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Transcript
The War of 1812 (1809-1815) Timeline 1804: Thomas Jefferson reelected 1806: British Orders in Council 1807: Chesapeake incident late 1807: Embargo Act passed March 1, 1809: Repeal of the Embargo Act March 4, 1809: James Madison becomes President 1809: Non-Intercourse Act 1810: Macon's Bill No. 2 passed November 1810: Madison announces Napoleon's compliance with Macon's Bill No. 2 November 7, 1811: Tecumseh's headquarter destroyed at Tippecanoe June 1812: Orders in Council Suspended June 1812: War Hawks declare war on Britain August 20, 1812: USS Constitution defeats the Guerriere 1812: 3-pronged US attack on Canada September 1812: USS Wasp fights the Frolic 1813: Battle of the Thames, Tecumseh killed September 9, 1813: Perry forces surrender of British fleet on Lake Erie September 11, 1814: Thomas Macdonough defeats the British near Plattsburgh in a naval battle March 27, 1814: Battle of Horseshoe Bend August 1814: 4,000 British land near Chesapeake Bay August 24, 1814: Battle of Bladensburg: General Winder defeated Dec 15, 1814: Hartford Convention begins December 24, 1814: Treaty of Ghent officially ends War of 1812 January 5, 1815: Hartford Convention ends January 8, 1815: Battle of New Orleans (Jackson crushes British) Summary The immediate causes of the War of 1812 were a series of economic sanctions taken by the British and French against the US as part of the Napoleonic Wars and American outrage at the British practice of impressment, especially after the Chesapeake incident of 1807. In response to the 1806 British Orders in Council, which crippled American trade, the US (under Jefferson) first tried various retaliatory embargoes. These embargoes hurt the US far more than they did Britain, angering American citizens and providing support to War Hawks in Congress like Henry Clay. In 1812, with President Madison in office, Congress declared war against the British. The war began with an attack on Canada, both as an effort to gain land and to cut off British supply lines to Tecumseh's Indian confederation, which had long troubled the US. The initial battles in Canada were not as easy as the War Hawks hoped, and the inexperienced American soldiers were pushed back rapidly. In fact, only by virtue of clutch naval victories by Oliver Hazard Perry on Lake Erie and Thomas Macdonough on Lake Champlain was a serious northern- front invasion of the United States, including New York, prevented. General William Henry Harrison's forces did manage to kill Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, in the midst of a decisive victory against the British General Isaac Brock's smaller force. On the Mid-Atlantic Coast, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area in 1814, and marched towards Washington. US General William Winder made an attempt to stop the British forces, commanded by General Robert Ross, at Bladensburg. The US troops were badly routed. The city of Washington was evacuated, and the British burned the Capitol and the White House, along with most of nonresidential Washington. The British pressed onward, and Admiral Cochrane sought to invade Baltimore. General Ross was killed as his forces advanced towards the city, and their movement stalled. Cochrane's forces bombarded Fort McHenry, which guarded Baltimore's harbor, but were unable to take it. This event inspired Francis Scott Key, an American lawyer detained on one of Cochrane's ships, to write the Star-Spangled Banner. Unsuccessful at Baltimore, Cochrane's damaged fleet limped to Jamaica for repairs, and made preparations for an invasion of New Orleans, hoping to cut off American use of the Mississippi River. By mid 1814, the War of 1812 was turning out to be tougher fighting than either side expected. Britain, caught up in the costly Napoleonic Wars, began to look for a way to extricate itself from its American commitment. In the Belgian city of Ghent, American negotiators (including John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay) met with British diplomats. After considerable bickering, the negotiators signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, officially ending the war. The treaty returned US-Britain relations to the same status as they had been before the war. The US neither gained nor lost any territory. Impressment went unaddressed. The war was officially over, but news traveled slowly across the Atlantic Ocean. In New Orleans, Cochrane landed the British troops, who were still waiting for their replacement commander for Ross, General Packenham, to arrive from Britain. On January 8, 1815, Andrew Jackson's ragtag army soundly defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans. Even though this battle had been fought unnecessarily (the treaty was already signed) the US celebrated wildly, manifesting an upsurge in American nationalism. Although the war had sheltered New England manufacturing from British competition, New England merchant shipping had been seriously hurt, and a group of Federalists met at the Hartford Convention in late 1814 to discuss their grievances. A few talked of secession from the Union, but most just wanted to make it hard for the US to declare war or impose embargoes in the future. When the news of the treaty from Ghent arrived, it made the Federalists look silly, or even treasonous. The Hartford Convention spelled the end of the Federalist Party Context Coming out of the American Revolution, the US and Britain still faced many unresolved tensions. The British practice impressment had gone on for hundreds of years, and the independence-minded Americans were no longer willing to tolerate such an affront to their sovereignty. Further, thanks to memories of the Revolutionary War, deep enmity remained between the two nations: Britian had a score to settle, and the US felt deeply that it had to stand its ground. Many at the time of the War of 1812 considered it a "Second War for American Independence," linkages with the first stood strongly in many minds. While pressure for war with England built during his presidency, Thomas Jefferson looked back to the painful struggle of the Revolutionary years and did all he could to search for more peaceful alternatives, such as an embargo. The legacy of the Revolutionary War, however, had a double impact. While it discouraged the desire for war in the generation that fought it, its successes made the men of the next generation seek a war of their own. It was a desire to mathc and surpass their father's tales of the Revolutionary War that made the young War Hawks in Congress so pro-war by 1812. Most clearly, the War of 1812 was an outgrowth of the Napoleonic Wars, a series of conflicts in Europe from around 1800 to 1815. Napoleon was trying to hurt Britain's economy with his Continental System; Britain retaliated with economic sanctions of its own, preventing imports from the rest of the world into European ports. Fledgling America felt the pinch in this titanic battle between France and Britain, and it made an attempt to play the great powers against each other with Macon's Bill No. 2, which promised US support for whichever nation stopped the embargo on American ships. These attempts backfired, as Napoleon tricked Madison by agreeing to abide by Macon's bill without actually doing so. The US had taken a powerfully antagonistic position toward Britain with little to show for it. The situation fell quickly into war. The War of 1812 had several important long-term results for the US. First, because it involved a necessary ban on British manufactures, the war sheltered New England factory owners. Without having to compete with cheap British goods, American industry jump-started during the war years, accelerating the pace of industrialization in the North, a process that would continue for the next hundred years with few interruptions. Also, at the end of the War of 1812, Henry Clay proposed an "American System," including the building of a national railroad network. The project of building a national railroad would continue on through the 19th century, transforming the nation in the process. Second, at the end of the war, Federalists upset with the war met at the Hartford Convention. The meeting appeared to the country as unpatriotic at best, and treasonous at worst. As a result, Federalist power declined rapidly, and the Federalists ceased to be players on the national stage. At the same time, the mild Federalist talk of secession at the Convention helped provide a foudnation for theories of States' Rights and secession that exploded in the Civil War. Finally, the War of 1812 produced many heroes. In terms of future American politics, eventual presidents Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison rose to national prominence by battling Indians and Redcoats during the war. America's conception of itself also gained a defining gem duyring the war: Francis Scott Key composed the words to the "Star Spangled Banner" at the Battle of Baltimore in 1814. Further, this second war against Britain boosted American nationalism, and paved the way for a primarily isolationist 19th century America. And though it would be another century before the US would emerge as a world power, after going once again facing the British and emerging intact, US sovereignty in the Western Hemisphere would never again be legitimately challenged. Timeline Important Terms, People, and Events Terms Chesapeake - In 1807, off the Virginia Coast, the USS Chesapeake was approached by a British vessel, the HMS Leopard, which asked to board and reclaim 4 deserters. When the Chesapeake refused, the British vessel opened fire, in violation of international law and outraging the entire United States. Constitution - Also called "Old Ironsides", this US Naval ship surprised the world when it defeated the HMS Guerriere in waters off Bermuda on August 20, 1812. Democratic-Republicans - Party of Jefferson, opposed to the Federalists and their program of strong central government and loose interpretation of the Constitution. The DemocraticRepublicans were a major political force from 1801-1825. Embargo - An economic sanction that prevents goods from being shipped out of one country in order to hurt the economy of another country or countries. Embargo Act - Jefferson's 1807 response to British activities like the Chesapeake Incident. Intended to hurt Britain and France, who were both interfering in US shipping, the Embargo Act caused economic discomfort in the US and was repealed on March 1, 1809, to be replaced with the Non-Intercourse Act. Federalists - The political party of Alexander Hamilton, which advocated a strong central government and loose interpretation of the Constitution. Fort McHenry - American island fortress that guarded Baltimore's Harbor. In 1814, it withstood British bombardment, inspiring Francis Scott Key to write the Star-Spangled Banner. Impressment - Technique the British used to staff their ships. Sailors from other countries would be captured and forced to work for the British navy in a "press-gang" crew. Though certainly a British technique, it was not as prevalent as exaggerated by American propagandists. Macon's Bill No. 2 - Madison's 1810 ploy to get either Britain or France to lift trade restrictions. Under Macon's Bill No. 2, if one country agreed to free trade with the US, sanctions would be re-imposed against the other nation. Non-Intercourse Act - After the repeal of the unpopular Embargo Act, this 1809 law restricted trade only with Britain and France. Orders in Council - British laws requiring all ships wishing to trade with Europe to stop in a British port first. (Impossible under Napoleon's Continental System. Secession - When a state or states leaves the union based on the argument that if the union no longer represents the interests of the state, it has a right ("States' Rights") to do so as a sovereign entity. Star-Spangled Banner - America's National Anthem, written by Francis Scott Key in 1814: "Oh say can you see, by the dawn's early light, / What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? / Whose broad stripes and bright stars, thro' the perilous fight, / O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? / And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, / Gave proof thro' the night, that our flag was still there. / Oh say does the star-spangled banner yet wave / O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?" (There are several other verses) War Hawks - Young group of politicians, representing mostly southern and western frontier states, coming to power in Congress in the 1810s. The War Hawks were tired of their fathers' stories about "whipping the British" in the Revolution and were anxious for war themselves. Henry Clay, elected Speaker of the House, was the most visible leader of the War Hawks. People John Quincy Adams - Sixth president of the United States (1825-1829) and leading formulator of American diplomacy. Isaac Brock - General who commanded the British forces in Canada during the War of 1812. Henry Clay - Kentucky Congressman and senator throughout the first half of the 19th century. During the War of 1812, Clay was Speaker of the House and a leading War-Hawk. Thomas Cochrane - British Admiral who commanded the Royal Navy's actions in the War of 1812, particularly the naval aspects of the assaults on Baltimore and New Orleans. William Henry Harrison - Ninth US President. Major General Harrison became famous for his victory over Tecumseh at Tippecanoe Andrew Jackson - Also known as "Old Hickory", Jackson was the 7th US President (18291837). Jackson became popular thanks to several Indian campaigns against the Creek Indians and his stunning victory over British forces at New Orleans in January of 1815. Thomas Jefferson - The 3rd US President (1800-1808), Jefferson was the author of the Declaration of Independence and a leading American political philosopher. Despite the unpopularity of his 1807 Embargo Act, he was followed in the presidency by his hand-picked successor, James Madison. Francis Scott Key - American Lawyer detained by the British who, after seeing the American flag remain atop Fort McHenry during its nighttime bombardment in 1814, was inspired to write the Star-Spangled Banner. Thomas Macdonough - US Naval Officer who embarrassed the British by winning the Battle of Lake Champlain (near Plattsburg) in 1814, using cables to swing his boat around in a crucial moment in the battle, presenting the enemy with a fresh broadside. His victory prevented a British invasion of New York. James Madison - Founding Father and 4th US President (1809-1817). Madison had been Secretary of State for Jefferson, and as president he continued many of Jefferson's policies. The War of 1812 took place during Madison's presidency. Edward Packenham - British General who was to replace Robert Ross after Ross' death at Baltimore. Packenham's late arrival in the New World severely hampered the amphibious invasion of New Orleans. Oliver Hazard Perry - An American naval officer, Perry's small fleet won a celebrated battle against the British on Lake Erie. The Prophet - Named Laulewasikau, a Shawnee visionary and brother of Tecumseh. Robert Ross - British general who commanded land forces at the battle of Bladensburg in 1814, defeating General Winder and opening the road to Washington, which he burned, sparing many private residences. Ross was killed in the assault of Baltimore. Tecumseh - Shawnee chief and leader who organized an intertribal confederation to fight against white encroachment in the Ohio Valley. He was defeated by Harrison at Tippecanoe. He died at the Battle of the Thames, while siding with British in the War of 1812. William Winder - General who commanded the disorganized American forces at Bladensburg, leading to a complete route by the British. Events Bladensberg - August 24, 1814 battle in which British (under Ross) routed the Americans (under Winder) so quickly that it came to be called the "Bladensburg Races". This battle opened the way for the British to march to Washington, which they burned. Treaty of Ghent - Signed on December 24, 1815 in the Belgian town of Ghent, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the situation between the US and Britain to its status quo ante bellum (the way things were before the war). Hartford Convention - Meeting in late 1814 of discontented New England Federalists to discuss their grievances with the War of 1812. Some members contemplated secession, but the Hartford Convention was generally more moderate than that. When the war soon ended, the Hartford Convention suggested to many that the Federalist Party was full of traitors, and the Federalist Party fell into decline as a result. Battle of Horseshoe Bend - Also called the Battle of Tohopeka; 1814 battle in which Andrew Jackson crushed the Creek Indian resistance once and for all, ending his Indian campaign and becoming a national military hero. Battle of the Thames - October 5, 1813 battle in which General Harrison won a decisive victory over the combined British and Indian forces in Ontario, Canada. Tecumseh was killed in this battle. This victory helped make Harrison even more popular after Tippecanoe. Tippecanoe - November 7, 1811 victory by General Harrison, in which he destroyed the headquarters of Tecumseh's Indian confederation. Although the US forces suffered heavy losses, Harrison was considered a victor and a hero, and he used the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!" in his later successful bid for the presidency.