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Unit Five:
Industrial America
Laissez-faire: It meant non-governmental interference in business. The doctrine favors
capitalist self-interest, competition, and natural consumer preferences as forces leading to
optimal prosperity and freedom. It began in the late 18th century as a strong liberal
reaction to trade taxation and nationalist governmental control known as mercantilism.
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations: In The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776,
Adam Smith believed that self-interest was an "invisible hand in the marketplace,
automatically regulating the supply of and demand for goods and services." He endorsed
a laissez-faire approach to economics and was the first to define the system of capitalism.
Andrew Carnegie: Carnegie decided to build his own steel mill in 1870. His philosophy
was simple: "watch the costs and the profit will take care of themselves." At the age of
33, when he had an annual income of $50,000, he said, "beyond this never earn, make no
effort to increase fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes."
UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD, CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD: The Pacific
Railroad Act of 1862 had authorized the construction of the transcontinental railroad. The
Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads were joined together to form the first
transcontinental railroad in May 1869 when railroad executives drove a golden spike into
the ground at Promontory Point, Utah in order to connect the two. It allowed Americans
to travel from coast to coast in a week; it had previously taken several months to do so.
"Robber Barrons": Known as the great captains of industy and as robber barons who
lined their pockets, these captains, or villains, of industry made their money by
manipulating the stock markets and company policies. Some of these Robber Barrons
were Jay Gould, Hill, and John D. Rockefeller.
John D. Rockefeller: He is famous for his Standard Oil Company. He had a desire for
cost cutting and efficiency. Rockefeller helped form the South Improvement Company in
early 1872, which was an association of the largest oil refiners in Cleveland, and he
arranged with the railroads to obtain substantial rebates on shipments by members of the
association.
Standard Oil Company: The Standard Oil Company was organized in 1870 by
Rockefeller, his brother William, and several associates. In 1882 Rockefeller formed the
Standard Oil Trust. This, the first corporate trust, was declared an illegal monopoly and
ordered dissolved by the Ohio Supreme Court in 1892.
Horizontal consolidation: Within three years, the Standard Oil Trust had consolidated
crude oil by buying throughout its member firms. It had slashed the number of refineries
in half. Rockefeller integrated the petroleum industry horizontally by merging the
competing oil companies into one giant system.
Vertical consolidation: The Standard Oil Trust had consolidated crude-oil buying
throughout it members firms and slashed the number of refineries in half. Rockefeller
integrated the petroleum industry vertically by controlling every function from
production to local retailing. He controlled all aspects of manufacturing from mining to
selling.
Thomas A. Edison: He epitomized the inventive impulse. An American inventor, his
development of a practical electric light bulb, electric generating system, sound-recording
device, and motion picture projector had advanced the life of modern society. He shared
the same dream as Carnegie to interconnect industry system with technology.
Alexander Graham Bell: An American inventor and teacher of the deaf, he was most
famous for his invention of the telephone. Since the age of 18, Bell had been working on
the idea of transmitting speech. He was one of the cofounders of the National Geographic
Society, and he served as its president from 1896 to 1904. He also founded the journal
Science in 1883. His other inventions includes the induction balance, audiometer, and the
first was recording cylinder introduced in 1885.
Cornelius Vanderbilt: An American industrialist and philanthropist, he became
associated with the New York and Harlem Railroad in 1867, and became president in
1886. At the same time he began to act as head of the Vanderbilt family. He founded the
Vanderbilt University.
Bessemer process: The process consisted of a shot of air blasted through an enormous
crucible of molten iron to burn off carbon and impurities. This new technology,
combined with cost analysis, provided a learning railroad experience for Carnegie. The
bessemer invention offered a means of driving up profits, lowering cost, and improving
efficiency.
Pool, Trust: Competition became so vicious that railroads tried to end it by establishing
pools in order to divide the traffic equally and to charge similar rates. The pool lacked
legal status, while the trust was a legal device that centralized control over a number of
different companies by setting up a board of trustees to run all of them.
Rebates: A rebate is a partial monetary return of an amount paid. The Interstate
Commerce Act prohibited rebates for railway rates because they discriminated between
different groups. Small farmers were angered that they were required to pay more than
other interests were. This Act was passed in 1887 with the Interstate Commerce
Commission.
Depression of 1873: Early in Grant’s second term, the country was hit by an economic
depression known as the panic of 1873. Brought on by over expansive tendencies of
railroad builders and businessmen during the immediate postwar boom, the Panic was
triggered by economic downturns in Europe and by the failure of Jay Cooke’s bank.
Holding Companies: A holding company is a corporation that owns a controlling share
of the stock of one or more other firms. When Standard Oil faced the problem of antitrust
suits in 1892, lawyers invoked New Jersey law that allowed permitted corporations to
own property in other states by simply reorganizing the trust as an enormous holding
company.
Fourteenth Amendment’s "due process clause": The fourteenth amendment declared
in its first clause that all person born or naturalized in the United States were recognized
as citizens of the nation and as citizens of their states and that no state could abridge their
rights without due process of law or deny them equal protection of the law.
INTERSTATE COMMERCE ACT, INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION:
The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was passed to provide that a commission be
established to oversee fair and just railway rates, prohibit rebates, end discriminatory
practices, and require annual reports and financial statements. The act established a new
agncy, the Interstate Commerce Commission, which allowed the government to
investigate and oversee railroad activities.
Long haul, short haul: It was cheaper to ship a long haul on the railroads than it was to
ship a short haul. Small farmers were angered that they, who made many short hauls,
were discriminated against. In the 1870s, many state legislatures, outlawed rate
discrimination as a result of protests led by the Grangers.
SHERMAN ANTITRUST ACT, 1890: Fearing that the trusts would stamp out all
competition, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, which outlawed trusts
and other restraints of trade. Violators were fined up to five thousand dollars and one year
in prison. The Sherman Antitrust act failed to define either trust or restraint of trade
clearly. As a result, between 1890 and 1904, the government prosecuted only eighteen
antitrust suits, and it was instead used to hinder the efforts of labor unions who acted "in
restraint of trade."
New South, Henry Grady: Henry Grady was a U.S. journalist and orator born in
Athens, Georgia. He bought share in Atlantic Constitution in 1879. As editor, he did
much to restore friendly relations between the North and South during a period of bitter
hatred and conflict. He often lectured on the concept of "The New South," which referred
to a rejuvenated south.
The Growth Of Labor
KNIGHTS OF LABOR, URIAH STEPHENS, TERRENCE POWDERLY: The
Knights of labor dreamed of a national labor movement. This organization was founded
in Philadelphia in 1869, and was led by Uriah Stephens, who was also the head of the
Garment Cutters of Philadelphia. They welcomed all wage earners, and demanded equal
pay for women, an end to child and convict labor, and cooperative employer-employee
ownership. In their organization, they excluded bankers, lawyers, professional gambler,
and liquor dealers.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR (AFL): Confronted by big business,
Samuel Gompers and Adolph Strasser put together a combination of national crafts
unions to represent the material interests of labor in the matter of wages, hours, and
safety precautions. They demanded bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations
such as railroads, mining, and manufacturing. They did not intend to have a violent
revolution nor political radicalism.
Samuel Gompers: An American labor leader, he, as president of the American
Federation of Labor (AFL), stressed cooperation between management and labor instead
of strike actions, as a means of obtaining labor demands. He led the AFL for forty years,
until his death in 1924.
Collective bargaining: The major function of unions is collective bargaining, a process
by which unions and employers negotiate terms of employment. The terms are set forth
in a written agreement that the union and the employer promise to enforce. The AFL
demanded collective bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations.
Injunction: An injuntion is a court order. It was generally used against strikers. It is an
order or decree in the law of equity, requiring a defendant to refrain from committing a
specific act, either in process or threatened, injurious to the plaintiff. Injunctions are
generally preventive, restraining, or prohibitory in nature.
Pinkertons: They were a group in Allan Pinkerton’s organization, the National Detective
Agency. They often spied on the unions for the companies. In 1877, when a railroad
strike broke out, they were called in as strikebreakers. In the Homestead Strike, the
Pinkertons fired on the strikers, killing many of them.
Closed Shop: The closed shop is an agreement between a trade union and an employer
which is a collective bargain. It provides that employees in the bargaining unit shall be
union members and remain in good standing in the union as a condition of employment.
Many of these shops were banned by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947.
Blacklist, Yellow Dog Contracts: With the formation of labor unions, workers began to
strike to obtain better conditions. However, employers blacklisted employees that went
on strike, which which made getting another job later much harder. They also made
employees sign yellow dog contracts, which forced the employee to agree not to strike or
join a union.
Company Union: First adapted by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in 1915, it was
a company-sponsored labor union that was dominated by the management. The workers
wanted unions, and they got them, but they were controlled by the management, so the
company had the final word on the labor policy.
Great Railroad Strike, 1877: A group of railroad workers on the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad rose up and began to strike due to wage cuts. This spread up and down the
railroad line across the nation. Railroad roadhouse were torched. President Rutherford B.
Hayes sent in troops to stop the strike. 100 people died in the strike.
 haymarket
square riot: Strikers and police had a confrontation while a strike was in
progress on May 4, 1886, at the McCormick reaper works in Chicago. Several protesters
were shot by police the day before, and a protest against police violence was called. The
police were attempting to break up the meeting when a bomb was thrown by a protester.
A violent gun battle ensuedin which seven police were killed. Many police and civilians
were injured as well.
Homestead Strike: Called in 1892 by the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and
Tin Workers, it was one of the most violent strikes in U.S. history. It was against the
Homestead Steel Works, which was part of the Carnegie Steel Company, in Pennsylvania
in retaliation against wage cuts. On July 6, company guards and Pinkertons opened fire
on the strikers after four months of striking, killing and wounding many strikers. The
state militia dispersed the strikers.
American Railway Union: Created by Eugene V. Debs, it was a union created in a
short-lived attempt to bring all of the railroad workers into one organization. This union
was a precursor of the union movement that followed in the 1930s. The union was
involved in the 1894 Pullman Strike.
Pullman Strike: The American Railway Union and Eugene V. Debs led a nonviolent
strike which brought about a shut down of western railroads, which took place against the
Pullman Palace Car Company in Chicago in 1894, because of the poor wages of the
Pullman workers. President Grover Cleveland interfered and stopped the strike by saying
that they had interfered with the right of the government to maintain the uninterrupted
transport of mail. Debs was arrested and the strike was broken up.
Eugene V. Debs: As the president and the organizer of the American Railway Union, he
helped bring about the shut down of western railroads with the 1894 Pullman Strike. He
was arrested for these actions. He also helped organize the Social Democrat party in
1897, after meeting socialist Victor Berger. He was the party’s presidential candidate five
times: in 1900, 1904, 1908, and 1912. He later became a lecturer and organizer for the
Socialist movement.
Chapter 21
Gilded Age Politics
PENDLETON CIVIL SERVICE ACT: Because of the Pendleton Civil Service Act,
political candidates were forbidden from soliciting contributions from government
workers. This act also set up a civil service commission to prepare competitive exams
and establish standards of merit for a variety of federal jobs. In 1883, Congress enacted a
civil service law introduced by Senator George Pendleton of Ohio. Although President
Arthur was a Stalwart, he had the courage to endorse the act which reformed the spoils
system.
Chester A. Arthur: He became president after the assassination of Garfield. This 21st
president, who served from 1881 to 1885, rose above the political corruption prevalent
during the times and headed a reform-oriented administration that enacted the first
comprehensive U.S. civil service legislation. He supported the passage of the Pendleton
Act in 1883.
"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion": At a rally on election eve, a clergyman denounced
the Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion." Blaine failed to
repudiate the remark and the Democrats widely publicized this insult to Catholics,
drinkers and patriotic Democrats. Blaine’s mistake allowed Cleveland to obtain New
York’s electoral votes.
High Tariffs: Republicans preferred high tariffs, while Democrats preferred low ones.
Cleveland supported low tariffs. The Dingley tariff of 1879 increased rates to an all-time
high levels while the Currency Act of 1900 officially changed the U.S. gold standard.
The Wilson-Gorman Protective Tariff also unsuccessfully attempted to create an income
tax.
Secret ballot: Between 1888 and 1896, 90% of all the states were convinced to adopt a
new ballot like the one in Australia, which was a method of voting that listed voter
options. This was a Populist goal articulated in the Omaha Platform. The paper ballot
emerged as a dominant voting method. The secret ballot is also known as the Australian
ballot.
Presidential Succession Act of 1886: This act determined that if both the President of
the United States and the Vice President both died or if they were both disqualified, there
would be a line of succession. The line started with first the president pro tempore,
secretary of state, secretary of treasury, secretary of defense, and continued.
Election of 1888, candidates, issues: Because Blaine decided not to run, the
Republicans turned to Benjamin Harrison. Republican focused on the tariff issue. The
Republicans falsely portrayed the Democrats as advocates of "free trade," which many
felt would have horrible consequences. Harrison won in the electoral college by defeating
Grover Cleveland.
Benjamin Harrison, Billion dollar congress, Czar Reed: Harrison quickly rewarded
his supporters. He appointed a past GAR commander as commissioner of pension. In
1890, Harrison signed the pension bill that Cleveland had earlier vetoed. The Republican
Congress of 1890 became known as the Billion-dollar Congress.
McKinley Tariff: His administration enacted a higher tariff in 1897 and committed the
country to the gold standard in 1900. It generally promoted business confidence.
Probably in part because of these policies, the economy recovered from a severe
depression, and the Republicans became identified with economic prosperity.
Election of 1892: The Republicans re-nominated Harrison, while the Democrats turned
to Grover Cleveland who was a Conservative. The Populists nominated James B Weaver
who did not did better than expected. Voters generally reacted against the high McKinley
Tariff. Cleveland’s conservative economic policies brought him support, and he won the
election.
Gold Standard Act, 1900: This act officially put the United States on the gold standard.
It was passed by William McKinley’s administration during a time when both the House
of Representatives and the Senate were dominated by Republicans. Subsequent to this
act, the U.S. went on and off the gold standard several times and abandoned it in 1971.
Urbanization
"Honest Graft": This term, created by George Washington Plunkitt, referred to the
police corruption that took place in the Tammany Hall political machine. The practices
included paying bribes to make an individual a police officer, to get him a promotion, or
to get him to the position of a sergeant.
Boss Tweed: He was an important figure in New York’s political machine, the Tammany
Society. He held New York City and state political posts where he increased his power.
Forming the Tweed Ring, which bought votes, he controlled New York politics, and
encouraged judicial corruption.
TAMMANY HALL: Founded by anti-federalist William Mooney, it is the name for the
New York Democratic party machine, also known as the Tammany Society, whose
supposed goal was to preserve democratic institutions. However, Tammany Hall gained a
great reputation for its corrupt practices, and was opposed by reform groups. It began to
gain power with the rise of Boss Tweed in 1868. Its leader, Alfred E. Smith, ran for
president of the United States.
Thomas Nast: A political cartoonist and caricaturist, he became an illustrator for Frank
Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper in 1855. He later worked for Harper’s Weekly. He was
best known for his cartoons slandering the corrupt Tammany ring of New York during
the period from 1869 to 1872.
Streetcar Suburbs: The creation of electric streetcar systems allowed families to move
farther from the city’s center. Streetcar companies purchased land on the city’s periphery
and made tremendous profits on the sale of the real estate. The streetcar system allowed
people to live farther away from their work. This facilitated the move away from the
city’s center.
Tenements: Built by a landlord, tenements were small housing units that were extremely
overcrowded, poorly built, and that contained filth. There was a lack of fresh air and light
in these housing units, and in addition, they were inhabited mainly by new immigrants.
The worst tenements became known as slums.
Frank Lloyd Wright: Wright was one of the greatest twentieth-century architect and is
cosidered a pioneer of the modern style. He began as a designer for the Adler Sullivan
firm, and he introduced many innovations, including double-glass windows, metal
furniture, and air conditioning. He created the philosophy of "Organic Architecture."
Ashcan School: This school contained a group of painters, known as The Eight, who
exhibited their style together as a group in 1908. Led by Robert Henri, the Ashcan School
focused on more contemporary subjects, rather than on the academic and impressionist
styles of the 19th century.
Anthony Comstock: Comstock was a reformer, who helped organize the New York
Society for the Suppression of Vice in 1873, of which he became secretary. He was also
influential in the passage by Congress of the 1873 law concerned with obscenity in the
U.S. mails. It became known as the Comstock Law.
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Riis was a social reformer and writer who wrote
one of the most influential, popular, and early social documentaries in American history.
He wanted to reform tenement housing and schools. In addition, he was influential in
bringing about parks and playgrounds in overcrowded neighborhoods.
From Melting Pot To Salad Bowl
"New Immigration": They were a new group of immigrants coming into the United
States that consisted of Italians, Slavs, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. They came from
both Southern and Eastern Europe, and also from the Middle East. In the 1890s, their
numbers first began to increase, and the numbers continued to increase for the next three
decades. Most of the immigrants came from peasant and poor backgrounds and boosted
America’s foreign-born population by 18 million. They were often discriminated against.
"Old Immigration": This Term applies to those migrating from Western and Eastern
Europe. They were the largest group of immigrants that migrated to the United States.
The largest group of approximately three million, came from Germany in the 1840s and
1850s. Next came the British, Scottish, and Welsh immigrants, which totaled 2 million.
In addition, one and a half million traveled over from Ireland. All of these immigrants
came over in search of jobs and of new economic opportunities.
Literacy tests: Passed by Congress in 1917in order to restrict immigration, the law
enlarged the group of immigrants that could be excluded from the United States. Literacy
tests were imposed on all immigrants, and any immigrant who could not pass the tests
was not allowed entry into the U.S.
Chinese Exclusion Law, 1882: Passed by Congress, it was one of three laws that
attempted to solve the increasing immigration problem. There had also been increasing
labor violence against the Chinese. By this law, immigrants had to be examined, and all
convicts, polygamists, prostitutes, anarchists, persons suffering from loathsome or
contagious diseases, and persons liable to become public disturbances and problems were
all excluded form the U.S.
American Protective Association: Founded by Henry F. Bowers, this was a secret antiCatholic society founded in 1887, in Clinton Iowa. The panic of 1893 greatly increased
its membership, and it supported the Republican Party until it split over the question of
whether or not to support William McKinley. It died in 1911.
"New Imperialism"
Alaska: Secretary of state William H. Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska in 1867.
$7.2 million was paid to Russia for Alaska, and it was highly contested by Congress.
Also known as "Seward’s Icebox" or "Seward’s folly," it was generally thought to be
useless, but later proved to be an excellent addition.
Pan Americanism, James Blaine: In 1881 Secretary of State James G. Blaine advocated
the creation of an International Bureau of American Republics to promote a customs
union of trade and political stability for the Western Hemisphere. The assassination of
Garfield kept Blaine from his organization until 1889.
Port of Pago Pago: Restless stirrings in America were felt in the far-off Samoan Island
in the South Pacific. The U.S. navy sought access to the Port of Pago Pago as a refueling
station. The U.S. ratified a treaty with Samoa in 1878 which gave America trading rights
and a naval base at Pago Pago.
Hawaiian Revolution: Hawaii’s wholesale sugar prices plummeted as a result of the
elimination of the duty-free status enjoyed by Hawaiian sugar. Facing ruin, the planters
deposed Queen Liliuokalani in Jan 1893, proclaimed the independent Republic of
Hawaii, and requested U.S. annexation. Hawaii was claimed as an American territory in
1898.
Sino-Japanese War: A Chinese patrol clashed with Japanese troops on the Marco Polo
Bridge near Beijing on July 7, 1937. Using the incident as a pretext to begin hostilities,
the Japanese army in Manchuria moved troops into the area, precipitating another SinoJapanese war. Although the war was never actually declared.
Captain Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power: . A Union naval officer during the
American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, Mahan served in the navy for nearly 40 years.
He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1885. The title of The Influence of Sea Power
upon History, received international recognition as a comprehensive of naval strategy.
The Middle Class Reform Impulse
Jane Addams, Hull House: She was a social worker and a Nobel laureate. With the help
of Ellen Star, she created the Hull House in 1889 in Chicago, which was the first
settlement house in the U.S. It was a welfare agency for needy families, and it also served
to combat juvenile delinquency and to assist the recent immigrants in learning the
English language and in becoming citizens. In addition, in 1912, Addams played a large
role in the formation of the National Progressive Party and the Women’s Peace Party.
SOCIAL GOSPEL: It was a Protestant liberal movement led by Washington Gladden
and Walter Rauschenbusch that applied Christian principles to the numerous social
problems that affected the late 19th century United States as a result of industrialization.
The movement preached and taught religion and human dignity to the working class in
order to correct the effects of capitalism. In 1908 the Federal Council of the Churches of
Christ in America adopted a social creed that called for many improvements in society.
Anti-Saloon League: During and after the American Civil War, the laws regulating
many aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people
united in this league in the fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws
in 23 states and in 1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.
SOCIAL DARWINISM: It is a theory developed in the late 19th century by which
individuals and societies believed that people, like all other organisms compete for
survival and success in life. It was believed that human progress depended highly on
competition. Those who were best fit for survival would become rich and powerful, and
the less fit in society would be poor and the lower classes. Many felt that this theory was
expounded by Charles Darwin, but in reality, they misinterpreted his words.
Henry George, Progress and Poverty: George was an economist and social philosopher.
In his book Progress and Poverty, he stated that land ownership is concentrated in the
hands of a few, and these people reap the benefits of the rise in value of the land. He
recommended a shift to what he called a single tax.
The Single Tax: Developed by social philosopher and economist Henry George, it was a
doctrine of social reform where all taxation should be reduced to a single tax on land. The
doctrine was described in his book Progress and Poverty, and it was influenced by 17th
century philosopher John Locke and British economist David Ricardo.
The Flowering Of American Culture
Henry James: James was a writer and brother of philosopher William James. He wrote
about the impact of European culture on Americans who traveled or lived abroad. Some
of his famous writings include The Ambassadors, The Wings of the Dove, and The
Golden Bowl.
Charles Darwin: Darwin was a British Scientist who created the theory of modern
evolution. In his theory, the development of organisms came through a process called
natural selection, which is often called "survival of the fittest." His theories were
presented in his novel The Origin of Species.
Rev. Russell Conwell, "Acres of Diamonds": Conwell was a Baptist minister who
preached about ordinary man's and capitalist's materialistic longings. He used religious
virtue to justify the quest for wealth as a Christian endeavor. This was the message in his
"Acres of Diamonds" lecture, which he gave over 6000 times.
Dwight L. Moody: Moody was the creator of the Illinois Street Church which was later
renamed the Moody Memorial Church. Together with Ira Sankey, he began a series of
revival meetings and opened the Northfield Seminary for Young Women and the Mount
Hermon School for Boys. He also founded the Bible Institute in Chicago in 1889.
"gilded age": Given its name by the novel by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley, it is a
time period which criticized the lobbyists, swindlers, politicians who took bribes, and
those who got rich in the postwar boom. The period was characterized by industrial
production, westward expansion, immigration, and urban growth, as well as strikes,
depressions, despair and bitterness, buoyancy and free-spending. The span of this era
ranges from the end of the Civil War, 1869, to the turn of the century.
Pragmatism: Developed by William James and Charles Sanders Pierce, it is a
philosophical doctrine stating that the test of the truth of a proposition is its practical
utility, the effect of an idea is more important than its origin, and the purpose of thought
is to guide action.
Mark Twain: Twain was a writer named Samuel Langhorne Clemens, who used Mark
Twain as his pseudonym. He is characterized by his humor and sharp social satire. His
many famous novels include The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer, and A
Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.
The Gilded Age, Mark Twain and Charles Dudley: It is a novel written in a time when
materialism and corruption controlled the lives of Americans. It was written by Twain,
and Dudley was the coauthor. Many of the characters in the novel were recognized by
readers of the book as figures in society.
Winslow Homer: One of the greatest American painters, Winslow Homer is best known
for his watercolors and oil paintings of the sea. These paintings often have great dramatic
effect because of the way they show man's powerlessness in the face of the unfeeling and
mysterious forces of nature.
Joseph Pulitzer: Joseph Pulitzer was a large newspaper publisher. In the newspaper
circulation wars of the 1890s, publisher Joseph Pulitzer was one of the leading
combatants. His chief opponent was William Randolph Hearst. The two used every
tactic, including sensational yellow journalism, to encourage people to buy their papers.
William Randolph Hearst: Through dishonest and exaggerated reporting, William
Randolph Hearst's newspapers whipped up public sentiment against Spain, actually
helping to cause the Spanish-American War. Hearst was quite willing to take credit for
this, as his New York City newspaper testified in an 1898 headline: "How Do You Like
the Journal’s War?"
The Emergence Of Modern Woman
Susan B. Anthony: For more than half a century Susan B. Anthony fought for women's
suffrage. She traveled from county to county in New York and other states making
speeches and organizing clubs for women's rights. She pleaded her cause with every
president from Abraham Lincoln to Theodore Roosevelt.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A pioneer in the modern quest for women's rights, Stanton
helped to organize a political movement that demanded voting rights for women. She was
a prominent leader in the campaign for what became the 19th Amendment to the United
States Constitution which guaranteed female suffrage.
Carrie Chapman Catt: When Susan B. Anthony retired in 1900 from the NAWSA, she
chose Carrie Chapman Catt to take her place. Though Catt was forced to resign in 1904
due to her husbands illness, she remained active in NAWSA and in 1915 became its
president. After this, Catt continued to play a large role in the fight for Women's rights.
Women’s Christian Temperance Union: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union
(WCTU) was founded in 1874. Partly through their efforts, six states adopted Prohibition
by 1890. It became the nation’s first mass organization of women. Its activities included
welfare work, prison reform, labor arbitration and public health.
Colleges admitting women: By the end of the 19th century the number of women
students had increased greatly. Higher education was broadened by the rise of women's
colleges and the admission of women to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an
estimated one fifth of resident college students were women. By 1900 this had increased
to more than one third.
Reform Populism In The 1890s
GRANGER MOVEMENT: During the decade of the 1870s, U.S. farmers were beset
with problems of high costs, debts, and small profits. the farmers made their grievances
known through the Granger Movement. Membership peaked in the mid-1870s. There was
little the farmers could do concerning prices. Only in 1877 did the Supreme Court rule
that states could regulate businesses of a public nature. To counteract unjust business
practices, the farmers were urged to start cooperatives such as grain elevators,
creameries, and stores.
Granger Laws: The Grangers in various states lobbied state legislatures in 1874 to pass
maximum rate laws for freight shipment. The railroads appealed to the Supreme Court to
declare the "Granger laws" unconstitutional. Instead, the Court ruled against the
railroad’s objections in Munn v. Illinois.
Farmers’ Alliance: This alliance was a political organization created to help fight
railroad abuses and to lower interest rates. It called for government regulation of the
economy in order to redress their greivanes. It was founded in New York in 1873, and
consisted of the Northwest Farmers' Alliance in the north and the National Farmers'
Alliance and Independent Union in the south. They failed to unite, however, and in 1892
gave way to the Populist party.
 POPULIST
PARTY PLATFORM, OMAHA PLATFORM, 1892: The Populist
party, or people's party, was a party that represented the "common man." It was created
towards the end of the nineteenth century. Some of their goals included creating postal
savings banks, enacting immigration restriction, setting a graduated income tax and
limiting the presidency to a single six-year term. The Populist platform represented views
of farmers in the West. The Omaha platform of 1892 nominated James Weaver of Iowa
for president.
"Crime of 1873": This is the term given to a federal law of 1873, which adopted the
gold standard over the silver standard. This dropped silver coinage in favor of gold
coinage, by advocating free silver. This "Crime of 1873" was one of the motivating
forces behind the beginning of the Free Silver movement.
Bland-Allison Act: This act was passed over the presidential veto in 1878 and required
the secretary of the treasury to buy at least 2 million dollars of silver each month and coin
it into dollars. Because of its weight and bulk and the fact that it had not been coined
since 1806, most of the silver did not circulate; rather, remained in the treasury.
Sherman Silver Purchase Act: This act forced the treasury to buy 4.5 million ounces of
silver each month.. However, the price of silver did not rise and precious gold was being
drained away from the treasury while cheap silver piled up. This act, therefore, helped to
precipitate the panic of 1893, and it caused a decrease in foreign investments in the U.S.
economy.
Bimetallism: Bimetallism is the use of both silver and gold as the basis of an economy as
opposed to the use of one or the other or none. During the gold and free silver campaigns
of the early 1900s, the Republicans believed in a money system based on the single gold
standard, while the democrats believed in bimetallism.
Free silver: This was a chiefly unsuccessful campaign in the late 19th-century U.S. for
the unlimited coinage of silver. Major supporters of this movement were owners of silver
mines, farmers, and debtors, for whom silver production would be economically
favorable. William Jennings Bryan led the democratic party to support free silver during
the 1890s.
16 to 1: During the Panic of 1873 the world market ratio of silver to gold fell below the
ratio of 16:1 for the first time in world history. This coincided with the opening of rich
silver mines in the Western united States and also with post-Civil War deflation. It
resulted in the movement in favor of free silver and bimetallism of the populists
Depression of 1893: This panic swept the country two months after the second
inauguration of President Grover Cleveland. Banks closed their doors, railroads went
bankrupt, and farm mortgages were foreclosed. People hoarded gold, and the treasury’s
gold reserve was depleting. A notable cause was the struggle between the free silver and
gold advocates.
Coxey's Army, 1894: This was actually a band of unemployed people who marched to
Washington DC during the depression of 1894 under the leadership of Jacob S. Coxey, a
quarry operator. They urged the enactment of laws which would provide money without
interest for public improvements, which would create work for the unemployed.
Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1893: In 1893 President Grover
Cleveland, who stood for the gold standard, succeeded in having the Sherman Silver
Purchase Act repealed over the strong objections of William Jennings Bryan. However,
little gold was in the treasury; thus, the panic of 1893 could not be avoided and the crisis
remained until 1896.
Ocala Demands, 1890: These demands were essentially a platform of the Democratic/
Populist party for the 1892 election created at a gathering in Ocala, Florida in 1890.
Northern leaders generally favored a third party candidate, while Southerners feared that
it would weaken the southern Democratic Party.
WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN: Despite the fact that he was defeated three times for
the presidency of the United States, William Jennings Bryan, the principal figure of the
Populist party, molded public opinion as few leaders have done. A surprise to the public,
he polled many votes during the 1896 election, which may have been a direct result of his
"Cross of Gold Speech." For many years he was the leader of the Democratic party, and it
was his influence that won the Democratic presidential nomination for Wilson in 1912.
"Cross of Gold Speech": William Jennings Bryan won the national Democratic
convention's nomination for the presidency in 1896 through a vigorous appeal for free
coinage of silver known as the "Cross of Gold" speech. Turning to those who wanted
only gold as the monetary standard, he exclaimed: "You shall not crucify mankind upon
this cross of gold." As a Populist, he did not support the gold standard since it would
deflate the currency, which would make it more difficult for citizens to repay debts.
ELECTION OF 1896, CANDIDATES, ISSUES: The presidential candidates were the
Republican William McKinley from Pennsylvania, and the Democrat William J. Bryan.
The Populists also supported Bryan for the presidency, but chose Tom Watson for the
vice presidency. The Republicans believed in the gold standard, while the Democrats
believed in bimetallism and the unlimited coinage of silver. McKinley won the election.
The Populism collapsed after 1896, but Progressivism emerged in its wake.
Imperialism
"Yellow journalism": Two rival newspapers in New York City, William Randolph
Hearst’s Journal, and Joseph Pulitzer’s World, sensationalized editorializing on the issues
to increase circulation. One of Hearst’s gimmicks was "The Yellow Kid," which gave the
name of Yellow Journalism to this tactic.
Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890)
helped create and develop the expansionist movement. Mahan, former head of the Navy
War College at Newport, Rhode Island wanted to expand United States Navy to build an
isthmusian canal, and to establish strategic colonies as cooling stations, and to protect US
political and economic interests.
de Lôme letter: On February 8, 1898, Hearst’s Journal published a private letter written
by Spanish minister to the United States Depuy de Lôme regarding his reservations for
Cuban independence and disparaging President McKinley. Many Americans would have
agreed, but they resented hearing it from a Spanish diplomat.
Maine explodes: When an explosion rocked the Maine in Havana harbor on February 15,
1898, killing 266 American crewmen, irritation turned to outrage. A review of the
evidence later concluded that a ship-board ammunition explosion caused the blast. Still, a
navy inquiry blamed the blast on a "Spanish mine."
Teller Amendment: The U.S. had been motivated o war in part by the desire to aid the
Cubans in their attempt to liberate themselves from the colonial rule of Spain. To this end
the Teller Ammendment was added to the Declaration of War. It speciffically prohibited
the annexation of Cuba, as a cause of the war.
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR: The Spanish-American War lasted just three months
with only a few days of actual combat. Action started on May 1, 1898, when George
Dewey’s fleet steamed into Manila Bay in the Philippines and seized or destroyed all ten
Spanish ships anchored there. The war ended after Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera
attempted to break through American forces losing 474 men. The Filipinos celebrated
their freedom from four hundred years of Spanish rule on July 4,1898.
Commodore Dewey, Manila Bay: The first action of the Spanish-American War came
in 1898 when Commodore George Dewey’s fleet steamed into Manila Bay in the
Philippines. This fleet destroyed and captured all ten Spanish ships that were assigned in
Manila Bay. One American and 381 Spanish men died in the attempt.
Cleveland and Hawaii: In 1887 the United States gained the right to establish a naval
port in Pearl Harbor. President Grover Cleveland was troubled with the crisis in Hawaii
since Hawaiians claimed to want annexation. However, once their queen was overthrown,
Hawaiians were uncertain if they wanted annexation at all.
Queen Liluokalani: Liluokalani was the Queen of Hawaii who did not like Americans
since they built their port in Pearl Harbor. Queen Liluokalani was overthrown when
Hawaii’s sugar prices dropped 40% and planters wanted the independent Republic of
Hawaii.
Annexation of Hawaii: In 1890 under the McKinley Tariff, domestic sugar growers
ended the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar. After Hawaii’s sugar prices dropped 40%
and Queen Liluokalani was overthrown, the Hawaiians decided to request United States
annexation.
Treaty of Paris, 1898: The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War and
developed an American empire overseas. In the treaty, Spain agreed to abandon Cuba and
exchange Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to America for $20 million. The treaty
gave the United States a new imperialistic reputation.
American Anti-Imperialist League: The critics of imperialism were many and
influential. Forming the Anti-Imperialist League, they believed that every country
captured by the U.S. had the same rights under the Constitution and the Declaration of
Independence.
Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico: By the terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1898, Spain
recognized Cuba’s independence and ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific
Island of Guam to the United States in exchange for $20 million. As 1899 dawned
Americans possessed an island empire from the Caribbean to the Pacific.
 Platt
Amendment: Senator Orville Platt, at the request of the War department, made a
revised bill to remove some of the restrictions stated in the Teller Amendment. The Platt
Amendment stated that the United States would withdraw from Cuba if they did not sign
a treaty with any other foreign power. It also gave the United States the right to interfere
with Cuba if they believed that it was not a fit enough country to take care of itself. Also,
they established the right to hold a naval base in Cuba.
Protectorate: When a more powerful state controls the economy, foreign affairs, or
police power of another state, it is considered a protectorate. In the case of the United
States, Cuba was a protectorate as a result of the Platt Amendment. Other examples might
include Nicuaragua, the Dominican Republic, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands.
Secretary of State John Hay, Open Door Notes: John Hay’s Open Door Notes was a
policy that explained the importance of American commercial influence on foreign
policies. The Open Door Notes stated that the pre-thought "informal empire" was correct
as opposed to overseas colonies being favored by imperial power.
Roosevelt & Progressivism
Roosevelt’s Big Stick diplomacy: One of Roosevelt’s most famous statements was
"speak softly and carry a big stick." An example of his meaning in this statement was
when Canada wanted the Alaskan land that America owned. They were fighting over the
boundaries because of gold found in the area. Roosevelt simply stated that if the
boundaries would change, there would be serious consequences. Because of his problem
solving method, Roosevelt was known to use "Big Stick" diplomacy.
Panama Revolution: Financed by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, chief agent of the New
Panama Canal Company, the Panama Revolution was a planned revolt by Panamanians
against Colombian occupation of the Isthmus of Panama. The United States did not
encourage the revolution, but it did make clear that it would not allow it to fail.
The Panama Canal: When a French company supposed to build a canal across the
Isthmus of Panama went bankrupt, it offered to sell its assets to the United States. The
Hay-Herrán agreement, which would have granted the US a ninety-nine-year lease on a
strip of land for canal construction, was rejected by the Colombian senate. Determined to
have a canal, Roosevelt found a collaborator in Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who organized a
"revolution." After Panama was recognized, the canal building commenced.
Roosevelt Corollary: In 1904, Roosevelt created the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe
Doctrine. This doctrine justified U.S. intervention in the affairs of Latin American
nations if their weakness or wrongdoing warranted such action. An example of this
interference was the American intervention in Haiti when it was not wanted. The
document was primarily a pass for the US to interfere with other countries’ business
when it was not wanted nor needed.
San Francisco School Board Incident: American relations with Japan suffered when
the San Francisco school board, in 1906, ordered all Asian children to attend segregated
schools. Summoning the school-board members to Washington, Roosevelt persuaded
them to reverse this discriminatory policy.
Gentleman’s Agreement: In the 1890’s, workers feared their jobs would be taken by the
Japanese immigrants and they wanted a law preventing any more immigrants to move to
the United States. In 1907 Japan proposed the Gentlemen’s Agreement which promised
that they would halt the unrestricted immigration if President Roosevelt promised to
discourage any laws being made that would restrict Japanese immigration to the US.
Great White Fleet: This was a naval fleet that went on a voyage around the world. After
15 months, when the fleet returned, President Roosevelt met all the crew members
personally. The two objects of this voyage were being friendly with the nation’s allies but
also to show other nations the naval power of the United States.
Mexican Revolution, Díaz, Huerta, Carranza: Rebels, led by Francisco Madero in
1911, overthrew Porfirio Díaz. In 1913, Madero was overthrown by a military regime led
by Victoriano Huerta. The US refused to recognize Huerta’s government because it had
come to power violently. Eventually, this led to Mexican-American hostilities.
Mexican migration to the U.S.: In the period from 1877 to 1910 economic conditions
were worsening in Mexico. By 1914 more than 100,000 Mexicans had migrated to the
United States. These new immigrants found mainly in railroad industries and agriculture
where jobs were vacated by the war. They filled partly the US need for labor during war.
"watchful waiting": "Watchful waiting" refers to Wilson’s policy towards the events
unfolding in Europe. In effect, it was America’s policy of neutrality throughout most of
the First World War. This policy was taken although it was clear that the United States
had obvious ties to Britain and would likely favor it.
ABC Powers: The ABC powers consisted of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. In 1914, the
ABC powers called a conference to prevent a war between the United States and Mexico
caused by the Veracruz Incident. When president Carranza rejected the proposal for a
new Mexican government, the conference came to an end.
Pancho Villa, General Pershing: During the political turmoil of Mexico in 1916, bandit
Pancho Villa murdered 16 Americans, then burned down Columbus in New Mexico.
With the U.S. outraged, General John J. Pershing was sent with 12,000 troops to catch
Villa with no avail. Massive US response angered some Mexicans and led to hostilities.
Democracy, efficiency, pragmatism: Democracy is a form of government in which a
substantial proportion of the citizenry directly or indirectly participates in ruling the state.
Pragmatism is a philosophical movement, developed in the United States, which holds
that both the meaning and the truth of any idea is a function of its practical outcome.
Wright Brothers, Kitty Hawk: Wilbur and Orville Wright created the modern field of
aeronautics. After over 200 calculations and tests at Kitty Hawk they built the first
practical airplane, marking the beginning of the individual progressive spirit. They were
highly honored internationally and a monument to them was built at Kitty Hawk.
"Muckrakers": Those American writers who early in the 20th century wrote both
fiction and nonfiction to expose corruption in business and politics were called the
muckrakers. Muckraker was a term first used by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906.
They were given this name because of their tendency to "spread the muck around."
Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: A journalist, photographer, and reformer, Jacob
August Riis publicized the plight of immigrants in New York City slum tenements. His
photographs, articles, and books focused on the squalid living conditions of the city's
poor and spurred legislation to improve those conditions.
Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities: An eminent American reformer and
journalist, Joseph Lincoln Steffens, was a leader of the muckrakers. He wrote a series of
articles that documented corruption in American cities, asserting that some cities were
run by political bosses who remained in power with the help of powerful businessmen.
Ida Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company: As a Pennsylvania journalist, editor,
and biographer, Tarbell became famous as a muckraker through her well-documented
articles on political and corporate corruption in McClure's Magazine and American
Magazine.
John Dewey, The School and Society, "progressive education," "learn by doing":
Dewey’s ideas of progressive education, described in The School and Society, greatly
affected educational techniques. He founded the Laboratory School, a school in which
students learned of life by actively doing things rather than following a strict curriculum.
Initiative, referendum, recall: These were three types of progressive electoral reforms
passed by some western states. Initiative allowed voters to enact laws directly. The
referendum allowed voters to express their opinions of specific issues. Through recall
voters were able to directly remove public officials from office.
Direct primary: The direct primary was another progressive municipal reform. It
originated in Wisconsin (1903) and rapidly spread throughout the rest of the United
States. It provided that the members, not the leadership, of each party nominate the
party’s nominees for public office.
Australian ballot (secret ballot): Many electoral reforms gave voters greater control
over the government, especially at the ballot boxes where voters could be easily swayed.
By 1910 all states had replaced the corrupt system of preprinted ballots with a new secret
ballot, begun in Australia, which was much more difficult to rig.
Triangle Shirtwaist Co. fire: An accidental fire at the Traingle Shirtwaist Company
killed 141 workers. It prodded the concerns of many progressive reformers since the
workers, locked in the factory and unable to escape, were killed by brutal working
conditions. These concerns raised new questions of human and immigrant rights and of
existing labor laws.
Anti-Saloon League: During and after the American Civil War the laws regulating many
aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people united in
this league in their fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws in 23
states and in 1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.
Square Deal: Roosevelt, on a speaking tour against the Northern Securities Company,
called for a "square deal." This progressive concept denounced special treatment for the
large capitalists and is the essential element to his trustbusting attitude. This deal
embodied the belief that all corporations must serve the general public good.
Forest Reserve Act, 1891: The Forest Reserve Act, strongly supported by Roosevelt and
Pinchot, created a system of national forests, consisting of approximately 200 million
acres, which were protected from the short-sighted greed Roosevelt saw in many large
companies. Through this act Roosevelt also enlarged Pinchot’s forest staff from 123 to
1,500 people.
Anthracite coal strike, 1902, George F. Baer: The Anthracite coal strike was the first
strike in which the government became involved but did not side with the management.
Roosevelt instead mediated a series of negotiations between the strikers and the owners
over issues of wages, safety conditions, and union recognition.
Hepburn Act, 1906: The Hepburn Act, in conjunction with the Elkins Act, granted the
Interstate Commerce Commission enough power to regulate the economy. It allowed the
ICC to set freight rates and, in an attempt to reduce the corruption in the railroad industry,
to require a uniform system of accounting by regulated transportation companies.
"trustbuster": Teddy Roosevelt, deeply conservative at heart, did not want to destroy
the big corporations that he saw necessary to American life. He did, however, believe that
they must be held to strict moral standards. He earned the "trustbuster" name when he
filed suit against the Northern Securities Company, followed by 43 other cases. He left
many of the larger companies serving the public good alone, but he broke up many other
large, monopolistic companies in the interests of American welfare and economy.
Northern Securities Co. case: This was the first company Roosevelt filed suit against in
his trustbusting stage. It was a large holding company formed by railroad and banking
interests. In 1902 Roosevelt "trustbusted" them by claiming they violated the Sherman
Anti-Trust Act in holding money against the public good. The company was dissolved.
Meat Inspection Act: The Meat Inspection Act was passed by Roosevelt as a strong
response to Sinclair's book describing the conditions of food as well as wartime scandals
in 1898 concerning spoiled canned meats. It created strict sanitary requirements for meat,
began a quality rating system, and provisioned for a federal department to inspect meat.
W.E.B. DuBois: For more than 50 years W.E.B. DuBois, a black editor, historian, and
sociologist, was a leader of the civil rights movement in the United States. He helped
found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and
was its outstanding spokesman in the first decades of its existence.
Niagara movement: At a meeting in Niagara Falls, Ont., in 1905, W.E.B. DuBois and
other black leaders who shared his views founded the Niagara Movement. Members of
the Niagara group joined with concerned liberal and radical whites to organize the
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The
NAACP was an organization founded in 1909 by blacks and whites under such leaders as
W.E.B. DuBois to safeguard civil, legal, economic, human, and political rights of black
Americans. It lobbied for legislation, sponsored educational programs, and engaged in
protest actions.
Brownsville Incident: Roosevelt, though not as racist a president as those before him,
did not have a perfect record. In 1906 he discharged an entire regiment of blacks accused
of rioting in Brownsville. This unfair and illegal action was later reversed by Congress
once all involved parties had died.
Upton Sinclair, The Jungle: Sinclair was an American writer and reformer who wrote
The Jungle. This book exposed the unsanitary working conditions in the stockyards of
Chicago, eventually leading to an investigation of both working conditions and the
conditions of food. It eventually led to the enactment of the Pure Food Act.
Pure Food and Drug Act: The Pure Food and Drug Act, enacted through the efforts of
Harvey Wiley and Sinclair in 1906, gave consumers protection from dangerous and
impure foods. All products must be clearly labeled and must explain a product which
cannot be seen or judged by a consumer. This act solved problems concerning
fraudulently labeled items.
Scientific management, Frederick W. Taylor: Taylor was an engineer who first
integrated scientific management with business. He became foreman of the Midvale Steel
Company in 1878 and used mathematics to determine maximum industrial productivity,
using time and motion studies to find what each worker should for the highest efficiency.
Wisconsin, "laboratory of democracy": La Follette enacted sweeping changes during
his governorship of Wisconsin in 1900. He adopted a direct primary system, began to
regulate the railroads in his state, increased corporate taxes, and passed other progressive
reform legislation. He also created a legislative reference library for lawyers.
 Robert
M. La Follette: La Follette, initially a Republican in Congress, broke from this
party in 1924 when he realized big business was dangerously out of control. The
populace agreed with this opinion by electing him governor as an independent. He took
the reform movement, previously only found at the municipal level, to new heights, the
state. The new state level of regulation had some inherit problems, but as the progressive
movement entered the national government, these problems were solved.
Regulatory commissions: As the Progressive Era advanced, regulatory commissions
became more prevalent and numerable. The excesses of the monopolistic railroad
companies became known to all. In an effort to end the abuses of the rich capitalists
regulatory commissions were created to divide the concentrated wealth.
Jane Addams, Hull House: Addams was a prominent social reformer in the US and
Europe. In 1889 she created Hull House in Chicago, a settlement home designed as a
welfare agency for needy families. It also tried to teach immigrants English customs.
Addams also played an important role in the National Progressive party.
home rule for cities: Home rule was a new form of city government other than the
mayor-council form that emerged in the Progressive Era. Under this form of government
the city was run by a committee of three elected commissioners. They locally ran the
county rather than allowing the state to handle affairs.
 Municipal
Reform: The beginning of the Progressive Era is marked by a great increase
in municipal reform. Nearly all elements of the urban population participated in these
reform efforts. The middle class began the movement and was the core of urban
beautification. Businessmen pushed for citywide elections and for the city-manager
system of government. In reforms concerning the commoners, even the political bosses
assisted. This municipal level reform soon moved to the state level.
City manager plan, commission plan: This form of government replaced the traditional
mayor/council version in several cities. It began in Texas when progressives removed the
corrupt mayor and council, replacing them with five elected commissioners. They were
experts in rebuilding the ruined city, which is what they were elected to do.
William Howard Taft: As president, Taft focused primarily on a continuation of trustbusting and reuniting the old conservatives and young progressives of the Republican
Party. Taft also strongly supported a national budgetary system. He was unable to reunite
the two parties and, as a result, the Democratic party swept the 1912 elections.
"dollar diplomacy": In an effort to avoid Roosevelt’s "big stick" economic policy,
President Taft sought to avoid military confrontation by using money to increase foreign
interest in the US. He planned to donate large sums of money to generate economic,
social, and political stability in Latin America rather than sending the military to force
stability. His efforts were largely a failure as most of the money never reached the actual
people of Latin America. Most of the money was stolen by corrupt government officials.
Taft-Roosevelt split: In 1912 the Democrats finally regained control of the presidency
due to the Taft-Roosevelt split. Taft’s inability to associate with the progressive elements
of his party convinced Roosevelt to return. Roosevelt formed the Progressive Party and
thus siphoned enough votes to cause the Republicans to lose the election.
Bull Moose Party: This party, formally known as the Progressive Party, was created by
Theodore Roosevelt after his split with Taft. It was created in his anger of Taft being
nominated in the Republican Party. They advocated primary elections, woman suffrage,
and prohibition of child labor. They outpolled the Republicans but lost to the Democrats.
Progressivism to Wilson
Woodrow Wilson, New Freedom: The Democratic Party, to which Wilson belonged,
had a past history of 45 ballots without a nomination. To overcome this stumbling block
the Democrats united with the Progressives, running under a compromise platform.
Wilson’s "New Freedom" campaign was concerned with progressive programs similar to
both parties. He did not, however, support trustbusting in the same way that Roosevelt
did. To him, all big business was morally evil and should be broken up.
Theodore Roosevelt, New Nationalism: In the election of 1912 Roosevelt was
nominated under a platform nicknamed "The New Nationalism." This platform followed
the previous trustbusting and regulation trend as well as alleviating many common
progressive concerns such as child labor, woman’s suffrage, and minimum wages. A
Federal Trade Commission was also planned to regulate the economy. This platform was
essentially identical with many of the progressive reforms later passed under Wilson.
Election of 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, Debs - issues: The election of 1912 was very
interesting for most Americans since there were 4 active political parties. Roosevelt tried
to run with the Republican Party, but Taft was chosen. He left and created the
Progressive Party. Wilson ran with the Democratic Party. Debs continued to run on the
Socialist platform. All of the platforms dealt primarily with economic reform, indicating
the change that Americans wanted. Debs even received 900,000 votes.
Edgar Lee Masters, Spoon River Anthology: Edgar Lee Master’s poems are unique in
that they are presented as the voices of a town’s graveyard talking about their lives. His
work’s realism and irony contrast with the romantic and sentimental trends in progressive
literature, demonstrating the revolt against conventional social standards that was
beginning.
Eugenics movement: The Eugenics movement is one of the best examples of
progressive ideas contradicting science. Some Americans believed that the society could
be improved by controlled breeding. They accomplished this by sterilizing many
criminals and sex offenders. The right to do so was upheld in the court case Buck v. Bell.
Margaret Sanger: Sanger was a leader among birth-control advocates. She attacked the
Comstock Law, a law which prevented the distribution of birth control. In 1916 she
opened the first American birth-control facility. She was convicted for this "public
nuisance," won an appeal, and eventually gained the right for birth-control.
Sixteenth Amendment: The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, is an obvious
indicator to the Progressive era in which it was passed. It authorized the income tax
thereby allowing the Underwood-Simmons Tariff of 1913 to lower many tariffs. This
amendment invalidated an earlier Supreme Court decision calling the income tax was
unconstitutional.
Seventeenth Amendment: The Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, moved the
election of senators from the state legislatures to the general populace. It followed the
ideas already laid down by the Australian secret ballot and the direct primary. This law
was intended to create a more democratic, fair society in the eyes of progressives.
Eighteenth Amendment: The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified in 1919, prohibited the
non-medical sale of alcohol. This amendment resulted from intense efforts among various
women’s movements, proving to the nation that women could effect political changes.
This amendment is the midpoint of a growing drive towards women’s rights.
Nineteenth Amendment: The Nineteenth Amendment, granting women the vote in
1920, is a logical progression from the prohibition movement. As women felt their power
in politics increasing, they began to demand the ability to vote from their male peers. In
the spirit of progressivism they were granted the vote in 1920.
Charles Evans Hughes: Charles Evans Hughes was an American jurist and statesmen.
As governor of New York he eliminated much of the corruption in government, passing
many progressive reform measures. He served as the chief justice of the Supreme Court
in the depression years of the 1930s and supported many aspects of Roosevelt’s liberal
New Deal.
Federal Reserve Act: The Federal Reserve Act was a compromise designed to stabilize
the currency in the US. It split the US into 12 regions with one Federal bank in each
region. Commercial banks bought stock from this bank. The discount rate at which the
federal bank lent the money determined the interest rate.
Underwood-Simmons Tariff: The Underwood-Simmons Tariff reduced the tariffs from
the Payne-Aldrich Tariff to about 29%. It included a graduated income tax, made legal by
the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, to correct for this monetary loss. Wilson,
noticing that it followed his principle of "New Freedom," heavily advocated it.
Income tax: The income tax, originally declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court,
was later ratified as the Sixteenth Amendment. This new power was first used in the
Tariff Act of 1913 which set the tax of corporate income at 1%. It also levied a 1% tax on
all rich families. Income tax has been greatly increased as tariffs have been lowered.
Clayton Antitrust Act, labor’s Magna Carta (?): The Clayton Act was designed to
clarify the Sherman Antitrust Act in terms of new economic issues that had arisen.
Practices such as local price-cutting and price discrimination were made illegal. The right
of unions to strike, boycott, and picket was also confirmed. This act would have been
labor’s Magna Carta had it been followed, but unfavorable court interpretations rendered
many of its pro-labor sections powerless without further legislation.
Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan: From 1913-1915, Bryan served as
Secretary of State to Wilson. The US’s stubbornness on the issue of neutrality rights led
Bryan to resign his position in 1915. He felt that instead of insisting on passenger’s
rights, the United States should keep Americans off belligerent ships, a differing view on
neutrality.
Louis Brandeis, "Brandeis brief": In 1916, Woodrow Wilson appointed Louis
Brandeis, a Jew, to the Supreme Court, which was briefly opposed because of antiSemitism. In 1908 in Muller v. Oregon, his Brandeis brief provided evidence as to why
women need limited work hours. This represented the Court’s adapting to the new,
changing industrial society.
Keating-Owen Act: The Keating-Owen Act, passed in 1915, attempted to prevent the
problem of child labor. It forbade interstate shipment of products whose production was
due to the labor of children under fourteen or sixteen. This law was particularly important
because it was the first attempt by Congress to regulate interstate commerce.
Workmen’s Compensation Act: The Workmen’s Compensation Act heightened the
rights of employees to bring legal action against their employers for injuries. Prior to this
act, the employee had to prove they were not at fault and that it was not a normal risk.
This act created scales of compensation for any injury, regardless to the party
responsible.
First World War
"Sick man of Europe," Ottoman Empire, Balkan Wars: The ancient Ottoman empire
had lost its grip throughout the late 1800’s. In the Balkan Wars, Balkan States gained
their independence from the Ottoman Empire, called the "sick man of Europe." From it,
the newly independent nations of Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia were created.
Triple Entente: Allies: Beginning in the early 1900’s, Britain, France and Russia had
signed treaties with each other. After Austria declared war on Serbia, Germany declared
war on the allies (Russia and France), in turn drawing Great Britain into the war. This
system of alliances had escalated what was once a localized incident.
Triple Alliance: Central Powers: The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, AustriaHungary, as well as Italy. Germany, with its blank check provision to Austria- Hungary,
had in encouraged the war declaration on Serbia. Afterwards, Germany declared war on
Russia and France, Serbia’s allies by treaties.
loans to the Allies: In total, the United States lent the Allies over $10 billion. Great
Britain owed the United States over $4.2 billion by the end of the war. This great
indebtedness led to conflict later when the United States attempted to collect. Also, it led
to increased reparations for Germany because of allied indebtedness.
British blockade: In an attempt to win the war of attrition that was World War I, Great
Britain utilized its sizable navy to blockade all trade going in and out of Germany.
Germany responded with its U-boats, eventually going on the offensive in 1917 by itself
blockading Britain at the cost of American involvement.
Lusitania, Arabic pledge, Sussex pledge: In 1915, the British Lusitania was sunk
bringing protests from Wilson. The Arabic was sunk in the same year and Germans
followed with the Arabic pledge promising to stop attacks on passenger vessels. In 1916,
Germans sunk the Sussex and made the Sussex pledge to promise a stoppage of attacks.
Election of 1916: Hughes, Wilson, issues: Wilson ran for reelection for the Democrats
on the call that he had kept the United States out of the war. Charles Evans Hughes was
the Republican candidate who attacked the inefficiency of the Democratic Party. Wilson
won the election, so was able to continue his idealistic policies.
Unrestricted submarine warfare: On January 31, 1917, Germany announced it would
resume unrestricted submarine warfare, a repudiation of the Sussex pledge, and sink all
ships without warning whatsoever. This action was backed by the German belief that this
would lead it to victory before the Americans could become involved in the war.
Zimmerman Note: Also known as the Zimmerman Telegram, the Zimmerman note was
a message intercepted by British intelligence from Germany to Mexico in 1917 proposing
that in the event of a German war with the United states, Mexico should attack the US. It
would be a Mexican opportunity to retake the Mexican Cession. This was one of a few
events which led to widespread public support for the Allies and eventual United States
involvement in the World War.
Russian Revolutions, 1917, March and Bolshevik: In March 1917 a revolution
overthrew Russia’s tsarist regime. The second Revolution, commonly called the October
Revolution, was an armed coup organized by the Bolshevik party. These revolutions were
caused by and led to Russia pulling out of World War I.
War declared, April 1917: On March 2, 1917, President Wilson called a special
Congressional session for April 2, in which he proposed the declaration of war against
Germany. The declaration was passed by the Senate by a vote of 82 to 6 and in the House
by a vote of 373 to 50 before it was then signed by Wilson.
Wilson’s "Peace without victory": In 1916 President Wilson called for a "peace
without victory." His words were a call to the European nations to stop the conflict based
on a balance of power and to form a peace in which nations together would keep the
peace. Wilson foresaw the vengeful atmosphere that would follow a prolonged war.
"Make the world safe for democracy": "Make the world safe for democracy" was
Wilson’s famous line justifying United States involvement in the World War. It was
based on the belief that from this international power struggle, a democratic revolution
could arise. In other words, a new democratic world order led by the United States would
follow.
Bond drives: Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo organized the raising of funds,
or Liberty Loans, necessary for the war with five campaigns between 1917 and 1919 with
much excitement. People felt obliged to buy bonds because they were afraid of being
seen as unpatriotic. Eventually, they raised over $21 billion for the war.
War Industries Board: Created in July 1917, the War Industries Board controlled raw
materials, production, prices, and labor relations. It also encouraged production by
allocating raw materials, standardizing manufactured products, instituting strict
production and purchasing controls, and paying high prices to businesses.
Espionage Act, 1917; Sedition Act, 1918: The Espionage Act of 1917 enacted fines and
imprisonment for false statements, inciting rebellion, or obstructing recruitment or the
draft. Also papers which opposed the government could be banned from the U.S. postal
service. The Sedition Act of 1918 made illegal any criticism of the government. It was
poorly applied and used to trample civil liberties during the war hysteria as in the
example of the imprisonment of Eugene Debs.
selective service: As part of US mobilization for war, on May 18, 1917, the Selective
Service Act was passed. Men from 21-30 were to register for the military. At the time,
the United States military was in poor disarray and men were desperately needed. Made
into a party-like atmosphere, 24 million registered, and 3 million were actually drafted.
Postwar Aims
Aims of Allies and US at peace conference: The main goal of Wilson and the American
delegation was to secure an international peacekeeping organization; a peace based on
Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The aims of the other allies were not as liberal as that of the
US. The enormous reparations settled on was representative of this atmosphere.
Fourteen Points: The Fourteen Points were Wilson’s proposals and beliefs for a postwar world order. They dealt with the things that led to the first World War. For example,
the first points called for open treaties, freedom of the seas, arms reduction and free trade.
The other points dealt with self determination and finally a general association of nations,
the League of Nations. During the conference of Versailles, Wilson pushed the Fourteen
points and was partly successful.
Versailles Conference and Treaty: The Big Four dominated the conference in 1919 that
determined the postwar world order. Wilson promoted his Fourteen Points while other
Allies sought vengeance. The treaty found Germany liable for the war and established
new nations based on self determination. It also made German colonies mandates under
the League of Nations and included the controversial article X that kept the US out of the
League. These provisions set the stage for World War II.
US Versailles delegation: The delegation was headed by President Wilson himself, and
included Secretary of State Robert Lansing, General Tasker Bliss, Colonel Edward M.
House, and attorney Henry White. Blatantly missing from the delegation were any
Republican leaders, so the conference became not an American but a Democratic affair.
Big Four: Wilson, George, Clemenceau, Orlando: The Big Four were the dominating
four at the Versailles conference after World War I. President Woodrow Wilson
represented the United States, Lloyd George for Britain, Clemenceau for France, and
Vittorio Orlando represented Italy. Each had a different prerogative and differing
interests.
League of Nations: The organization promoted by Wilson in his Fourteen Points was the
League of Nations. The US never joined because of controversy over Article X of the
League Covenant that took away the United States’s freedom of determination in world
affairs. Implemented at the Versailles conference, it existed from 1920 to 1946, meeting
in Geneva, Switzerland, until it was taken over by the United Nations. After WWI, it
divided German colonies into mandates of various League members.
collective security: Collective security was the dogma behind Article X of the League of
Nations covenant of the Versailles Treaty. It stated that every nation would serve to
protect the territorial integrity and existing governments of all other League nations.
Hence, it was felt that this would ensure peace in the postwar world order. The belief
manifested inself in the international world court that was established and later in the
establishment of the United Nations after the demise of the League.
new nations, self determination: The idea of new nations and self determination was
behind some of the aspects of the Treaty of Versailles. Self determination meant every
nationality getting their own country, so new nations were created to allow this.
Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and
Finland were new nations which filled this definition. Even with the doctrine of self
determination, boundaries for new countries still left many misrepresented and under
others’ control.
reparations: Reparations were implemented by European powers wanting vengeance
against Germany. Germany was forced to pay a huge sum, some $33 billion to the Allies
for civilian and veterans costs. This huge amount led to Germany’s economic downfall,
allowing for the rise of Hitler and World War II
Article 10 of the Versailles Treaty: The most controversial of the League of Nations
covenants, Article 10 said that all nations must protect the territorial and political
integrity of other League members. The article meant that if one nation was engaged in
war, all others must become involved. This article was a large part of why the US
rejected the League.
Article 231 of the Versailles Treaty: By Article 231, Germany accepted total
responsibility for her and her allies for starting the First World War. Reparations
payments were based on this claim. It led to hatred among Germans and inadvertently
contributed to conditions precipitating World War II.
Senate rejection, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, reservations: Senate reservationists did
not fully oppose the League except for mainly one Article. They did not want the United
States going to war defending another League member without Congress’s permission, as
was stipulated by Article X. They wanted that article removed before ratification.
Impact of the War
Women’s Roles in World War I: Prominent women’s leaders like Carrie Chapman Catt
and Anna Howard Shaw saw war as an opportunity for women’s rights. Thousands of
American Women took vacated jobs and became involved in industrial production as
well as volunteer agencies at home and abroad. Supplied America’s labor needs.
black migration to Northern cities: During the war, blacks left their traditional homes
in the South and migrated North for job opportunities in the war industries. About
500,000 blacks migrated North during the war. Led to racial tension and violence in the
North. This growing concentration of blacks led to the Harlem Renaissance.
wartime manpower losses: During World War I, military casualties alone accounted for
just over 8.5 million deaths on both sides. Russia and Germany by far lost the most men
at 1.7 million killed each. In comparison, the United States lost only 126,000 men. In all,
over 21 million men were injured during the war.
Congressional elections of 1918: In 1918, the Republicans gained an advantage in both
the House of Representatives as well as the Senate. Republicans no who had traditionally
supported Wilson’s plans in Europe no longer supported him because of his cry to voters
for a Democratic Congress.
Red Scare, Palmer raids: In 1919, there was a string of bombings. Among the victims
was Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. In November 1919, Palmer led raids and
arrested around 700 suspected communists and anarchists. Some were deported under the
Alien Act. The Red Scare in the United States followed Communist revolutions in
Russia.
strikes: 1919, coal, steel, police: Post-war strikes occurred because of an increase in
prices. The most famous strike was in a Seattle shipyard. The government responded with
troops to break up the strike. Chicago police struck and were all fired. The United Mine
Workers of America under John L. Lewis struck as well, fueling the Red Scare.
election of 1920: candidates, issues: Senator Warren G. Harding was the Republican
dark horse with running mate Calvin Coolidge. They advocated a "return to normalcy"
from the war environment. James Cox, and Franklin D. Roosevelt were the Democratic
nominees. They ran on a platform endorsing the League with reservations.