supreme being could be
venerated in any of these forms.
Culture: Kalidasa- literary figure who created the play Shakuntala. Aryabhatta- great
mathematician and philosopher (value of pi).
Fall of the Gupta Empire: The Hun invasions distorted the economy and led to the
decentralization of the empire. Culturally afterwards the south saw some advancement.
The Bhakti movement had been launched (6th century). The south also saw the rise of the
most powerful kingdom at this period- the Chola Kingdom (10th –12th century). The
Cholas were well-known for furthering “economic and cultural exchange between
southern India and South East Asia.
Note: If you are not planning to read this chapter, please at least try to read the last
paragraph from it as the author does a good job summarizing the main points.
Indigo: a blue dye obtained from a plant cultivated in India. This was one of the main
imports of the East Indian Company. Indigo disturbances in Bengal: took place in 1859
and 1860 immediately after the revolt of 1857 between European indigo planters and the
Bengal peasants. The prevailing system often compelled the Bengal peasant to grow
indigo against both his will and his interests.
Sufism: The concept of Sufism was therefore, to focus the mystic power on the spiritual
dimension of Islam with a view to shield the believers from the outwardly and unrealistic
dogma of the faith
Bhakti:. It preaches that devotion is the way to achieve salvation, emphasizing the loving
faith of a devotee for a deity and open to all persons irrespective of sex or caste. The
Bhakti movement started in the sixth century by 63 Shaivite saints and put into question
Brahmanism and the caste system.
Dalhousie: British control was extended over Sind in 1843 and Punjab in 1849. Social
unrest, added to the apprehensions of several important native rulers about the
aggrandizing policies of Governor-General Dalhousie, led to the bloody Indian Mutiny of
1857. It was suppressed, and Great Britain, determined to prevent a recurrence, initiated
long-needed reforms. Control passed from the East India Company to the crown
DAN
On Interpreting India’s Past
This article examines the theoretical underpinning of the nationalist movement. Sen
claims that some parts of the established nationalist conceptions survive better than others
and the real vulnerabilities are not those that receive the most attention. He compares
national identity both to the restrictive boundaries of communities within a nation and the
more inclusive broader categories (e.g. Asians). Recent critiques regarding Indian
national identity are from those emphasizing restrictiveness. Sen argues for the
importance of positionality, that is that the objectivity of observations is influenced by the
position of the observations, which is not necessarily related to subjectivity. He also
claims that the debate on identities requires “practical reason” not just pure epistemology.
While he commends the early nationalist leaders for their conscious effort not to use the
idea of India’s “golden age” excessively in their rhetoric, he emphasizes the extensive
outward alignment (external orientation) that has taken the form of emphasizing
differences (especially with the West) rather than a shared cultural history. This has led
to the exaggeration of “difference-seeking distortions.” Nationalist unity was a response
to the colonial claim that Indian was composed of hopeless divisions that necessitated
imperial rule. Thus, unity had to reflect a unifying tendency of Indian culture. For
example, Gandhi tried to usurp Hinduism to united India, citing its “search for Truth.”
However, this excluded Muslims. Sen argues against the idea that British rule created
Indian identity. While it was important in creating nationhood, nationhood is a very
recent concept regardless and Indian identity has existed for a ages. Sen then discusses
the importance of practical reason in how to approach Indian history: is focusing on the
idea of an Indian nation useful and is there enough empirical evidence for plausibility?
He claims yes. Sen goes on to critique the idea that religious and political identities are
not intertwined, citing Hindu nationalism (e.g. in the form of the BJP) and the argument
that it is better in terms of relevancy and cultural richness to belong to a community
rather than a nation.
The colonial process, Sen says, can be seen as 1) a reforming process 2) a system of
economic subjugation or 3) a history of cultural hegemony of imperial powers over
dominated societies.
Sen commends the recent shifts in historiography that note the importance of subaltern
groups in India’s history, not just elites.
Sen claims that the reaction to colonialism made India’s reading of its past go in a
spiritual rather than scientific direction. The West dominated the material, so India’s
spiritual identity gained importance. Sen wonders whether a focus on science would
return the focus to the elites, given that it is the elites who are most involved with
science. While acknowledging the importance of the spiritual identity for initially setting
up the state, he ultimately argues for the importance of science, rejecting anti-modernism,
and says there is a need to educate the masses.
ID: Diwani: The right to collect the revenues of Bengal, at the time valued at around 3
million pounds per year. Following the 1757 defeat of Siraj-ud-daula at the battle of
Plassey, the English East India company took political control of Bengal. In response, at
the battle of Buxar in Bihar, the Mughal emperor attacked the company along with the
nawabs of Awadh and Bengal (Mir Kassim) in 1764. The company won and the emperor
was forced to award the diwani to the company in 1765. This streamlined the flow of
revenues from the zamindars, which is what initially made Bengal so attractive to the
British. The beginning of the flow of land revenue meant that there was no longer a need
to important silver from Europe – the trade imbalance of precious metals was one of the
primary reasons to gain control of the Indian economy. The diwani also financed the
colonial conquest of other parts of India.
Cornwallis: Former commander of the British army in the American Revolutionary War,
Governor general of Bengal from 1786-1793, Cornwallis was the architect of the
permanent settlement system, whereby the zamindars were declared as absolute
proprietors of the land, which became freely transferable and inheritable. This land was
made liable to be sold in public auction if the yearly government revenue demanded of
the zamindars was not paid. Cornwallis hoped that this system would impel the
zamindars to become improving landlords. However, possibly because they did not have
real command over the land occupied and cultivated by raiyats until much later, this
system essentially failed to generate great wealth and/or improve the countryside.
Cornwallis also fought against Tipu Sultan of Mysore, annexing a strategic part of his
kingdom in 1790, paving the way for the empire-building of Wellesley.
EUNPI
Brahmo Samaj – society set up by Rammohun Roy. Rejected caste and idolatry and
sought to return to original monotheistic purity of the Upanishads. Wanted reform to
weed out evil anachronistic practices.
Aligarh – 1) a college established in 1875 by Saiyid Ahmed Khan. Attracted sons of
Muslim landlords of northern India and drew British Patronage. Tried to spread Western
knowledge and science. 2) a society also established by Khan which urged the
acceptance of Western education but not all its ideals. They wanted to weed out the
corrupt parts of Western practices from the valuable knowledge and implement them in
their society.
“Imagined Religious Communities?” Romila Thapar
Basically, the idea is that there is no historical “Hindu” community. It is a modern
invention. Hinduism was never a monolithic religion since it was rather a mosaic of
different sects. People did not identify with a single religion until at least 1500’s when
confronted by Islam. Still, it was mostly different sects who might have had the same
rituals but definitely not the same theology.
Here are some more detailed notes:
- communal ideology = the belief that Indian society is composed of religious
communities and identifying with the community determines your ideology.
- leads to a redefinition of religion
- irons out diversity and insists on conformity
- ignores the significance of the popular manisfestation of religion
- focuses on philosophical ideas, iconology, and rituals
- there is no clearly defined Hindu community!
- Brahmanism and Sramanism have separate beliefs, rituals and social norms
- Brahmanism = twice-born has to observe sruti and smrti
- dharma lies in conforming to separate social observances and ritual functions of
caste
- theism not a requirement
- identity through ritual and common language, Sanskrit
- Sramanism = covers variety of Buddhist, Jaina, and Ajivika
- denies Vedic sruti and smrti
- opposed to sacrificial rituals
- open to all casts
- idea of conversion present
- but lots of compromises by Brahmanism
- around 1000 AD emergence of Puranic religion
- Vedic deities subordinated or ousted. Visnu and Siva now worshipped
- also emergence of devotional cults bhakti
- complete loyalty to deity. Dependence on and salvation through deity.
- God-centered rather than man-centered
- sects geographically and linguistically bound until 1500’s – possible beginnings of
larger religious communities (Vaisnava sects)
- limitations of location, caste, and language acted as deterrent to single, homogenous
Hindu community
- multiple interpretations OK!
- emphasis on social observance rather than theology
- renunciation common and respected
- mosaic rather than linear progression
- recent tracing of deities is in conjunction with Muslim/Christian beliefs
- shared rituals does not mean shared creed/theology
- you can’t fit Hinduism into a known model!! There are no “universal” laws.
- there is some persecution but on the sect vs. sect level. Not monolithic.
- “Hindu” is a geographical nomenclature.
- conversion is outside explanation since birth into caste defines religious identity
- notion of Aryan race also discarded. Now a linguistic category. Virtually no evidence
of invasion
MICHAEL
Al-Beruni, India
[I did not have access to this reading since it was not available in the Coop and was
accidentally left out of the sourcepack. I’m pretty sure it was made optional anyway and
that we’re not responsible for it for the midterm.]
Swadeshi, Bande Mataram
Swadeshi – literally “own country,” anti-colonial movement in 1905-08 seen as the
“coming together and the subsequent parting of ways of moderate and extremist
nationalists.” Contained four distinct strands:
1) old moderates in favor of constitutional methods (e.g. Surendranath Banerji,
Gopal Krishna Gokale)
2) societal leaders calling for self-strengthening (atmashakti) before engaging in a
head-on collision with the British (e.g. Rabindranath Tagore)
3) a new generation of assertive leaders in favor of passive resistance, including
boycott, but violence if necessary (e.g. Lal, Bal and Pal)
4) small bands of angry, impatient young men and women, committing acts of
revolutionary terror.
Characterized early on by effective boycott and program of national education, seeing
British textile profits fall by 25%. In 1905, political extremists decide to avoid violence
for tactical reasons (relative weakness). Boycott enabled revival of artisanal crafts but
also allowed local mill owners to raise prices unconscionably. The Swadeshi era was
distinguished by a bold redefinition of nationalist aims and strategies as well as an
accompanying cultural awakening.
Bande Mataram – considered the rallying cry of the Swadeshi movement, literally
“respect for the mother.” The hymn was written in 1875 by Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay and surfaced conveniently during the Swadeshi movement, as noted
by Aurobindo Ghose. The “mother” referred to is Bengamata (mother Bengal), and
would have been more widely accepted as a nationalist cry if it did not equate
mother Bengal with the mother goddess, and if it had not been in Chattopadhyay’s
anti-Muslim novel Ananda Math. Partly responsible for the shift of tactics towards
nonviolence (out of respect for the mother).
BRYAN
Timeline:
610 AD – beginning of Islam.
644 AD - 1st invasion of Makran.
2nd raid during reign of Ali (656-661)
Makran successfully conquered under the 1st Ummayid Caliph Muawiya (661-680)
712 – Sind conquered by Muhammad bin Qasim
736 – Delhi founded by Tomaras, former feudatories of Pratihara overlords.
8th century Arab traders settled on the West coast, but no new expansion by Muslims
until:
997-1030 Mahmud of Ghazni raids in northwestern India. An Afghan Famed for
destroying temple at Somnath multiple times.
1030 The great scholar Alberuni visits India.
(1022-1023 Rajendra Chola conducts raids into northern India).
1001-1186 Ghaznavids occupy Punjab, around this time Lahore is the center of
Persianized Indo-Islamic culture.
1192 – Muhammad Ghuri, a Turk, invades India. He defeats Prithviraj Chauhan, a
Rajput chieftain in the battle of Tarain, leading to:
1206-1526 The Delhi Sultanate of Northern India was founded by Qutubuddin Aibak.
Four dynasties:
1) Mamluks
2) Khaljis
3) Tughlaqs
4) Lodis
Powerful sultans, Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316), Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-51) did
invade the Deccan.
Raziya Sultana – a woman sultan, assassinated by male rivals.
Southern India's two powerful kingdoms:
1336 Vijayanagra, a Hindu kingdom.
1345 Bahmani, a Muslim kingdom, a governor who revolted against the sultan.
1509-29 reign of Krishnadeva Raya who brings glory back to the Vijayanagra.
Accomplishments in temple architecture and Telegu litearture.
Fifteenth century in the north, Kashmir, Bengal, Gujarat independent sultanates form.
1398 Timur attacks Delhi, and Jaunpur and Malwa emerge as independent sultanates.
Fourteenth century – Lal Ded, a woman poet and saint, composes poetry in Kashmiri.
1440-1518 – Kabir, a leader of the bhakti devotional movement, denied Hindu and
Muslim conceptions of God (claimed to be son of both Allah and Ram).
1486-1533 – Chaitanya, another leader of the bhakti devotional movement
1469-1539 – Guru Nanak, his teachings compiled in the Adi Granth lead to the formation
of Sikhism. His ideas contained a strong negation of both Hindu and Muslim ideas of
God, and they drew on mystical strands of both.
Themes:
The spread of Islam is better understood as a process of accomodation rather than one of
invasion and violence. The Prophet's teachings allowed for tolerance and assimilation of
local cultures.
Conversions to Islam were gradual rather than sudden (a process facilitated when there
was a strong Buddhistic movement in the region covered by a Brahmanical
superstructure). Conquest usually was accompanied by little political change, merely a
shifting of allegiances, since new rulers would appoint local rulers as their agents.
The raids of Mahmud of Ghanzni, Rajendra Chola, and Muhammad Ghuri were
motivated more by economic reasons than by any religious reasons. The raids were used
to fund political expansion.
Lahore was the first center of Indo-Islamic culture until Delhi rose to eminence. These
were part of the first variant of Indo-Islamic accomodation, straddling from Turkey,
Persia into Northern India. The second variant came from the Arabian peninsula across
the ocean to the Malabar coast of western India, coastal south India and Sri Lanka.
The Delhi sultanate upheld the sharia but did not force it upon predominantly nonMuslim populations. The sultanate depended on agrarian land revenues for support, but
iqtadars or land grant holders collected most of it for them. These iqtadars were usually
quite autonomous, except during the reign of stronger sultans. Another example of
centralization vs. decentralization.
The Delhi Sultanate was Sunni, but Shias were influential in parts of Sind and Punjab.
However, the Sufis made many of the conversions after 1290. Women made great
contributions to the mystical tradition of Sufism.
Though there was a lot in common between Sufism and the bhakti movement, Kabir and
Nanak both proposed alternatives to Hinduism and Islam rather than trying to integrate
the two.
The leaders of the bhakti movement wrote most often in their regional languages (think
the vernacular millenium). This happened between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
High Brahmanical tradition and the Muslim ulema were cultural exclusivists even in this
era of accomodation. However, some Rajput princes converted to Islam.
Timeline:
1526 – Zahiruddin Bahur, ruler of Kabul, descended from Timur (Turkish empire
builder) and Genghis Khan defeats the last Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle
of Panipat and begins the Mughal empire. Dies suddenly in 1530.
1530-45 – Sher Shah, an Afghan challenges the Mughal empire and forces Humayun to
flee the country.
1555 Humayun returns, but dies within a few months.
1556-1605 Akbar
1556 Akbar defends the empire against Afghan and Rajput coalition at the second battle
of Paniput.
1572-73 Gujarat campaign, success at Surat.
1574 Bengal conquered by Akbar.
1581 Kabul, 1586 Kashmir, 1592 Orissa, 1595 Baluchistan under Akbar
1600 East India Company is founded.
1605-27 Jahangir's reign
1610 East India Company obtains permission to trade in India from Jahangir.
1627-58 Shah Jahan's reign.
1658 Aurangzeb and his elder brother Dara Shikoh struggle for the throne.
1658-1707 Aurangzeb's reign. The Mughal empire peaks during his reign.
1857 Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor is the figurehead of the 1857
rebellion. He is later exiled to Burma.
Themes:
The Mughal state was not an Oriental despotism. Though the revenue demand was high,
it wasn't collected directly by the centralized state, but rather by local zamindars, and the
revenue was distributed among several layers of appropriators rather than going straight
to the royal household. Furthermore, the peasantry thrived in the seventeenth century;
revolts happened because peasants wanted to keep their gains, rather because of
oppression.
Akbar introduced the mansabdari system for organizing the nobility, notable for
including many Hindus in his government, just one expression of his rational approach to
religious issues. Introduced the solar calendar, abolished the jizya (tax imposed on nonMuslims). Some ulemas disapproved of his broad outlook and tried to persecute Abu
Fazl (writer of the Akbarnama, compiler of the Ain-e-Akbar), and were imprisoned by
Akbar. Aurangzeb's rule saw a reversal of some of Akbar's policies. He brought back
the jizya and the lunar calendar.
Overseas trade with Europeans began with the Portugeuse in 1498, however, European
traders remained just another group of traders like the Turks, Arabs, or Persians.
However, the Mughals received large amounts of European silver from trade.
The Mughal justice system was similar to that under the Delhi sultanate, where the sharia
was respected, but used more as guidelines rather than a strict code.
The Mughal empire made no contribution to gender equality, but women in the royal
household had great influence on the throne: Jahangir's religious tolerance stems from
his Hindu mother, his artistic tastes from his wife, Nur Jahan. Several of the women
were involved in Sufism and mysticism also, including Jahanara, Aurangzeb and Dara
Shikoh's eldest sister and one of Aurangzeb's daughters.
The Mughals were great patrons of culture, and made advances in music, painting, but
especially architecture. The Taj Mahal and Lal Qila (Red Fort) were both built under
Shah Jahan.
Dharma Sabha:
This was a conservative group who is mentioned several times for opposing the ban on
sati (burning of widows), enacted in 1829. It was not that they supported sati but they did
not believe that the British should interfere in Indian traditions. One of their leaders,
Radha Kanta Deb actually supported Western education and Hindu College.
Wellesley:
Richard Wellesley was Governor-general from 1798-1805. His brothers Henry and
Arthur (later Duke of Wellington) were also involved in India. His administration was
characterized by aggressiveness and conquest. They annexed Awadh and the Carnatic,
and engineered a coup in Hyderabad. Wellesley's circle emphasized building the power
and dignity of the executive, but they were supporters of free trade rather than continued
Company monopoly. Also, they enforced many social regulations, such as ending
gambling, drunkenness, and concubinage with Indian women.
DUNCAN
Chitralekha Zutshi, "Mulk-i-Kashmir: History, Memory, and Representation" from
"Languages of Belonging."
She argues that there is "no immutable Kashmiri identity," but that "the
narrative on regional belonging in this period certainly transcended religious
affiliations in expressing a vision of Kashmir as a homeland that had to be
saved from destruction by outsiders...it allowed for an accommodation, not an
erasure, of religious difference." (14 in sourcebook).
Kasmiri identity is not formed by isolation, but by links to outside Hindu,
Muslim cultures. example: Lal Ded, first mystic poet in Kashmir, a female
born in 14th c. She was raised Shaivite Hindu but later converted to Islam.
Now, Hindus and Muslims argue over whom she sided with most. This argument
shows fluctuation, not conglomeration, in the culture. She was against
organized Brahmanism, but believed religious differences mattered. Nund Rishi
(b. 1378) is also claimed by both sides but was firmly Muslim. Proponents of
Kasmiriyat (Kasmiri cultural and religious nationalism) claimed he preached to
blur religious boundaries, but he really promoted strong Muslim beliefs in
Kashmiri vernacular language. This is his main contribution to Kashmiri
culture, and while valuable to the region, is strictly Islamic. Lal Ded also
pioneered vernacular language, which originated not in central courts, but
through these authors. While Nund's language is unique, Kashmiri Islam is
universal and in tune with other forms of Islam.
Persian was still an important language here, among rulers and elite. Diversity
of languages, but no common religion.
The era of Mughal domination is called "the beginning of the end" of Kashmiri
freedom. Yaqub Khan, the Persian leader of Kashmir, was conquered by the
Mughals in 1586 and they tayed in control till 1758. However, the Mughals
received much attention from the emperors, who admired the area's natural
beauty and listened carefully to Kashmiri complaints to ensure justice there.
During this time, Kashmiri literature grew through contacts with Delhi and
Persia. The Mughal courts sent many poets to describe its beauty, and
Kashmiris wrote narrative epics for the emperor. Mughals apprecaited the
people with the land, and Kashmiri voices were heard in literature. Poets like
Hubbi (1556-1617) also described Hinu (pandit)-Muslim strife in the area,
disproving notions of constant harmony. Most importantly, Akbar commissioned
histories of Kashmir from both Hindus and Muslims there, written in Persian.
Very important in building region identity.
With Mughal decentralization, the Afghans took over in 1752 and ruled
tyrannically. Heavy taxes and plunder ruined the economy, leading to miserable
times. All religious groups were harmed, leading Kashmiri writers to write
forceful laments and hark back to brighter times in their past. Kashmir lacked
Bayly's criteria for patriotism, but they had a common enemy (Afghans) and
common problems.
Sikhs took over in 1819, and brought more misery. Their Hindu beliefs banned
cattle slaughter and banished Muslim public prayer and took over mosques,
persecuting the Muslim majority. Still, the economy grew much, with new
organization introduced. Europe would villify the Sikhs for jealousy of this
prosperity. Kashmiri articulation of belonging to the homeland grew during
this time. Literature here focused on Muslim elites (pirs) who fleeced the
public and kept them ignorant, conspiring with the foreign rulers in the name
of faith. The 1846 Treaty of Amritsar led to Dogra rule here until 1947.
Under Gulab Singh, the first ruler, Kashmir was not at the edge of empire but
was the center of the Dogra dynasty. The Dogras were under British control, so
Kashmir was under double rule, and could complain to no one. Singh led by Hindu
ideals and brutally centralized the area, liquidating Galawan nomads and
monopolizing rice. Now, Pro-Hindu, anti-Muslim law took over, and historians
say Kashmiriyat led to unified resistance against Dogras. This is untrue, but
many Hindu poets, like Parmanand (d. 1880) urged Kashmiri unity and harmony
during strict rule. All in all, the idea of ancient, unchanged Kashmiri unity
is a nationalist myth, dispelled by religious conflict and changing literature
through centuries of change and upheaval.
Military fiscalism: System in which the cost of military protection becomes a
government's main burden. France and Britain used this to gain influence in
India. The post-Mughal successor states fought many wars over scarce resources
in the wake of decentralization, and so outside help was often welcomed. The
process involved these Euro powers offering their military protection to
post-Mughal successor states in return for tribute or land revenue. Often, the
heavy cost of this protection led rulers to great debt and loss of power. These
rulers had sought greater control over the wealthy merchant classes as they
gained power and centralized, to the merchants' chagrin. The merchants
welcomed the Company's influence as a way to leverage power from their
oppressive rulers, and so bankers and merchants conspired with the Company to
drive rulers into "debt traps," often so deep they had to cede power to the
Company. This occurred when Siraj-ud-daula, ruler of Bengal, sought to control
bankers there in 1750s. His raid on British Calcutta led to Battle of Plassey
in 1757, when a vast conspiracy led the ruler to defeat. Here, the bankers and
the Company conspired to take over Bengal, with the Company gaining control of
all land and revenues, and the merchants being assimilated into the Company.
Also, Arcot was totally consumed by the Company in 1800 after collapsing into
debt the same way.
Sometimes, the protection offered was not enough against strong independent
states, but these stronger ones were eventually crushed, like Mysore in 1799.
Growing Company military power led to greater costs, which were defrayed by
conquering more territory, but this was a precarious balance, and times of debt
led to reform, like the impeachment of Governor Warren Hastings, who was
acquitted in 1790s.
Asoka: Emperor of the Maurya Empire from 268-231BC. His ancestors' and his
vast conquests and strong centralization led to the first huge empire over most
of the subcontinent. His bloody battles led to expansion; in the middle of one
battle he is said to have been horrified and converted to Buddhism, after which
he spread Buddhism throughout the empire. He sought internal peace and
religious freedom, following Gautama Buddha's teachings. We read his edicts in
section, in which he is paternalistic about teaching peace, humility, and
Buddhism. He is the first great Indian emperor, often compared to Akbar, the
Mughal champion of religious freedom, and held as a historical benchmark for
other leaders.
TODD
Akbar—
Reigning from 1556 to 1605, he was known as the greatest of the Mughal emperors. In
1572 he launched a military campaign against Gujarat, and in 1574 he launched a
campaign against Bengal, which gave the Mughals control over incredibly rich
agricultural and commercial lands. Akbar also launched campaigns in Kabul in 1581,
Kashmir in 1586, Orissa in 1592, and Baluchistan in 1595. Akbar was very aware of the
fact that the majority of his subjects were non-Muslim, and therefore Akbar devised his
policies with a mind to be both tolerant of non-Muslim religions and acknowledge the
needs of Indian culture. Akbar set up a somewhat decentralized political system in which
a network of mansabdars—local nobles who held a rank of a certain number of men—
administered the Empire on a local level; Akbar had several Hindus in the highest ranks
of mansabdars. Akbar did away with the jizya, which was a tax forced on non-Muslims in
Muslim states. Akbar also substituted the Muslim lunar calendar with the solar calendar
to conform to the needs of Indian agrarian culture. His son and successor was Jahangir,
who ruled from 1605 to 1627.
Din-e-Ilahi—
Literally “The Divine Faith,” Akbar’s personal religious beliefs, which drew on mystical
elements of Islam and Hinduism and was also profoundly influenced by Zoroastrianism.
He announced his devotion to these beliefs in 1582. Akbar did not try to impose Din-eIlahi on the people of the Mughal state. Din-e-Ilahi was a cult which revolved around the
emperor’s personality, and even at its height it only had eighteen followers at the royal
court.
Aurangzeb—
Ruled the Mughal Empire from 1658 to 1707. Aurangzeb was Shah Jahan’s successor.
Like Akbar, Aurangzeb was also a great military campaigner; during his reign, in the
1690s, the Mughal Empire could claim the most territory that it would ever have. He was
more ideologically rigid than Akbar; he reimposed the jizya and switched the solar
calendar back to the lunar calendar. Still, even at the end of Aurangzeb’s rule, almost a
quarter of the mansabars were Hindus. His death in 1707 is seen to mark the division
between the era of the great Mughals and the era of the lesser Mughals.
Shivaji—
A Maratha leader who resisted Aurangzeb’s attempted Deccan conquests. Shivaji did not
want to become part of the Mughal system. Aurangzeb’s Deccan wars were economically
quite expensive.
Robert Clive/Battle of Plassey—
Robert Clive was a general in the British East India’s company’s army. He is famous
primarily for his involvement in the Battle of Plassey. After the nawab Siraj-ud-daula
decisively defeated the British army in Calcutta in 1756, the Brits sent soldiers from
Madras to Calcutta, under the guidance of Clive. Clive then enlisted the help of the
merchant bankers Jagat Seth and Omichand, as well as with the nawab’s disaffected
general, Mir Jaffar. At the battle of Plassey, which took place in a mango grove, Clive’s
army defeated the small forces led by Mohan Lal and Mir Madan, while Mir Jaffar’s
army looked on. The nawab Siraj-ud-daula was killed, and Mir Jaffar became the puppet
nawab. As a result of the Battle of Plassey, Clive amassed 3 million pounds sterling, half
of which was to be paid by Jagat Seth and the other half was to be paid by the nawab in
the future. The company also received the revenues of the 24-Parganas, south of
Calcutta.
Susanne Rudolph, “State Formation in Asia”—
Susanne Rudolph’s article examines the ways in which European thinkers have analyzed
Asian states by using European constructs that cannot adequately do justice to those
Asian states. Specifically, Rudolph argues that the concept of “Oriental Despotism” is
often misapplied to Asian states. Rudolph defines “Oriental Despotism” as such:
“The gross heuristic form of Oriental despotism encompasses five related elements: first, the allempowered state…second, the passive, localized, parochial society unempowered by property or
ideas of entitlements…third, an absence of intermediary groups…fourth, the whole overlaid with
the whimsical arbitrariness that was the defining feature of what Weber called Sultanism…fifth,
the servile subject” (Rudolph 737).
Rudolph claims that Europeans apply the “Oriental Despotism” model to Asian states by
reasoning backward from 20th-century totalitarianism; this is a flawed method of analysis,
since that model suggests a degree of control that was simply not possible due to the
technologies of the time and the extent of the states. There was no such “monopoly of
force” (Rudolph 738). Rather, the Asian states were characterized more by ritual
sovereignty, in which “cultural activities, symbols, and processes that in the absence of
instrumental mechanisms nevertheless create a domain, a realm” (Rudolph 740).
PARVINDER
* Amartya Sen, "East and West: The Reach of Reason";
-Akbar argued that morality can be guided by critical reasoning....we must
not make reasoning subordinate to religious command or rely on "the marshy
land of tradition"
-reason helps us to transcend ideology and blind belief
-possibility of reasoning allows for hope and confidence in our world
-the belief that reasoning is limited by cultural differences is wrong:
the central issue is not how dissimilar distinct societies are, but
what ability and opportunity the members of one society have -- or can
develop -- to appreciate and understand how others function
when looking at the ideas of specifically western values, reason, etc.
one must take into consideration the dominance of contemporary western
culture over our perceptions and readings of the past
Evidence that india had similarities to the west in these areas:
Ashoka, tolerance
Sanskrit and Pali have the most agnostic and atheistic literature
The westernd dominance ideas neglect nonrelgious writings and
contributions (math, science, astronomy, etc)-this theory
emphasizes selective differences
Akbar-relgious tolerance and indian secularism
Akbar, Akbar, Akbar!!!
Ram Mohan Roy, Sati
Ram Mohan Roy was a westernized anglophile who started the Brahmo Samaj.
He believed that the practice of sati (the idea of a virtuous woman as one
who immolates herself on the funeral pyre of her husband) was not a part
of high hindu philosophy but rather a regional practice. Because of this,
Roy argued that it was right for the British to interfere with the
practice of Sati.
Bahadur Shah Zafar, 1857
Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last of the Mughal emperors. In 1857 a
variety of rebellions took place including the sepoy rebellion. The
mutineers in this case went to Delhi and installed Zafar as the symbolic
head of the revolt.
Saiyid Ahmad Khan, Aligarh
"A reform-oriented current within Indian Islam was led by Saiyid Ahmed
Khan, who sought to alter British conceptions about inherent Muslim
disloyalty and urgeed his co-religionists to accept Western education but
not necessarily all its ideals.....he established the Aligarh
Anglo-Muhammadan Oriental college...which still jealously guarded
tradition and personal law"
KAMILKA
* Bose & Jalal (45-77);
Chapter 6: The Transition to Colonialism
 Mid eighteenth century dismantling of the Mughal state system  replacement by
British dominion. This started with British conquest of Bengal (1750s) and
completed after annexation of Awadh (1856)
 Organized resistance to British from “warrior states”: Mysore, Marathas
and Sikhs. Collaboration by Indian social groups: eg: merchant capitalists
like Jagath Seths and Omichands
 Why European expansion at this time?
- Indian textiles a primary trade good
- Paid for in imported silver this was severely criticized in Europe
- Access to and control of Indian revenues would help solve the problem
- Internal situation of Indian politics and economic conditions also conducive to
British intervention
Eg: withdrawal of support towards state by financial magnates (why? Because
some powerful regional states tried to extract additional revenue from
merchants a policy called “military fiscalism”)
Large involvement of company servants in internal trade helped forge bonds b/w
merchant banks and Company
 Bengal in 1757: important breakthrough for British.
Siraj-ud-daula becomes Nawab of Bengal in 1756 and tries to end the building of
British fortifications in Calcutta, demands more money from the merchant banks and
raises taxes on rural elite they revolt and help the British.
 Battle of Plassey: 1757
 Colonel Robert Clive, joins with merchant bankers: Jagath Seths and Omichand
and replaces Siraj with Mir Jaffar.
 Another Bengal nawab- Mir Kassim tries to stop British expansion and builds a
defense in Bihar English don’t like this Battle of Buxar in 1764 last
organized resistance to British rule in eastern India 1765 British granted
rights to “diwani” of Bengal by Mughal emperor.
 This pattern repeated all over India British colonial conquest progresses with
the cooperation of intermediate Indian social groups ie: merchant bankers
 Example of the breakdown of the subsidiary alliance (ie: state pays
tribute/subsidy in return for protection from rivals) State of Awadh
 Awadh: in 1765 agreed to pay subsidy in return for protection  fell into debt
trying to pay the subsidy alienation of local population annexation of the
western territories by British in 1800
 Mysore: Tipu Sultan. Resisted the British till 1799
 1803 British take Delhi
 1818 Marathas defeated
 1842 Sind state annexed
 1849 Sikhs (state of Punjab) defeated British were aided in this by Gulab Singh
who was rewarded with the rule of Kashmir via the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846
 1856 state of Awadh annexed
Chapter 7: The first century of British rule


1757 onwards, character of East India Company changes used to draw profits
from oceanic trade, now focus on land revenues from India
the Colonial state brought major changes in economy and society
 Hallmarks of the early colonial state:
1) Military despotism
- European core army and Indian ‘sepoys’: essentially a predominantly mercenary
army
- One of the largest standing armies in the world at the time, first time in India
2) Centralized civilian bureaucracy
- Formal authority over Indian affairs held by court of directors in London, but
actual daily management in governor-generals hands
- Colonial bureaucracy becomes more racially exclusive in Wellesley’s time (17981805)
- Dominance over remaining regional kingdoms “Indian princely states”: eg,
restricting such regions from having bilateral agreements with one another
3) Allegations of corruption
- eg: impeachment of Warren Hastings, first governor-general
 Concerns of the colonial (company) state
1) Ensuring the security and stability of land revenue
- Eg: through the “Permanent Settlement of 1793”: private property right in
revenue collection was assigned to the zamindars of Bengal.
- 1757-1810 “straightforward plunder of India’s revenues” by 1818 (at the time
of defeat of the Maratha, Company revenues were approx 22 million pounds)
2) Dealing with criticism from the newly emergent European industrialist
capitalist class who opposed the Company monopoly in Asian trade
- Charter Act in 1813 ends Company monopoly of trade w/ India
- Company forced production of indigo to export to meet the requirement of
remittances to the British government and established a government monopoly
over opium production in India used opium to finance China tea trade.
- Indigo market was very volatile and subject to fluctuating price and Indian
peasants in some states like Bengal, rebelled against the imposition of indigo
cultivation eg: “Blue Mutiny” in Bengal from 1859-60
- Idea of ‘private property’ and restricted mobility of peasant workforce comes into
play on a national scale for the first time in Indian history
3) Retention of some of the ceremonial trappings of pre-colonial state ideology
- eg: Mughal emperor still treated with nominal respect
- coins bearing emperor’s profile
- Persian as official language of govt till 1835
- Aspects of Mughal legal system retained
(all this done to minimize adverse social reactions)
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Abolition of sati in 1829 was a departure from the Company policy of noninterference in the religious practices of Indians
But also reverted to rigid varna-defined caste system
Company’s orientalist scholars also gave greater importance to doctrinal Islam
over the Indian ‘version’ of Islam which was combined with local customary
practices.
Later efforts to tone down harshness of political economy low revenue rates
and public investments in agriculture in Punjab and Sind
1850’s onwards ‘classic colonization’ ie: exports of agricultural raw
materials and imports of British manufactured goods
Dalhousie- governor general introduces railways, telegraphs and postal system
Chapter 8: Company Raj and Indian Society
Early nineteenth century perceptions of the impact of Europeans on Indian society:
1) Belief that free trade would force Indian society and economy out of perceived
insularity and immobility
2) Belief that ideology of utilitarianism through good laws would take away
backward, evil Indian social customs
3) Belief that evangelism would overpower established Indian religions like
Hinduism and Islam and would “Christianize” Indians
Present (revisionist) historians don’t agree to the above.
They think that, instead of westernizing or modernizing India, the British ‘invented
and consolidated the traditional India of peasant and Brahmin”
Settled (sedentary) Indian village community fashioned under colonialism British
instituted Brahmin dominated caste hierarchy and rigidity this was there in theory but
rarely practiced before the Brits Why do this? Because the British wanted social
stability and order and this was the easiest way of doing it.
BUT. Bose and Jalal say that either extreme of historiographic thinking is
dangerous and inaccurate. They suggest that the British did not entirely transform or
create anything.
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Eg: the British helped consolidate Indian peasantry and Brahman status Bose
and Jalal think they were “reinventing rather than inventing tradition (the
revisionist historians think the British ‘invented” this phenomenon)and speeding
up processes already in motion since the eighteenth century”
Late eighteenth century economic plunder and military aggression
Early nineteenth century social intervention by conquerors with ideas of racial
superiority (eg: Wellesley and Bentinck)
Two types of social change
1) Rural interior (selective support to certain Indian traditions in the
countryside)
- Great alteration of physical environment
- Pre-colonization little interest in forest and pastoral land, focus on agriculture ,
no clear conceptual difference b/w the two
- After colonization forests separately defined from agricultural land large
scale deforestation climate change, disruption of tribal lands, advent of money
into tribal economies
- Also invasion of nomadic and pastoral economy(eg: Gujars, Bhattis, Mewatis)
- Major example of the subduing of nomadic groups British military officer,
William Sleeman subdues wandering group called “Thugs”, a supposedly
organized cult of Kali-worshipping highway robbers who were alleged to
have killed a million people in the early 19th cent.
- This subduing of nomadic groups helped consolidate notions of settled peasantry
-
Brits also supported principles of hierarchy and ritual distinction, with favor to the
Brahmins as a way to consolidate a settled, non wandering peasant population
2) Urban centers (more scope for and focus on rationalism)
- ideological currents of science and reason in urban centers
- Hindu College, first English-language higher educational institution established
at Indian initiative
- Three responses of Calcutta society to Western education and culture
1) The Young Bengal group at Hindu College most enthusiastic adopters
of Western attitudes conservative reaction against Young Bengal group
headed by Dharma Sabha
2) Dharma Sabha was a society that petitioned against Bentinck’s abolition
of sati (on the principle that the Brits should not interfere w/ local
customs) Dharma Sabha opposed Brit legal interference in Indian social
customs, DS headed by Radha Kanta Deb and Ranmohun Roy Ran.
Roy tried to adapt the best of both Indian and Western learning aimed at
regeneration of Indian society and culture through a process of reform that
would eliminate anachoronisms
3) Ranmohun Roy sets up society called Brahmo Samaj rejects caste and
idolatry and went back to the monotheistic purity of the Upanishads
decried the evangelists but supported the utilitarians Campaigned against
sati in 1818 and defended Bentinck’s 1829 abolition of the practice. Ran.
Roy called for the British to introduce science based education to India

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Bengal Renaissance (1820-1830’s)
Western education through the medium of English instruction seen very
differently
- Indian elites/ educated saw it as a process of ‘self-strengthening” became pronationalist in character
- Colonial attitude shown by Thomas Macaulay “Minute on Education” in
1835 saw Western education as important to “form a class who may be
interpreters b/w us and who we govern…. Indian in blood and color but English
in taste, opinions, morals and intellect”
(Bentinck replaces Persian with English as official language of government in 1835,
at Macaulay’s urging. But Bengali and Urdu still important at lower levels of
administration)
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Change in official language switch by Hindu literates from Persian to English
to find continued employment. Most Muslims remained out of Western
educational attempts.
Muslims, esp ones in urban areas resented imposition of English and responded
enthusiastically to reformist movements seeking internal regeneration of Islam
instead of overt opposition to colonial rule
Muslim reformist movements gain activist profile by early 19th cent. Eg: Shah
Abdul Aziz, Saiyid Ahmed. (Saiyid Ahmed fought a jihad in Punjab b/w 18261831)

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Social resistance was key feature of first century of colonial rule
Company siphoning of land revenues resisted by zamindars and peasants alike
Deforestation resisted by tribal peoples
Free trader industrialists opposed by artisans in towns

Resistance not irrational and sporadic  carefully planned and executed after
other alternatives are exhausted major violent outbreaks of revolt (eg:
Sivaganga revolt in 1800 and Mapilla rebellions on Malabar coast in 1802-1852)
with underlying continuous process of everyday resistance
 Resistance movements in agrarian society before 1860 were communitarian
struggles
(First major exception to this is the Bengal indigo revolt in 1859  this was
strongly class based in composition and ideology)
 Strong tribal resistance to colonial rule
- eg: Bhils in 1820’s, Kols in 1829-1833, most famous one is the Santhal uprising
in 1855-56 on Bengal-Bihar border
 Urban resistance from dispossessed artisan groups (weavers etc) eg: grain
riots in Delhi and Madras called for reinstitution of Mughal law officers
 BUT. These widespread, continuous revolts lacked supra-local
organization and convergence in time qualities that the 1857 uprisings
had
Chapter 9: 1857
Unlike previous revolts 1857 uprisings were “expanded in scale and focused in time”
and incorporated many ‘strands of resistance”
Mainly in north and central Indian heartland
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Year of serious military mutiny and large-scale civilian uprisings
Colonial historians call it the “sepoy mutiny”
Nationalist historians call it the “first war of Indian independence”
1857 confusing
forward looking freedom movement or backward looking restorationist struggle?
Feudal rebellion by landlords or peasant rebellion?
Secular movement or religiously inspired jihad?
Anti-colonial revolt or civil war(resisters vs collaborators)?
Three focal points:
1) Meerut/Delhi
 Colonial army mercenary in nature previous instances of disaffection eg:
dislike of the General Service Enlistment Act of 1856 (required Indian recruits to
serve abroad if needed), also increased recruitment from different castes and
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2)
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regional groups annoyed the traditionally recruited groups, traditional recruiting
groups lost part of pay and prestige and their families were severely taxed
Revolt sparked by cartridges for the new Lee Enfield rifle rumors that
cartridges were smeared in pig and cow fat against religious beliefs of both
Hindus and Muslims soldiers refused to load rifles and were imprisoned this
led their companions of the XI Native Cavalry of Meerut to mutiny on night of
10-11 May 1857
Marched to Delhi and installed Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as symbolic
head of the revolt
Yet focus on Delhi was tactical error; not quick enough to attack British forces
coming from Punjab
Awadh
Deep economic resentments
Broad popular based revolt in urban and rural areas
Collapse of Brit administration and imprisonment of a Brit garrison in Lucknow
Revolt of Awadh subdued in 1858 (critical element of Brit success was the
collaboration from the Bhumihar magnates of Benares who were rivals of the
Rajputs who were revolting in Awadh)
3) Central India
 Rulers and peasants of Maratha territories in revolt
 Rani of Jhansi kingdom annexed by the Brits under Dalhousie in 1853 using
doctrine of lapse (ie: no direct male heir so automatic forfeit to Brits)
 Nana Sahib another Maratha leader

July 1857 revolt by Rohilla Afghan soldiers in Hyderabad, mutinies in garrison
towns in Punjab but Punjab controlled cos of the loyalty of the Sikhs

Wars officially declared over in 1858 (Gov General Canning)

Three mains aspects of revolts: aristocratic, religious and agrarian these
three aspects all linked with patriotism. Also reaction against mid-Victorian
era British racial arrogance
1857 revolt infused with sense of patriotism (mainly regional patriotism),
nationalism and shared objective of ending colonial rule
Also fired by rational commitment to principles of good governance and a
hearkening back to the legitimacy of resurrected 18th cent state system under the
highest sovereignty of the Mughal emperor
But. This had its own problems eg: interstate rivalry that prevented states from
joining forces to beat the Brits (Hyderabad refused to help re-establish Maratha
power)
Religion was also a factor yet this was exaggerated by Brit accounts that seeked
to explain the rebellion as Muslim fanaticism.
So how did religion actually work in revolt?
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thousands of ghazis- “warriors of the faith” (Muslims) fought in revolt
in some towns, there were calls for jihad
but this had its own Shia-Sunni competition
BUT care was taken to build and preserve Hindu-Muslim unity within scope of
revolt (eg: Maulvi of Faizabad’s declaration of jihad stresses the common threat
of the Brits to Hindu and Muslims)
 Agrarian protest was another important component of revolt
(Chief villain seen, in rural areas, as the Brit tax collector)
 Also sense of relative political deprivation
 Agrarian revolts were multi-class in character
 Much more than just a feudal reaction
 Rebellion only hardened racial animosity brutality on both sides long term
mental and psychological wounds
 Cost 50 million pounds to quell the mutiny-revolt
 Abolition of company in 1857 replaced with crown raj expenses of quelling
mutiny included in the debt the crown raj had to pay back to London new
taxation systems installed to help pay debt eg: income tax on wealthier urban
groups for the first time
 Also restructuring of Indian army under the crown raj no upper class recruits
from Northern Indian mostly people from Punjab and Gurkhas from Nepal
ratio of Indian: Brit troops made 2:1 Brit officers in exclusive charge of the
artillerycommunication networks such as railways streamlined to defend
strategically important parts of the Indian empire
 Indian taken under the Crown by proclamation of Queen Victoria in August 1858
 Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India at a durbar in Delhi in 1877
-
Alam and Subrahmanyam “Introduction”- The Mughal State 1526-1750
What was the Mughal state? Lots of contradicting opinions.
Leviathan or paper tiger? Conquest state or proto-national entity? Etc etc
Article addresses the single most active field of research in pre-colonial history- the study
of the Mughal state since foundation by Babur until the close of reign by Muhammad
Shah.
 English East India Company, in the early part of its career, saw itself as a heir to
the Mughal dynasty
Writings on the Mughals are two different types:
1) biased writings of the British and their communalist national partners
2) nationalist reaction by Indian historians
This makes modern Mughal historiography a product of set of “multiple lineages”.
South Asian state-building in general seen from two perspectives:
1) Internal or genealogical perspective- ie building of a state from the raw materials
of earlier, or contemporary but soon defeated regimes that influence the state that
“succeeds”. Suggests making of something not wholly new- but using earlier
structures
2) Comparative or external perspective- places a state within a larger geographical
and synchronic reality.
Eg: how to see the development of the Mughal state in relation to neighbors in the
North and West ie: Safavids and Ottomans and Uzbeks.
Pan-Asian comparisons of states however are rare. In the few instances this has been
done, some key uniting factors, or “structural constants” have been noticed:
1) Islam
2) Lack of some “European” institutions like private property in land
3) The failure to develop indigenous capitalism
Historians have chosen to focus on the structure of states, but might be better to focus on
the process of state building. Also keep in mind that even structural constants had a
evolution over time.
Safavids:
 1501-1720 first ruler is Shah Ismail
 Fundamental tension of this state was the need for Iranian rulers to control the
very elements that brought them to power ie: their Turkish tribal followers
 Unlike Babur, Shah Ismail was seen as semi divine in his own poetry Shah
Ismail sees himself as a mix b/w Ali, Alexander and Jesus
 Most famous ruler is Shah Abbas (1588-1629)
 Four major changes under Abbas1) Sustained attack of Turkish tribesmans powers by creating a third force of
Georgian and Armenian fighting men
2) Reorganization of the land tax system
3) Resettlement of populations
4) Drastic reorganization and state centralization of trade
5) Also shift from the belief in the ‘divine being’ of the ruler
Ottomans:
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Mehmed II (1451-81) consolidates state
Suleyman (1520-66) second wave of colonization
Phase of consolidation takes over a century proper
Long process of decline too
By mid 16th cent Ottoman empire had great diversity of territories rule
based on compromise as much as on force
Mughals:
 Conventional studies focus most on the state as a revenue sponge a fiscal
mechanism
But danger in this is assigning the Mughal state too central a role in all the economic
processes of the period
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Mughal state also seen as a tightly run system a vast, uniform, centralized fiscal
system based on the collection of agrarian revenue also not true often the
state did not have the power to enforce collection of revenues from some areas
Two theories to explain Mughal ‘decline’:
1) Focuses on personalities of rulers, their achievements and their originality bad
ruler, state declines etc
2) Favors looking at decline through institutions rather than caused by individuals
ie: tensions caused by interactions b/w social groups
Also synthetic approach:
Believes that the nature of institutions gives arbitrary and enormous power to a few
individuals who became the fulcra of the system.
Things to make note of:
1) Mughal state not “perfect” uniform system by 1600
2) Incorporation of new regions adjustment to local conditions
In 18th Cent rise of regional states and kingdoms in place of Mughal state
Why?
 Some historians blame the stringent religious policies of Aurangzeb orthodox
Sunnism alienates Hindu regional elites
 Agrarian crisis because of inflation and excessive Mughal coercion etc
 Linguistic tensions Mughal support to Persian alienated the vernacular
languages
But hard to identify a single reason for decline
Regional uprisings eg: Pashtuns  Nadir Shah sacks Delhi in 1739
His successors form Sikh state in North India
Can be seen as redirecting of resources from the center to the marginal areas
Single most important post-Mughal power: The Marathas (strong region based
community identity)
 Vishwanath and Baji Rao I bureaucratize the Maratha state systemize
practice of revenue gathering used methods of the Mughals
 Development of networks of trade, banking and finance in Maratha
 Also maritime affairs developed
Also important regional power: The Sikhs
 By 1708, large threat to Mughal dominance
 Banda Bahadur (originally a Maratha leader), becomes Sikh leader, sets up his
own capital, issues coins and has his own seal like the Mughals
 Kept Mughal bureaucratic practices in place
 Ranjit Singh important Sikh leader head of largest welding together of Sikh
territories
18th cent rise of the regional AND the ethnic state
Note that the decline in political power of the Mughal state cannot be directly linked to
economic decline. Rather, economic reorientation accompanies the political
decentralization of the era
But also, post 1750 regional wars etc are an economic drain on all state resources use
of European firearms, maintenance of standing armies and pay of mercenaries makes war
more expensive
CHELSEA (missing)
ROLAND
Modern South Asia
Pages 78 – 101
(In what follows I have summarized the idea of each paragraph in a sentence but given
that this is the root text for the course and it is filled with important details, I recommend
a thorough reading of this above all else.)
After the mutiny-rebellion in 1857, the British Crown took over, and the crown’s viceroy
took the place of the Companies governor -general. India ran a large trade surplus which
Britain profited by. The British Indian army maintained a high ratio of European to
Indian soldiers: at least 1:2. And they also began a policy setting regional groups against
each other to decrease the possibility of unified revolt. The army fought in many
international struggles – China, Sudan, South Africa, Egypt etc. – and as many as 60,000
Indians lost their lives in Iraq during the first world war. Basically, The British exploited
India economically and militarily for their colonial and imperial program. Indians were
discriminated against in the colonial beaurocracy, allowed to hold only mid-level
positions.
Britain drained the wealth out of India and invested in her other projects instead of India,
Even the railways system, ostensibly for Indian modernization, was designed such that it
could maximize Britain ability to extract wealth and natural resources from India.
Farmers became dependent on cash crops and subject to fluctuation in the world
economy, which led to famines especially among cotton-growers in the 1890’s. While it
isn’t clear whether the British “deindustrialized” the Indian economy, in certain was
disadvantaged in many ways. The demands of Europe were more important than the
needs of the colony.
The crown raj formed alliances with ‘traditional’ princes, who were puppet rulers with no
real authority but legitimized the crown raj and made it unnecessary to make Indians
citizens, since the were subjects of the Empire and the princes. The crown raj also gained
legitimacy by the Indian council Act of 1861, which set up councils with a few
nominated Indian members in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal.
By the end of the nineteenth century, India had been so mal-developed by British colonial
Rule that “famine and pestilence stalked the land” and it was easy for the British to
promulgate their rhetoric of racial superiority. This set the stage for a more decisive form
of national in the Swadeshi movement.
……………..
Rational reform and religious revival both played a role in the development of Indian
nationalisms. The tension between linguistic identity and religious identity was always
informing these emergent nationalisms, and these tensions created, in the context of
opposing British rule, different forms of communalism. The British played up these
differences by legislating minority and majority categories like ‘Indian Muslim”
But it was not just the British against the Indians, or rationality against religion. There
were other internal conflicts between nationalist positions of Indians and a blending of
religious and rational moves toward reform.
Indian intellectuals of this period, Aurobindo Ghose, Rabindranath Tagore, and others,
tried to envisage ways of transforming the political situation which were not just based on
rejecting European modernity and distorting India’s past. Muslim intellectual Saiyad
Ahmed Khan advocated for British education while disagreeing with some Western
ideals. Saiyad had a rational approach to Islamic theology and started Aligarth AngloMuhammadan Oriental College in 1875. Others disagreed with Saiyad positions and
compromises and instead called for Hindu-Muslim alliances against the British.
There were also oppositions based on gender, class, and even tribal uprising, such as that
in 1899 – 1900, led by Bisra Munda.
The early stage of the Indian National congress was moderate. By the 1890, there were
calls for more radical change, from figures like Tilak. These strains were fueled forward
by the extremism of viceroy Curzon’s rule, from 1899 – 1905. He rolled back
concessions and split Bengal across religious lines in 1905. Resistance to partition was
the real “beginning of the Swadeshi movement.” Between 1905 and 1908, the moderates
and extremists found this as a common cause. Strong nationalists included, Lal, Bal, and
Pal, ( Lala Lajpat Rai of the Punjab, Balawantrao Ghangadhar Tilak of Maharashtra and
Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal, as well as figures like Aurobindo Ghose.
The slogan of the nationalist movement was Bande Mataram ( I bow to you, Mother),
which later became problematic because of the religious connotations associated with
Hinduism which alienated Muslims and broke down the sense of a unified front against
the British.
Nationalist movements were also taking place in Punjab and Maharashtra in response to
other British actions. Nationalism focused on differences between India as a nation and
the European conception of nation and modernity, but also built in some concept of the
universality of historical developments. This was the thrust of the reconciliations that
were tentatively forged between religious linguistic identities and conceptions of
nationalisms based on religious revival and rational reform.
Sources of Indian Tradition, Vol 2.
Pages 15 – 35
1. Rammohun Roy: “ Father of Modern India”
Born c. 1774
Pioneered “reforms in religion, morals, journalism, education, the status of women, and
legal and political thought.”
Roy was a Bengali Brahmin, and was educated in Persian and Sanskrit and later studied
English. He continued his education through his early forties, as he acquired land and
eventually by 1815 became wealthy enough to retire and devote himself to his writing.
He was influence by Islam and Christianity, and in his translations of Hindu classics
emphasized monotheism over monism. He founded schools, wrote textbooks, defended
the freedom of the press, and strove for the ideal of liberty in the context of constitutional
constraint. Alienated from many orthodox Hindu, he died in England after a successful
reception there, in 1833, among Unitarian friends.
What follows is a series of brief descriptions of excerpts of his writing:
a) How the British Took Control of India
He argued that the Mughal Empire was terrible dominion and that the British
liberated Indians from its tyranny, bringing wonderful Western values like equal
protection under the law.
b) Autobiographical Remarks
Roy discusses his education and his early opposition to idolatry and what he saw
as lower forms in Hinduism. That situated him well to take up this reconciliatory position
between British influences and aspects of high Hindu culture.
c) “A Precious Gift to those who Believe in One God”
Written in Arabic, this tract reflects the multi-religious strains in Roy’s thinking,
and appears to have been directed to a Muslim audience, advocating tolerance for other
monotheistic faiths and the fact of human error.
d) The Need for a More Humane Morality and a Purer mode of Worship
Emphasizes true religions over idolatry – worshiping one God and treating others
with kindness and justice.
e) The Superiority of the Precepts of Jesus
Emphasizes the morality of Christianity while put aside some of the theological
teachings. “moral doctrines… are beyond the reach of metaphysical perversion”.
f) In Defense of Hindu Women
Roy argues vigorously against the practice of sati and was success in convincing the
British to outlaw the practice. He gives counter-evidence from the Upanishads that shows
the good judgment and capability of women. His arguments are mostly familiar ones
about oppression and underlying equality.
g) For Freedom of the Press
In response to an 1823 ordinance that forced all newspapers to be licensed by the
Company, Roy wrote this article which argues that Company Raj can only be just if it
ensures basic rights, an argument used later by nationalists.
h) A Letter on Education
The letter opposes schools for Sanskrit studies in favor of English education (including
science and so on). The British eventually agree, perhaps for the political reason of
creating a middle class English-speaking Indians like Roy who will more often than not
take up their causes.
i) The Future of India
Talks of the likelihood of nationalism arising, and a struggle with colonial authority,
since even though he is partial to the benefits of British rule, he also is aware that they are
often oblivious to the sentiments of the “Natives” and that India’s independent potential
is in ascendancy.
j) Two Poems
Religious in flavor, but there’s really no point in summarizing poetry for an exam.
Pages 36 – 44.
Leaders of Hindu Reform and Revival
The following series of reformers had a huge influence on attitudes toward Hinduism as a
religion. While some remained orthodox, and others converted to Christianity, these
thinkers straddled the two worlds, taking some elements of Christianity as a defense
against others. They ended up having a huge influence, first through Bramo Samaj, Roy’s
organization, which “purified”, refined, and modernized Hinduism self-conception. Later
arguments became the basis for the conception of Hinduism held by figures like Gandhi
and Tagore. Figures like Sri Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda were also important
in forging Hindu self-identity.
Debendranath Tagore.
1817 – 1905
 continued Brahmo Samaj after Roy’s death
Debendranath focused on many of the same themes as Roy, but also emphasized the
importance of religious intuition. The excerpts focus on his English and Sanskrit
education, his renunciation of his father’s path to wealth, and his struggles with the past
of Brahmanical rituals and the what he saw as the future of Hinduism: a non-idolatrous,
deep monotheistic faith. Finally, he discusses the importance of not attacking those with
different opinions or interpretations than ones own, thus proposing a more moderate path
for Bramo Samaj than Keshub Chunder Sen, who split with Debendranath and took
Bramo samaj into a more extreme direction, eventually leading to its decline.
Pages 177 – 180
This an excerpt from ‘The history of the Indian Mutiny” by Ball, the “Azamgarh
Proclamation” of 1857, which incited rebellion against the British by emphasizing their
oppression and promising good for those who joined the rebellion and punishment,
including confiscation of land and ultimately death for the entire family of those who did
not. Issued by the grandson of the King of Delhi, a descent of Mughal emperors, the King
was soon taken prisoner by the British. It has five parts, addressed respectively to
Zemindars (landlords), Merchants, Public Servants, Artisans, and Religious authorities
and intellectuals.
CHRISTINE
Bose – “Nation as Mother” in Nationalism Democracy and Development
- The idea of nation as mother was deployed by people opposing the British partition
of Bengal and later of India into India and Pakistan.
- The idea was appropriated by Swadeshi leaders (like Bipin Chandra Pal)
- Bose is attempting to interrogate the way that the idea of nation as mother evolved.
- He points out the following:
o The idea is based on a hymn written in the 19th century about Bengal and
only later was deployed to cover all of the subcontinent.
o This is part of a tradtion of nationalist rhetoric that views India as feminine
(Nehru used rape metaphors to describe colonialism). Bose connects this to
other cultural conventions which led to the unequal status of women in India
and Bengal in particular.
o Bose argues that India as mother cannot be divorced from the nationalist
ideology to which it was attached – there is no unified or prior idea among
Indians of India as mother.
o While this nationalist movement tried to separate itself as “authentic” it was
strongly influenced by (perceptually) Western ideas of enlightenment and
rationality.
o The idea of nation as mother left space for other politics – like a class-based
opposition to colonialism
o The idea did not leave space for non-Hindus, Muslims were left out of the
nation as mother rhetoric for the most part which fostered religious animosity
and later allowed the idea of nation as mother to be deployed in the name of
religious intolerance.
Mridu – “The Consolidation of Dogra Legitimacy in Kashmir: Hindu Rulers and a Hindu
State”
- Dogras were the rulers of Kashmir – 1857 marked a turning point for the Dogras
because it helped to create religion as a major divisive issue
- The Dogra attempted to increase legitimacy by becoming Hindu which marginalized
the Muslim majority in Kashmir
- Victoria proclaimed that India would be free in terms of religion, but colonialists
were for the most part convinced that Hindus and Muslims could not live together
peacefully
- In the colonial discourse the Dogras were considered Rajputs which meant that they
had some automatic legitimacy in the eyes of the British – if they could be portrayed
as Hindu rather than Muslim, they would be seen as Native rulers
- Gulab Singh proclaimed in 1846 that they would not interfere with Muslim faith, but
that he would give priority to Hindus.
- Rabir Singh increased Dogra rule over the Hindu temples and often prioritized Hindu
religion at the expense of Muslims. People associated with the state had to be Hindu.
Kashmir became an increasingly hostile place for Muslims as the Dogra rulers
appealed to Hindu and colonial authority inside and outside the state of Jammu and
Kashmir.
ELIZABETH
Chatterjee, Partha, “Whose Imagined Community?,” Nation and its Fragments: Colonial
and Postcolonial Histories
The author begins the article with a description of how awareness of and concern
over nationalism has gone in and out of international political awareness in the last fifty
years. He discusses the negative legacy of nationalism in the international political
consciousness. The author then goes on to offer an explanation for why nationalism
should have this negative legacy, and he says that he believes part of the issue to be that
Europe is, in fact, responsible for the spread and creation of nationalism and the bad
things about it (as evidenced by World Wars I and II). Therefore, he argues, Europeans
have guilty feelings about nationalism and try to make it appear as a Third-World
phenomenon.
Chatterjee then discusses the work from which his article is titled, Benedict
Anderson’s Imagined Communities. Chatterjee writes, “Anderson demonstrated with
much subtlety and originality that nations were not the determinate products of given
sociological conditions such as language or race or religion; they had been, in Europe and
everywhere else in the world, imagined into existence. He also described some of the
major institutional forms through which this imagined community came to acquire
concrete shape, especially the institutions of what he so ingeniously called ‘printcapitalism.’ He then argued that the historical experience of nationalism in Western
Europe, in the Americas, and in Russia had supplied for all subsequent nationalisms a set
of modular forms from which nationalist elites in Asia or Africa had chosen the ones they
liked.”
For the rest of the article, Chatterjee raises his objections with Anderson’s view of
nationalism and proposes his own idea about how nationalism actually affected India,
Bengal especially. He writes, “I have one central objection to Anderson’s argument. If
nationalisms in the rest of the world have to choose their imagined community from
certain ‘modular’ forms already made available to them by Europe and the Americas,
what do they have left to imagine?”
Chatterjee then discusses how nationalism in India was different from how
Anderson described it, saying “In fact, here nationalism launches its most powerful,
creative, and historically significant project: to fashion a ‘modern’ national culture that is
nevertheless not Western. If the nation is an imagined community, then this is where it is
brought into being.” In summary, Chatterjee believes that Indian nationalism was both
a reaction against colonial state intervention in matters affecting ‘national culture’ and
was created within the framework of colonial modernism.
Hay, “Sources”
Rammohun Roy was known for his pioneering reforms in religion, morals,
journalism, education, the status of women, and legal and political thought. He was born
in 1774 in Bengal, a Brahmin of the highest caste. He was the first Indian scholar to
probe deeply into the religious and political foundations of British culture and society.
He came up with reinterpretations of Hindu religious thought.
Hay describes how regional rules contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire
by relying on support from nobles and having no concern for the welfare of the empire.
He then discusses several primary sources by Rammohun Roy .
>”A Precious Gift to Those who Believe in One God”
>”The Need for a More Humane Morality, and a Purer Mode of Worship”
>”The Superiority of the Precepts of Jesus; The Guide to Peace and Happiness”
These constitute Rammohun Roy’s campaign against Sati. He wrote an appeal to
humanitarian standards of justice and mercy and a passionate defense of the rights of
women. He was a proponent of the British Christian influences, but maintained that the
British should not interfere in Indian national traditions. He believed, however, that
conservative Hindu traditions should be reformed.
>”Freedom of the Press” RR wrote that Indian community’s loyalty to the British
East India Company depended upon their enjoyment of civil liberties, especially freedom
of the press.
>”Letter on Education” RR protested a certain school for Sanskrit studies
because he believed it to be backward. He also showed respect and praise for European
educational systems.
>”Future of India” RR predicted the rise of Indian nationalism following the
Colonial Raj
Rammohun Roy wanted Hindu conservatives to reform, but also for the English
to respect the Hindus and their customs.
Hay discusses the Brahmo Samaj, which kept the influence of Rammohun Roy
alive as a spiritual center. It respected the teachings of both Christianity and conservative
Hinduism. Debendranth Tagore was responsible for the upkeep and part of the creation
of the Brahmo Samaj. Debendranth Tagore is known for his writings and musings on the
search for religious certainty. That is, he wished to find absolute facts and truths within
his religion.