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Unit 1 Packet – Basics of Geography
Chapter 1, Section 1 – The Five Themes of Geography
1.
Geography is the study of the distribution and interaction of physical and human features on the earth.
Geographers use a variety of tools to study the use of space on earth. ______ are used as visual
representations of a portion of the earth. Other tools might be: photographs, charts, graphs, tables, scale
models, or graphic models.
Geographers also organize information into categories. The geographic question “Where is it?” refers to
2.
_____________. The answer can be determined by _______________ location (the exact place on earth
where a geographic feature is found) or _________________ location (a place in comparison to other places
around it).
a.
To describe absolute location, geographers use a grid system of imaginary lines. The earth can be
divided into two halves called _________________. If divided horizontally, the dividing line is the
______________ which divides the earth into northern and southern halves. In the western hemisphere, the
equator cuts across the top of South America. To locate places to the north or south of the equator, parallel
lines, called parallels of _______________, can be drawn with zero degrees being the equator. 90 lines,
measuring degrees of latitude, can be drawn between the equator and the North Pole and vice versa. When
you divide the earth vertically, you create a zero degree line called the _________ ___________ which
stretches from the North Pole to the South Pole and runs through Greenwich, England. Similar lines called
meridians of _______________ can then be drawn to the east and west of the Prime Meridian to mark the
eastern and western hemispheres. The hemispheres end at the 180 degree line also called the
__________________ _______ _______.
b.
Each site on earth can have only one __________________ location. More exact absolute locations
can be found by further subdividing between the latitude and longitude lines into 60 minutes and then
between those lines to 60 seconds. (See page 9 in the Atlas)
3.
c.
Time zones change approximately every 15 degrees of _______________________.
d.
Relative location describes how a place is ____________ to its surrounding environment.
The question “What is it like?” refers to _________. Place includes the _______________ features
(climate, landforms, and vegetation) and __________________ characteristics (introduced by humans) of a
location which set them apart.
4.
The question “How are places similar (what makes one region different from another)?” refers to
______________. A region is an area of the earth’s surface with ______________ characteristics. These may
include physical, political, economic, or cultural characteristics. ________________ regions are defined by a
limited number of related characteristics, such as, the United States, Canada, Latin America, etc. A
_________________ region is organized around a set of interactions and connections between regions, like a
city and its suburbs. A _____________________ region is a region in which people perceive, or see, the
characteristics of the region in the same way.
5.
The question “How do people relate to the physical world?” refers to the relationship between humans
and their environment. People learn to ________/___________ what the environment offers them and to
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________________/______________that environment to meet their needs. They also learn to live with aspects
of the environment that they cannot control, such as climate.
6.
The question “How do people, goods, and ideas move from one location to another?” refers to
_________________. ________________ distance means how far across the earth a person, an idea, or a
product travels. Physical geography can affect linear distance by forcing a shift in a route to avoid impassable
land or water. __________ distance is the amount of time it takes for a person, an idea, or a product to travel.
Modern inventions have shortened time distances. ______________________ distance refers to the way
people view distance. As we become familiar with a place, we think it is closer than it actually is. People make
choices based on psychological distance.
7.
A _____________ is a three-dimensional representation of the earth. Globes are not easily
_________________.
8.
A _________ is a two-dimensional graphic representation of selected parts of the earth’s surface. Maps
are easily portable and can be drawn to any ___________ needed.
9.
The disadvantage of a map is that distortion occurs as the earth’s surface is flattened to create the map.
A cartographer, or mapmaker, reduces some types of distortion by using different types of map projections. A
map projection is a way of drawing the Earth’s surface by presenting a round Earth on flat paper.
10.
The three types of maps are general reference maps, thematic maps, and navigational maps. One kind
of general reference map is called a ____________________ map, which is a representation of natural and
man-made features on the earth. ___________________ maps emphasize specific kinds of information, such
as climate or population density. Sailors and pilots use ____________________ maps.
11.
Satellites provide data to geographers. ___________________ is a series of satellites that orbit more
than 100 miles above the earth collecting data in a 115 mile wide strip. Landsat can scan the entire Earth in 16
days. Geostationary Operational Environment Satellite (GOES) is a _________________ satellite which flies in
orbit in sync with the Earth’s rotation. The data it gathers is useful in forecasting the weather.
12.
The Geographic Information System (______) stores information about the world in a ______________
database. GIS has the ability to combine information from a variety of sources and display it in ways that allow
the user to visualize the use of space in different ways.
13.
The Global Positioning System (_____) uses a series of 24 satellites called Navstars, which _________
information to the earth. The exact position—latitude, longitude, altitude, and time—is displayed on a hand-held
receiver.
Chapter 2, Section 1 – The Earth Inside and Out
14.
The Earth is the third planet in the _________________ system of the sun, which is a medium-sized
star on the edge of the ___________ _____ galaxy.
15.
The __________ is the center of the earth and is made up of iron and nickel. The outer core is liquid,
but the inner core is solid. Surrounding the core is the _______________, which has several layers. The
mantle contains most of the earth’s mass. ___________, which is molten rock, can form in the mantle and rise
through the crust, the thin layer of rock at the earth’s surface.
16.
Rock in the ______________________ is hot enough to flow. Heated rock __________moves up
toward the lithosphere, cools, and circulates downward. Riding above this circulation system are the
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____________________ plates, enormous moving pieces of the earth’s lithosphere. The lithosphere of the
earth once consisted of one supercontinent called __________________.The movement of the plates of the
earth caused Pangaea to split and move creating several continental landmasses.
17.
a.
Tectonic plates move in one of four ways:
_______________/________________, or moving apart horizontally; creates rift valley (on land or
under the water) and allows magma to move upward creating a mid-ocean ridge
b.
_______________, or diving under another plate; the downward movement of one plate creates a
trench
c.
__________________/collision, or crashing into one another; generally makes both landform rise and
buckle (creating mountains)
d.
18.
_________________, or sliding past one another.
When two plates meet each other, they can cause folding and cracking of the rock. Because the
movement is slow, the rocks, which are under great pressure, become more flexible and bend or fold. If the
crust is not flexible, it will crack and the fracture is called a ___________. It is at the fault line that the plates
move past each other.
19.
As the plates grind or slip past each other at a fault, the earth shakes or trembles
(___________________). A ______________________ measures the size of the waves created by an
earthquake. The point directly above the focus on the earth’s surface is called the epicenter. A
______________ Scale uses information collected by seismographs to determine the relative strength of an
earthquake. Sometimes an earthquake causes a ______________, a giant wave in the ocean.
20.
Magma, gases, and water from the mantle collect in underground chambers. These elements move to
the earth’s surface as _________________. Magma that has reached the earth’s surface is called _________.
The ________ ___ ________ is a zone of volcanoes around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. Eight major tectonic
plates meet in this zone. Other volcanoes can be located where magma from deep in the mantle rises and
melts through the lithosphere, as in volcanoes in the Hawaiian islands. Hot springs and geysers are indicators
of high temperature in the earth’s crust. Not all volcanic action is bad. Volcanic ___________ produces fertile
soil. Hot springs, steam, and heat generated by magma are often tapped for _________.
21.
Surrounding the earth is a layer of gases called the __________________ which contains the oxygen
we breathe, protects the earth from radiation and space debris, and provides the medium for weather and
climate.
22.
The solid rock portion of the earth’s surface is the __________________, which includes the crust and
uppermost mantle. The landmasses above water are called ___________________. This solid portion moves
because of heat and pressure underneath.
23.
The _____________________ is made up of the water elements on the earth, which include oceans,
seas, rivers, lakes, and water in the atmosphere. Most of the hydrosphere is made up of oceans.
24.
The atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere form the __________________, where plants and
animals live.
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Chapter 2, Section 2 – Bodies of Water and Landforms
25.
The _____________ is an interconnected body of salt water that covers about 71% of the planet. Even
though it is one ocean, geographers divide it into four main parts: the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the
Indian Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean. The ocean circulates with currents, waves, and tides. ________________
act like rivers flowing through the ocean. _______________ are swells or ridges produced by winds.
_________ are the regular rises and falls of the ocean created by the gravitational pull of the moon or the sun.
The motion of the ocean helps distribute heat on the planet. Winds blow over the ocean and are either heated
or cooled by the water. When the winds eventually blow over the land, they moderate the temperature of the air
over the land.
26.
The ___________________ cycle is the continuous circulation of water between the atmosphere, the
oceans, and the earth. The water we use today is the same water that has been used by human beings over
our entire history. Water ____________________ into the atmosphere from the surface of the oceans, other
bodies of water, and from plants. The water exists in the atmosphere as vapor. Eventually, the vapor cools,
condenses, and falls to earth as ___________________—rain, sleet, or snow. The water soaks into the
ground, evaporates to the atmosphere, or flows into rivers to be recycled.
27.
The water held in the pores (spaces) of rock is called ground water. The level at which the rock is
saturated marks the rim of the ______________________. The water table can rise or fall depending on the
amount of precipitation in the region and on the amount of water pumped out of the ground.
28.
__________________ are naturally formed features on the surface of the earth. The sea floor has
landforms similar to those above water. The earth’s surface from the edge of the continent to the deep part of
the ocean is called the ______________________. _______________ is the difference in elevation of a
landform from its lowest point to its highest point (hills, mountains, plains, or plateaus). __________________
is the combination of the surface shape and composition of the landforms and their distribution in a region.
29.
Rivers flow from high ground to low ground. Their flow is downhill or downstream. Uphill is upstream or
against the flow. Elevation on a map will indicate river flow. The direction of river flow can, also, be checked by
looking where two rivers meet. Look for a V-shape. The closed end of the V points downstream as show in the
slide. The process of erosion created the V.
30.
For the major river systems in the world there are identified drainage ________________. The
elevations surrounding these rivers directs the water flow toward that river.
Chapter 2, Section 4 – External Forces Shaping the Earth
31.
__________________ refers to physical and chemical processes that change the characteristics of rock
on or near the earth’s surface. Weathering processes create smaller and smaller pieces of rock called sediment
(mud, sand, or silt).
a.
________________ weathering only changes the size of rock, not its composition. Frost, plant roots,
road construction, drilling, and blasting are forms of mechanical weathering.
b.
________________ weathering occurs when rock is changed into a new substance. Some minerals
react to oxygen in the air and begin to crumble. Other minerals break down when combined with water or
carbon dioxide, which form weak acids within the rock. When sulfur and nitrogen oxides mix with water,
__________ ______________ is formed which can also speed up decomposition. Climates that are warm
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and moist will produce _________ chemical weathering than do cool, dry areas. Rocks in cold dry and hot
dry areas generally experience __________ mechanical weathering than chemical weathering.
32.
____________ occurs when weathered material is moved by the action of wind, water, ice, or gravity.
Material moved from one location to another results in the lowering of some locations and increased elevation in
others. Plants, trees, and roots help hold soil in place.
a.
Water erosion occurs as water flows in a stream or river by picking up loose material and moving it
downstream. _______________ in the water can also create the abrasion or grinding away of rock by the
transported particles. Water can also dissolve chemical elements in the rock and change the composition.
When a river enters the ocean, the sediment is deposited in a fan-like landform called a ____________.
Wave action along coastlines also changes the land—reducing or increasing the beaches. Sediment
deposited by wave action may build up sandbars or islands (______________________).
b.
Wind erosion can also deposit sediment in other locations. Deposits of ____________, windblown silt
and clay sediments that produce very fertile soil, are found across the world. Wind erosion can also sculpt
new landforms.
33.
A ____________ is a large, long-lasting mass of ice that moves because of gravity. Glaciation is the
changing of landforms by slowly moving glaciers. Rocks caught underneath the glacier may be ground into finer
and finer particles. Glaciers can cut valleys into the land. Rock carried within the glacier can be left in new
locations. Rocks left behind by a glacier may form a ridge or a hill called a _________________.
34.
_______ is weathered rock, organic matter, air, and water that supports plant growth. Organic matter,
called ___________, in the soil helps to support the growth of plants by providing needed plant food.
Chapter 3, Section 1 – Seasons and Weather
35.
As the earth revolves around the sun, it is tilted at a 23.5 degree angle in relation to the sun. Because
of the earth’s revolution and its tilt, different parts of the earth receive the direct rays of the sun for more hours of
the day at certain times in the year (______________). The more direct the rays of the sun, the warmer the
season.
36.
Two lines of latitude—the tropic of _____________ and the tropic of ________________—mark the
points farthest north and south that the sun’s rays shine directly overhead at noon. The day on which this
occurs is called a _________________ During our winter, the sun is shining more directly on the southern
hemisphere and at 90 degrees north latitude (north pole) is dark (winter solstice – Dec. 22 or 23 in northern
hemisphere and summer solstice – June 21 or 22 in northern hemisphere.
37.
Twice a year on the _________________, the days and nights all over the world are equal in length
(vernal/spring equinox - @ March 21 and autumnal equinox - @ Sept. 23).
38.
_____________ is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular location and time.
_________________ is the term for weather conditions at a particular location over a long period of time. Daily
weather is the complex result of several conditions:
a.
The amount of solar energy received by a location varies according to the earth’s position in relation to
the sun. Large masses of air absorb and distribute this solar energy, which in turn affects the weather.
b.
Water vapor determines whether there will be precipitation—falling water droplets in the form of rain,
sleet, snow, or hail.
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c.
Cloud cover which may hold water vapor
d.
Landforms and bodies of water – Water heats slowly but also loses heat slowly; land heats rapidly but
loses heat quickly.
e.
Elevation – As elevation above sea level increases, the air becomes thinner and loses its ability to hold
moisture.
f.
Air movement – Wind moves the air and the solar energy and moisture that it holds; weather can
change very rapidly.
g.
The density of the ozone layer controls the warmth of the earth. A thinner ozone layer allows heat to
escape back into space. A thicker ozone layer traps heat on earth causing global warming.
39.
Precipitation depends on the amount of water vapor in the air and the movement of that air. As warm
air rises, it __________ and loses its ability to hold water vapor. The water vapor ________________, and the
water droplets form into clouds. When the amount of water in a cloud is too heavy for the air to hold, rain or
snow ______.
a.
_____________________ precipitation occurs in hot, moist climates where the _____ quickly heats the
air. The heated air rises, and by afternoon clouds form and rain falls. The Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) is an area of low pressure that forms where the Northeast Trade Winds meet the Southeast Trade
Winds near the earth's equator at about 5° north and 5° south. As these winds converge, moist air is forced
upward. Solar heating in the region, also, forces air to rise through convection Sailors called the area along
the equator the “doldrums” because the air flow is not sideways, but rather upward and sailing ships could be
becalmed. Rising air will cool and cause water vapor to condense, or be "squeezed" out, as the air cools and
rises, resulting in a band of heavy precipitation around the globe along this equatorial line. This band moves
seasonally, always being drawn toward the area of most intense solar heating, or warmest surface
temperatures. However, the ITCZ is less mobile over the oceanic longitudes, where it holds a stationary
position just north of the equator. In these areas, the rain simply intensifies with increased solar heating and
diminishes as the sun moves away. Weather stations in the equatorial region experience precipitation up to
200 days each year, making the equatorial and ITC zones the wettest on the planet. The equatorial region
lacks a dry season and is constantly hot and humid (unless, another factor interferes). The ITCZ’s convection
process continues. Having lost most of its water vapor to condensation and rain in the upward branch of the
circulation, the descending air is dry. Low relative humidities are produced as the air is adiabatically heated
due to compression as it descends into a region of higher pressure. The subtropics are relatively free of the
convection, or thunderstorms, that are common in the equatorial belt of rising motion. Many of the world's
deserts are located in these subtropical latitudes (@20 to 30 degrees of latitude).
b.
__________________ precipitation falls on the ______________ side of hills or mountains that block
moist air and force it _____________. The air cools and rain or snow falls. The land on the
______________ side is called a _________ _________________because it gets little rain from the
descending dry air.
c.
Frontal movement causes most precipitation in the middle latitudes. A __________ is the boundary
between two air masses of different temperatures or density. Rain or snow occurs when lighter, warm air is
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pushed upward by the colder, denser air. The rising air ________, water vapor ______________, and
______________________ falls.
40.
Storms that form over warm, tropical ocean waters are called ______________—also known as
_________ in E. Asia and ____________ in S. Asia. Air flowing over an ocean with a water temperature of 80°
F or higher picks up huge amounts of moisture and heat energy. As these water-laden winds flow into a lowpressure core, they tighten to form an “_______” with the winds circling around. Winds can reach 200 miles per
hour.
41.
Monsoons - The positions of the world's continents and major oceans significantly influences the major
pressure belts that develop from the general circulation of the atmosphere. Land gains and loses heat much
more quickly than seawater. Consequently, the large landmasses of the Americas and Asia become much
warmer in summer and much colder in winter. The extra surface heat in summer generates a continental region
of low pressure, whilst in winter, the colder descending air gives rise to dominant high pressure anticyclones. In
summer, the development of continental low pressure significantly influences the pattern of monsoons that
affect the weather of India and southern Asia, which would otherwise be much weaker if the subtropical high
pressure remained persistent. When the landmass of Asia heats up in the summertime, the landmass is
warmer than the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The movement of air is, thus, from the oceans to the land. This
brings moisture to Asia and a wet season. In the wintertime, the landmass is colder that the surrounding oceans
and the movement of air is, thus, from the land to the water and, therefore, a dry season prevails.
42.
Unlike hurricanes, which take days to develop, _____________ form quickly over land and sometimes
without warning. A tornado is a powerful funnel-shaped column of spiraling air. Winds can reach 300 miles per
hour. 3 out of every 4 tornadoes around the world hits in the United States.
43.
A _____________ is a heavy snowstorm with winds of more than 35 miles per hour and reduced
visibility.
44.
A ______________ is a long period of time with insufficient rainfall.
45.
When water spreads over land not normally covered with water, it is called a ____________.
Chapter 3, Section 2 - Climate
46.
Six major factors affect climate: wind currents, ocean currents, latitude, elevation, landforms,
continentality
a.
_____________ currents help distribute the sun’s heat from one part of the world to another through
__________________, the transfer of heat in the atmosphere by upward motion of the air. As sunlight heats
the atmosphere, the air expands, creating a zone of _____ air pressure. Cooler dense air in a nearby high
pressure zone rushes into the low-pressure area, causing __________. Unfortunately, the spin of the earth
prevents this from being a direct route and the flow in the atmosphere breaks into three zones between the
equator and each pole. The hot air flows toward the poles, and the cold air moves toward the equator.
Global winds blow in fairly constant patterns called ____________________ winds. The direction of
prevailing winds is determined by _________________ and is affected by the movement of the earth. The
winds would blow in straight lines, but since the earth rotates they are turned at an angle. This bending of the
winds is called the __________________ effect. Cooler air from the poles sinks and blows toward the
equator and are called ________________ winds (easterlies). The wind of the middle latitudes is known as
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___________________. They generally blow from west to east. Winds in the high latitudes are known as
polar _________________. These winds generally blow from east to west. The polar easterlies bring cold
conditions to the middle latitudes when the _________ _____________, a high-speed, westerly wind located
in the upper atmosphere oscillates, or bends, pushing the polar easterlies further south. When the cold air of
the westerlies meets warm, moist air, they form a ____________. Stormy weather usually occurs when two
different types of air meet. Near the equator global winds are diverted north and south, leaving a generally
windless band called the ________________. Located between about 10°N and 10°S latitudes, the doldrums
are calm; winds almost disappear. This is also called the ____________________ ___________________
____________ (ITCZ). Along the equator the heat leads to evaporation, which leads to precipitation. Unless
there are other factors, it will be very ______________ in this zone.
b.
________________ currents are like rivers flowing in the ocean. Moving in large circular systems,
warm waters flow away from the equator toward the poles, and cold water flows back toward the equator.
Winds blowing over the ocean currents affect the __________________ of the lands that the winds cross.
Currents flow in complex patterns affected by wind, the water's salinity and heat content, bottom topography,
and the earth's rotation. Deep water forms when sea water entering polar regions cools or freezes, becoming
saltier and denser. Colder or saltier water tends to sink. Warm surface currents invariably flow from the tropics
to the higher latitudes, driven mainly by atmospheric winds, as well as the earth's rotation. Cold surface
currents come from polar and temperate latitudes, and they tend to flow towards the equator. Like the warm
surface currents, they are driven mainly by atmospheric forces. Gyres form when the major ocean currents
connect. Water flows in a circular pattern--clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere. The Gulf Stream surface current is a western boundary current, one of the strongest-warm, deep, fast, and relatively salty. It separates open-ocean water from coastal water. The California
current is an eastern boundary current. It is broad, slow, cool, and shallow. Eastern boundary currents are
often associated with upwelling. The Somali current, off Africa's eastern coast, is unusual because it reverses
direction twice a year. From May to September it runs north; from November to March it runs south. As it
flows northward, upwelling supports productive marine life, but productivity falls when the current begins to
move southward. Upwelling stirs the soup and serves up a stew of nutrients that have settled into deep
water. The ocean is layered: warmer on top, cold at the bottom. Organisms move from one layer to another,
and plant and animal remains containing nutrients "rain" down, but the layers stay fairly separate in all but a
few places. Coastal upwelling occurs against the western sides of continents in the Atlantic, Indian, and
Pacific. There, colder water rises to replace warm surface water blown out to sea by strong offshore winds.
Upwelling supports about half of the world's fisheries, although these cool waters account for only 10 percent
of the surface area of the global ocean. Ocean currents also affect the amount of ____________________
received. Cold ocean currents flowing along a coastal region chill the air and sometimes prevent warm air
and the moisture it holds from falling to earth.
c.
Geographers divide the earth into three general zones of ______________: low or tropical, middle or
temperate, and high or polar. ____________/_____ zones are found on either side of the equator. They
extend to the tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere and the tropic of Capricorn in the Southern
Hemisphere. Lands in tropical zones are generally ______ all year long. The high-latitude _________ zones,
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which encircle the North and South Pole, are ________ all year. The two _______________/
_____________ zones sit at the middle latitudes, between the tropics and the polar regions and their climate
varies greatly.
d.
Another factor in determining the climate of a region is _______________, or distance above sea level.
As ______________ increases, the air temperature drops 3-5° F for every 1,000 feet.
e.
_______________ also affect the climate. The windward and leeward sides of a mountain will have
different climates.
f.
The distance from the moderating effects of the ocean also affect climate. Deep in the continent the
climate will have greater extremes of precipitation and temperature. The term for this is ______________.
Continentality is a factor in the creation of a desert, it is the idea that as an area is very far from the sea
there is more seasonal variation. Remoteness from the sea means that there is less chance of precipitation.
Continentality affects and influences both temperature and rainfall (precipitation). It is an important factor in
climographs. For example the Tassili Mountains of southern Algeria are almost 2000 km from the sea. Solar
radiation heats land faster than water and, then, land will cool off faster. Continentality, therefore, causes
greater extremes in both temperature and precipitation the farther inland an area is. A characteristic of
regions that lack the temperature moderating effects of the sea exhibit a greater range of minimum and
maximum temperature, both daily and annually. Continentality also exists where the prevailing winds tend to
head offshore (Boston, MA). Such regions get quite warm in the summer, achieving temperatures
characteristic of tropical climates but are much colder than any other climates of similar latitude in the winter
(climate extremes).
47.
The warming of the waters off the west coast of South America—known as ____ ________—is a
natural change in the climate. About every 2 to 7 years, prevailing easterly winds that blow over the central
Pacific Ocean slow or ______________ direction, changing the ocean temperature and affecting the weather
worldwide. The Americas will receive more rain while Australia and Asia experience droughts. When the
reverse occurs the event is called ____ ________.
48.
There is controversy over whether global warming of the earth exists. Some scientists believe that there
is a natural warming and cooling, in cycles, of the earth. An increase in the layer of the atmosphere that traps
more of the suns heat is one proposed cause of global warming and is called the ________________ effect.
Chapter 3, Section 3 – World Climate Regions
49.
The two most significant factors in defining different climates are ________________ and
______________ (measurement of the amount of heat in the atmosphere).
50.
There are 5 climate zone and 12 climate subzones:
a.
Tropical (Tropical Wet; Tropical Wet Dry)
b.
Arid (Desert; Semiarid, Mediterranean)
c.
Continental (Humid Subtropical; Humid Continental; Marine West Coast)
d.
Polar (Subarctic; Tundra, Ice Cap)
e.
Highland (Highland)
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Chapter 3, Section 4 – Soils and Vegetation
51.
Soil characteristics and climate are major influences on vegetation. An __________________is an
interdependent community of plants and animals. The ecosystem of a region is referred to as a ___________.
Biomes are further divided into forest, grassland, desert and tundra.
a.
Forestlands are categorized by types of trees they support—_________________ or
__________________. Broadleaf trees, such as maple, oak, birch, and cottonwood, are also called
_________________ trees, because the leaves fall in the winter. Needleleaf trees are also called
__________________ trees because they are cone bearing. _______________ are forests located in the
tropical zone, covered with a heavy concentration of broadleaf trees.
b.
Grasslands, mostly flat regions dotted with a few trees, are called by different terms. In the tropical
grassland region, the flat, grassy, mostly treeless ____________ are called ______________. In the
Northern Hemisphere, the terms __________ or ______________ are used to identify temperate grasslands.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the temperate grasslands may be referred to as ____________,
_______________, or ____________. Specifically, in Russia or Eurasia, plains are called steppes.
Chapter 4, Section 1 – Elements of Culture
52.
Culture is the total knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors shared by and passed on by the members of a
specific group. Culture involves the following factors:
a.
b.
c.
d.
53.
Food and shelter
e. Education
Religion
f. Security/protection
Relationships to family and others
g. Political and social organization
Language
h. Creative expression
A group that shares a geographic region, a sense of identity, and a culture is called a ____________.
The term ____________ group is used to refer to a specific group that shares a language, customs, and a
common heritage. An ethnic group has an identity as a separate group of people within the region where they
live.
54.
Taking existing technology and resources and creating something new to meet a need is called
_______________. Innovation and invention may happen on purpose or by accident.
55.
The spread of ideas, inventions, or patterns of behavior is called ________________.
56.
A ______________ ___________ is a site of innovation from which basic ideas, materials, and
technology diffuse to many cultures.
57.
Individuals in the society must decide whether the innovation is useful and consistent with its basic
principles. ________________________ occurs when a society changes because it accepts or adopts an
innovation.
58.
Language helps establish a cultural identity or it can divide people. Geographers estimate that between
3,000 and 6,500 languages are spoken across the world today. Versions of language are called ________. A
dialect reflects changes in speech patterns related to class, region, or other cultural changes.
59.
Most religions consists of a belief in a supernatural power or powers that are regarded as the creators
and maintainers of the universe. There are three types of religions: ____________________, with a belief in
one god; ___________________, with a belief in many gods; and, _______________or traditional, often with a
belief in divine forces in nature. There are many different belief systems.
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Chapter 4, Section 2 – Population Geography
60.
In 1999 the world’s population reached 6 billion. There are 230,000 people born each day. The
_______________ is the number of live births per thousand population. The world average birth rate is 22 per
thousand. The highest birth rate is in Niger at 54 live births per thousand and the lowest is in Latvia at 8 live
births per thousand.
61.
The ______________ rate shows the average number of children a woman of childbearing years would
have in her lifetime, if she had children at the current rate for her country. The worldwide average fertility rate is
about 3.0. A fertility rate of 2.1 would be necessary to replace the current population.
62.
The _________________ rate—also called the death rate—is the number of deaths per thousand
people. In general, a society is considered healthy if it has a low mortality rate. The infant mortality rate shows
the number of deaths among infants under age one per thousand live births. If you subtract the mortality rate
from the birth rate you can determine the rate of natural increase, or population growth rate.
63.
Population change is based on the following:
a.
__________________
b.
__________________
c.
__________________- the process of moving from one place to another
64.
Some gender imbalance is caused by war, which decreases the number of men of that age group and
the number of children born during and after the war ends (in some cases the birthrates increases, in others it
decreases). In MDCs women generally live 5 years longer than men. This may show up as a small imbalance.
In those societies with a cultural preference for boys, the male’s side of the pyramid will show more boys.
These imbalances can be seen in population pyramids. Population pyramids show _______________ and
_________________ totals. Horizontal bars represent the numbers or proportions of males and females in each
age group, or cohort. The sum of all the age-sex cohorts in the population pyramid equals 100 percent of the
population. Cohorts may vary from single years to groups of years. The left side of the pyramid represents the
male population and the right side, the female population. The bars at the bottom of the pyramid represent the
percent of the population that is male, 0-4 years old (left) and the percent of the population that is female 0-4
years old (right). Each bar above the base represents the next five-year cohort, male and female, in the
population. As cohorts age, they inevitably lose members because of death and they may gain or lose
members because of migration. After age 45, the loss of population accelerates, causing the narrowing peak of
all population pyramids. Raw population numbers need to be translated into percentages by dividing the
population of each cohort by the total population of the country and translate into percentages.
65.
Population _______________ is the average number of people who live in a measurable area, such as
a square mile. The number is reached by dividing the number of inhabitants in an area by the total amount of
land they occupy. However, the population is never equally divided across the area because some lands are
more habitable that others.
66.
Population _____________________ shows where large groups of people live.
67.
______________ _________________ is the number of organisms a piece of land can support. A
region with fertile land may be able to support far more people than one with land of poor quality or with little
land available for cultivation.
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68.
The J Curve shows the growth of the total world’s population of the history of humans.
69.
____________________ __________________ model shows that high reproduction rates are replaced
by lower reproduction rates as a country moves from less developed to more developed.
Chapter 4, Section 3 – Political Geography
70.
Governmental units of the world can be described in either political or geographic terms. Generally, we
use the political term “___________” to describe an independent unit that occupies a specific territory and has
full control of its internal and external affairs. Often the term “country” is used to mean state. ___________
refers to a group of people with a common culture living in a territory and having a strong sense of unity. When
a nation and a state occupy the same territory, that territory is called a nation-state. Many countries of the world
are nation-states. However, it is possible for a nation not to have a territory and then are referred to as a
__________________ nation.
71.
Types of governments:
a.
democracy – citizens hold political power, either directly or through elected representatives (direct
democracy – early Athens, Greece; caucuses in Iowa; representative democracy – United States = republic)
b.
monarchy – a ruling family headed by a king or queen holds political power and may or may not share
the power with citizen bodies (United Kingdom; Japan). Many monarchies have constitutions which limit the
monarch’s power and parliaments that provide representation and pass laws.
c.
aristocracy – power is in the hands of a hereditary ruling class or nobility
d.
oligarchy – power is in the hands of a few powerful people
e.
dictatorship/autocracy/authoritarianism – an individual or group holds complete political power
(Germany under Hitler; Italy under Mussolini; Iraq under Saddam Hussein)
f.
communism/totalitarianism – in this government and economic system nearly all political power and
means of production are held by the government in the name of all the people (China; USSR under Stalin;
Cuba)
g.
theocracy – religious leaders and religious laws control the government/country (Iran; Saudi Arabia)
h.
federalism – powers are divided between the national government and the regional governments
(United States, Canada, Mexico)
72.
Boundaries or borders set the limits of the territory controlled by a state. There are natural and artificial
boundaries. A ______________ boundary is based on physical features of the land, such as rivers, lakes, or
chains of mountains. There are problems with natural boundaries. If a river shifts course, who gets the
additional land. An ________________ boundary is a fixed line generally following latitude or longitude lines.
Chapter 4, Section 4 – Urban Geography
73.
Today, much of the population of the world lives in cities. Cities are not just areas with large
populations—they are also centers of business and culture. Cities are often the birthplace of innovation and
change in a society. Urban lifestyles are different from those of towns, villages, or rural areas.
74.
An urban area develops around a main city called the ______________ city. The built-up area around
the central city may include _________________, which are political units touching the borders of the central
city or touching other suburbs that touch the city. Smaller cities or towns with open land between them and the
central city are called ______________. The city, its suburbs, and exurbs link together economically to form a
functional area called a ________________/___________________ area. A __________________ is formed
when several metropolitan areas grow together.
75.
The dramatic rise in the number of cities and the changes in lifestyle that result is called
____________________. Cities often develop where goods are shifted from one form of
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_______________________ to another. Cities may specialize in certain economic activities because of their
location. Cities may develop because of the economic opportunities established there.
76.
Urban geographers also study land use: residential, industrial (manufacturing), and commercial (private
business and buying and selling businesses). The core of a city is almost always based on commercial activity
and is called the ______________ ________________ _____________ (CBD). Generally, the farther you get
from the CBD, the lower the value of land.
Chapter 4, Section 5 – Economic Geography
77.
a.
The way people produce and exchange goods and services is called an economic system.
___________ economy – Goods and services are traded without exchanging money, also called
“barter.” Some people only make enough food and goods for themselves. This is called _______________
lifestyle.
b.
____________ economy or __________________ – Production of goods and services is determined by
a central government, which usually owns the means of production. Production does not necessarily reflect
the consumer demand. Also called a planned economy.
c.
____________ economy – Production of goods and services is determined by the demand from
consumers. Also called a demand economy or capitalism.
d.
____________ economy – A combination of command and market economies provides goods and
services so that all people will benefit.
e.
___________________ businesses are privately owned and operate for profit.
f.
______________ industries exist where people do work at their ___________ for an employer,
especially when a factory is not available or when machinery was not available to do mass work.
78.
Producing and distributing goods and services requires a series of support systems. The most
important is infrastructure. __________________ consists of the basic support systems needed to keep an
economy going: power (energy sources), communications, transportation, water, sanitation, housing, food, jobs,
recreation, health services, police and fire protection, environmental services, law enforcement, and education
systems. The more sophisticated the infrastructure, the more developed the economy.
79.
Geographers use a variety of standards to make comparisons among economies. One is _________
______________ income, the average amount of money earned by each person in a political unit. Another way
of comparing economies examines levels of development based on economic activities such as industry and
commerce. Still others use a standard of living that reflects a society’s purchasing power, health, and level of
education.
80.
A commonly used statistic to measure the economy of a country is the ________ _____________
_________________ (GNP). The GNP is the total value of all goods and services produced by a country (even
if part of that company is located in another country) over a year or some other specified period of time. Gross
_________________ Product (GDP) is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country in a
given period of time.
81.
Some companies produce goods in the U.S. and in other countries around the world
(______________________________). Multinationals provide jobs in other countries, but they, also, tend to
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take the profits out of that country and try to influence local governments; not necessarily to the benefit of the
local population.
82.
a.
The four sectors of the economy are: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
_______________ sector activities harvest raw materials directly from the earth: agriculture, forestry,
fishing, and mining.
b.
_____________________ sector activities turn the primary materials into finished goods and transport
those goods.
c.
_________________ sector activities provide services: cooks, waiters, bankers, teachers, entertainers,
doctors, lawn mowers, and babysitters, etc.
d.
_________________ sector activities include the information technology (IT) jobs (medical research,
professional management, computer-related education, and computer-related activities).
Less Developed vs. More Developed Countries
83.
Less Developed Countries (LDCs) or developing countries have certain characteristics: less
productive economically, low per capita GDP, high birthrates, low literacy rates.
a.
low per capita GDP – with a lower level of education, LDCs do not have industries or services sell many
goods
b.
low per capita income (GNIPPP per capita) – the majority of people work in agriculture and have lower
levels of education, therefore, do not have jobs that have high salaries
c.
low literacy rates – LDC governments do not have money to provide schools; or the society as a whole
does not value eduation
d.
high birth rates – children in LDCs have value to bring income into the family, either by working at
factories, working on the family farm, or begging; with a high death rate and high infant mortality rate, families
have more children to make sure some survive; since the governments do not provide retirement, the children
(particularly the eldest boy child) will have to take care of their parents when they cannot take care of
themselves; large families are sometimes the only way a woman has value or status in society
e.
low life expectancy or high death rates – wars, poor food sources, disease, poor medical care, poor
sanitation
f.
low infant mortality rates – poor healthcare/medicine; poor health of mothers; lack of food
g.
high poverty level – a few people have most of the wealth and most of the people are very poor
84.
More Developed Countries (MDCs ,developed countries or the 1st world countries or the core
countries, have certain characteristics which indicated they are the richest countries with the highest standard of
living: high per capita GDP or income, high literacy rates, low birth rates, high life expectancies, low death
rates, low infant mortality rates, and a low percentage of people that live below the income level of U.S. $2 a day
a.
high per capita GDP – the majority of people in MDCs have a higher level of education and, therefore,
are qualified to make a higher level of goods or service; MDCs either have, or can afford, raw materials with
which to make goods
b.
high per capita income (GNIPPP per capita) – the majority of people in MDCs have a higher level of
education and, therefore, are qualified to take jobs that pay higher salaries; often both parents work which,
also, raises the total income of the country
c.
high literacy rates – countries that are doing well can afford to invest in schools and raise the level of
education; in addition, often those countries that have already become MDCs, contained people that felt that
education was important enough to fund; often, these are democracies where the people have a say in what
the level of education will be
d.
low birth rates – a high level of education will, generally, provide women with career options; some
couples may choose to put off having children while they establish their careers; in an urbanized, educated
society, children are a liability (they cannot work or beg to bring in money for the family)
e.
high life expectancy or low death rates – fewer wars, better food sources, less disease, better medical
care, better sanitation
f.
low infant mortality rates – better healthcare/medicine; less disease
g.
low poverty level – in more developed countries, the income is more evenly distributed and there will be
fewer people living in poverty (there will be a lower, middle, and upper class)
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