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Oxford Guide to British & American Culture
UK-References
Chapter 1
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Alfred the Great : king of Wessex. He defended England against Danish attacks,
established the English navy and encouraged education and the use of the English
language. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was originally compiled in his orders.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: an early history of England, written in Old English. It ends
in the 12th century, but mostly covers the period from the time when the Romans came to
Britain until the Norman Conquest. It was originally compiled on the orders of King
Alfred the Great.
Arthur and Arthurian legend: The legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the
Round Table are familiar to many British people. They are subjects of several poems and
stories of the Middle Ages. The real King Arthur lived in the late 5th and early 6th century.
He was a warrior chief who led the Britons in battles against the Saxons. The stories of
Arthur and his knights celebrate the age of chivalry, when knights aimed to live according
to the highest Christian principles. The love affairs in the stories are part of the tradition
of courtly love, which was a central theme in the poetry of the Middle Ages.
Avalon: (in ancient Welsh stories) a beautiful island where dead heroes go. According to
the legend it is the place where King Arthur’s body was taken after his last battle. Some
people believe Avalon to be in or near what is now Glastonbury. The name is thought to
mean “land of apples”.
Avebury : a village in Wiltshire, England, where there is an important prehistoric
monument. This consists of Silbury Hill and a circle of standing stones that is much larger
than Stonehenge. Avebury was made World Heritage in 1986.
Bath : a city in south-west England, famous for its healthy mineral water and hot springs,
its ancient Roman baths and beautiful Georgian buildings. In 1987 Bath was one of the
first places in Britain to become a World Heritage Site. It was an important town in the
Roman province of Britannia, known by its Latin name Aquae Sulis.
Bede : The Venerable Bede, an English monk and historian. At his monastery in Jarrow in
north-east England, he wrote many books, the most important of which, Ecclesiastical
History of the English People, written in Latin, was the first serious work of English
History.
Book of Kells : a copy of the four Gospels of the Bible made in the 8th century at a
religios community in the town of Kells in Ireland. It has many beautiful illustrations, and
can be seen in the library of Trinity College, Dublin.
Boudicca (died AD 62) the queen of the Iceni tribe of eastern Britain when it was part of
the Roman Empire. She led the Iceni against the Romans and destroyed several of their
camps. When she was defeated she killed herself. She is often shown in pictures driving a
chariot with blades attached to the wheels.
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Danelaw : the part of north-eastern England that was ruled by the Danes from 878 until
the whole of England came under Danish rule in 1013. The line between Danelaw and the
rest of Anglo-Saxon England ran roughly between London and Chester. Many places in
the north-east of England still have Danish names. e.g. Denby means Dane Village,
Thorpe in names like Middlethorpe means farm.
Druid : A priest in the religion of the ancient Celts in Britain, France and Ireland. This
religion was destroyed by the Romans in France and Britain but continued in Scotland and
Ireland until Christianity replaced it. Today some people who want to bring this ancient
religion back to life call themselves Druids. They sometimes try to hold ceremonies at
Stonehenge.
Fosse Wa y: A Roman road which crossed England from Lincoln in the east to Exeter in
the south-west.
Hadrian’s Wall : A wall in northern England built between 122 and 127 AD by the
Roman emperor Hadrian, from Wallsend on the River Tyne to Bowness on the Solway
Firth. It was the northern border of the Roman Empire, from which the Romans could
keep back the Picts. It was a major achievement, 120 kilometres long and 4.9 metres high,
with forts every mile along its length. Long sections of the wall still remain, and
thousands of tourists visit it every year. It was made a World Heritage Site in 1987.
Lindisfarne Gospels : A book containing the 4 Christian Gospels, produced in the island
of Lindisfarne around AD 700. It is written by hand, with many beautiful pictures and
decorations, and contains early examples of the northern version of Old English. It is now
kept in the British Library, London.
Offa’s Dyke : A large bank of earth along the border between England and Wales. It was
built in the 8th century by Offa, a king of Mercia, as a protection against the Britons who
lived to the west of it. Later, it became the border between the 2 countries. Today Offa’s
Dyke is a National Trail and people enjoy walking along it, or parts of it.
Skara Brae : A Stone Age village on Mainland, the largest island of the Orkney Islands.
It is the best preserved village of its period in Europe, because it was covered in sand for
almost 3000 years.
Stonehenge : Britain’s most famous prehistoric monument, on Salisbury Plain in southern
England. It consists of 2 circles of large standing stones, one inside the other. The inner
circle consisted of arches made by laying one stone across the tops of two others. Some of
these have fallen, but some are still in position. Stonehenge was built between 3000 and
1500 BC. Nobody knows why it was built, but many people think it was to study the stars
and planets or to worship the sun, because a line through its centre would point directly to
the position of the rising sun on Midsummer’s Day or the setting sun in midwinter.
Since the 1980s young people, including many hippies and New Age Travellers, have
been going there for their own midsummer celebrations, but the police usually prevent
them from getting near the stones. Stonehenge was made a World Heritage Site in 1986.
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White horse : Any of several large figures of white horses in the English countryside,
mainly in southern England. Most of them were made in prehistoric times, by cutting the
grass away from the surface of chalk hills and probably had a religious meaning for the
people who made them. Others are believed to be more recent. The best-known white
horses are at Uffington in Oxfordshire and at Westbury in Wiltshire.
Chapter 3-4
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Roger Bacon : A Franciscan monk and philosopher who became known as ‘Doctor
Mirabilis’ or ‘the Admirable Doctor’. He was unusual for his time in regarding
mathematics and science as very important. His writings show that he was particularly
interested in chemistry, optics (= the scientific study of sight and light) and astrology, and
he seems to have understood the possibilities of gunpowder (=explosive power), the
telescope, glasses and flying. In 1278 his work was declared to be heretical (=opposed to
religious beliefs) and he was put in prison until just before his death.
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Bayeux Tapestry : A finely decorated cloth wall covering made in the 11th century. It
shows the events that led to the Battle of Hastings (1066) between the Normans under
William the Conqueror and the English under King Harold II, and the death of King
Harold. It is 68 metres long and is kept in a museum at Bayeux in northern France.
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Thomas à Becket : (c.1118-70) an English saint. He was a close friend of King Henry II,
who made him chancellor (= senior law official) and later Archbishop of Canterbury,
hoping by doing this to be able to control the English Church. When Thomas resisted
they quarrelled. According to tradition Henry said: “ Who will rid me of this turbulent
priest? As a result 4 knights murdered Becket in Canterbury Cathedral, which became a
place of pilgrimage where people travelled to show respect for the saint. His story was
made into a play, Murder in the Cathedral (1935), by T.S. Elliot.
The Conquest (also the Norman Conquest) : The events of 1066, the most famous
date in English history, when the Normans defeated the English and took control of
England. William, Duke of Normandy, landed with his army at Pevensey in south-east
England and defeated the English under the King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. King
Harold was killed and William became King William I of England. By 1070, the Normans
had firm control of the whole country. See also BAYEUX TAPESTRY.
Domesday Book : A written record of the ownership and valueof land in England in
1086. It was made for William the Conqueror in order to calculate the size and value of
the king’s property and the tax value of other land in the country. The book is of great
historic importance because it tells us a lot about England at the time. It can be seen at
the Public Record Office in London: Their house is mentioned in the Domesday Book.
Edward I (1239-1307) : The King of England from 1272 to 1307, the eldest son of Henry
III. He spent a lot of time trying to control Wales and Scotland, fighting, among others,
William Wallace and Robert the Bruce. As a result he was called the Hammer of the
Scots. In 1296 he brought the Stone of Scone to England. Although he was the first
Norman King of England, there were 2 King Edwards before the Conquest.
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Henry II : (1133 – 89), king of England (1154 – 89) He was the grandson of Henry I,
succeeded King Stephen, and was the Plantagenet King. He reduced the power of the
barons and increased the power of the state. He wanted to reduce the power of the
Church, which led to his dispute with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket,
which ended in Becket’s murder. During his rule England established control over
Ireland. Henry also introduced various systems of justice which can be seen as the
beginning of common law.
Magna Carta (also the Magna Carta) A document that King John was forced to sign by
he English barons at Runnymede in 1215. It restricted the king’s power and gave new
rights to the barons and the people. Some of these rights are basic to modern British law,
e.g. the right to have a trial before being sent to prison. Four of the original copies of the
Magna Carta still exist; two in the British Library and one each in the cathedrals of
Salisbury and Lincoln.
Model Parliament : the name later given to the English parliament set up in 1295 by
King Edward I. It was the first to include not only members of the clergy and the
aristocracy but also elected members to represent ordinary people. In this way it
established the pattern for future parliament.
Stone of Scone : A large stone that was the traditional seat on which the ancient kings
of Scotland were crowned. It was used until 1296, when Edward I had it brought to
London and made into part of the Coronation Chair. For many Scottish people it is an
important national symbol, and they asked repeatedly for it to be returned. It was
removed from Westminster Abbey several times by Scottish people who thought that it
should be kept in Scotland. In 1996 it was returned to Scotland and can be seen in
Edinburgh Castle.
William Wallace (1270-1305) : A Scottish soldier. He led an army against the English
forces of King Edward I, who had occupied Scotland, and defeated them at Stirling
Bridge in 1297. The following year Wallace was defeated by Edward at Fallkirk, and was
later captured and hanged. The film Braveheart (1995) was made about his life.
Chapters 5 & 6
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Act of Supremacy : (in Britain) an Act of Parliament in 1534 that made King Henry VIII
the head of the Church of England. This left the Pope with no power in England.
Armada : (also : The Spanish Armada) The group of 129 ships sent by Spain in 1588 to
attack England. A group of British ships, led by Lord Howard of Effingham’s “Ark Royal”
and Francis Drake’s “Revenge” , defeated the Armada in the English Channel. It was the
first sea battle in history involving a large number of ships , and was seen by the English
as a great victory. (The word armada is now often used to mean any large group of
ships)
Black Death : The name given to the major outbreak in Europe in 1348-1351 of bubonic
plague (= a serious disease spread from rats by flies). People with the disease coughed
up blood and got large painful black spots on their bodies, and usually died. It is thought
that the Black Death killed about one third of the population of Europe.
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Dissolution of Monasteries : The destruction or sale of buildings and land belonging to
religious communities in England by King Henry VIII (between 1536 and 1541) after he
became head of the Church of England. Henry wanted to make the Church less powerful
and he needed the money. Many people in England at the time felt that the Church was
too rich and wasted its great wealth, so Henry had little difficulty in taking the Church’s
wealth for himself, although many fine old buildings were destroyed.
John Dowland : An English composer of songs and music, mainly for the lute, an
ancient instrument like a guitar. He worked at various royal courts in Europe before
entering the service of King James I. His best-known work is “Lachrimae” (1604).
Elizabeth I : (1533-1603) The queen of England and Ireland from 1558, after the death
of her sister Mary I. She is regarded as one of England’s greatest rulers. The daughter of
King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth was an extremely strong an clever woman
who controlled the difficult political and religious situation of the time with great skill.
During her reign the country’s economy grew very strong, the arts were very active, and
England became firmly Protestant and confident in world affairs. However, Elizabeth is
often seen as a very lonely figure and is known as the “Virgin Queen” because she never
married, although she is thought to have has sexual relationships with the Earl of
Leicester and the Earl of Essex.
Edward III : (1312-1377) the king of England from 1327 to 1377, the son of Edward II.
He had continuing problems with the Scots, but he had some success in his attempts to
become the king of France, for example at the battles of Crécy (1346) and Poitiers
(1355). After his death his grandson became the king of England as Richard II, because
his son Edward, the Black Prince, had died the year before. See also Hundred years war.
Henry VIII : (1491-1547) king of England and son of Henry VII. He is one of the most
famous of all English kings, partly because he had six wives.
For political reasons, he married Catharine of Aragon, the wife of his dead brother Arthur,
just after he became king. They had a daughter, later Mary I, but because they did not
have a son who could be the future king, Henry decided to divorce her. The Pope refused
to give the necessary permission for this, so Henry removed England from the Catholic
Church led by the Pope and made himself head of the Church in England. This act,
together with others such as the Dissolution of the Monasteries, was the beginning of the
establishment of Protestantism in England.
Henry divorced Catherine of Aragon and married Anne Boleyn in 1533. They had a
daughter, later Elizabeth I, but Henry had Anne executed for adultery. His third wife was
Jane Seymour, who died giving birth to a son (later Edward VI). Henry married his fourth
wife, Anne of clever, for political reasons, but soon divorced her and in 1540 he married
Catherine Howard. She too was executed for adultery. Henry’s sixth and last wife was
Catherine Parr, who survived him.
As a young man, Henry was known for his love of hunting, sport and music, but he did
not rule well and the country was in a weak and uncertain state when he died.
Hundred Years War : A war between England and France that lasted, with long periods
between battles, from the 1340s to the 1450s. The English were trying to get control of
France, and won some major battles, including Crécy (1346) and Agincourt (1415) but by
the end of the war the had only gained the area around Calais, which they kept until
1588.
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Inns of Court : Four institutions in the City of London, established in the Middle Ages, of
which all barristers are members and at which students of law are trained. They consist
of Gray’s Inn, Lincoln’s Inn, the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple. It’s thought that
they began as hostels for people studying common law during the Middle Ages , when it
was not possible to study the subject at universities. The equivalent institution in Scotland
is the Faculty of Advocates.
Mary, Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart 1542-87) : The queen of Scotland from 1542 to
1567. She was the daughter of King James V of Scotland and the cousin of Queen
Elizabeth I, and became queen of Scotland shortly after her birth. She did not rule
Scotland until 1561 and was instead brought up in France, where she was queen briefly
in 1559. She was a Roman Catholic, and after her return to Scotland became involved in
religious disputes with Scottish protestants. In 1567 she was forced to give up power in
favour of her son James VI (later king James I of England), and moved to England where
she was held as a prisoner. In the years that followed there were several attempts by
Catholic Groups to make her queen of England in place of Elizabeth I, and Elizabeth
finally ordered Mary’s head to be cut off. Her adventures, love affairs and three marriages
have been the subject of many books, plays and films. See also Bothwell, Darnley.
Mary Tudor : Mary I 1516-58 the queen of England and Ireland from 1553 to 1558.
She was the daughter of king Herry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, and became queen
after the death of king Edward VI. Among her first acts as queen was the execution of
Lady Jane Grey, who also had a claim to be queen. Mary was determined to bring back
Roman Catholicism to England, and married the Catholic Philip II of Spain in 1554. Mary
Protestants opposed this, and she ordered hundreds of them to be burned to death, for
which she became known as ‘Bloody Mary’. Among those who died in this way were
Thomas Cranmer and Hugh Latimer. Mary had no children, and after her death she was
replaced by her half-sister (Elizabeth I.)
Peasants’ Revolt : An incident in 1381 when the peasants (= poor farmers) of Kent and
Essex marched to Canterbury and then to Londen to protest at their conditions of life and
the harsh taxes they had to pay . Tower of Londen. The young king, Richard II, talked to
their leader, Wat Tyler, and promised to help them. Many of them went home, but Tyler
was killed and the Revolt ended in complete failure, gaining nothing for the peasants.
Princes in the Tower : A name given to the two young sons of King Edward IV, i.e. the
boy king Edward V and his brother Richard, Dike of York (1472-83), who went to live in
the royal apartments (= private rooms) in the Tower of Londen in 1483 after their father
died. They disappeared, and some people believe they were murdered either by Richard
III, who had become king, or by Henry VII. The bones of two young children found in the
Tower and tested in 1933 are believed to be theirs. See also WHITE TOWER.
Richard III : (1452-85) the king of England from 1483-1485, following his nephew King
Edward V. He is often thought of as a cruel and violent king, who probably ordered the
murder of the Princes in the Tower, but not all historians accept this view. He was killed
at the battle of Bosworth Field by Henry Tudor, who became King Henry VII.
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Thomas More : (1478-1535) an English politician, author and scholar. He became a
friend of King Henry VIII, who first employed him as a representative in foreign
countries. In 1518 More became a member of the Privy Council, in 1521 he was made a
knight, and in 1529 he became Lord Chancellor after Cardinal Wolsey. However, when
the king decided that he, and not the Pope, was the head of the Church in England, More
refused to accept this decision. For this he was put in prison and then executed. He was
made a saint by Pope Pius XI in 1935. Thomas More was also the author of Utopia
(1516), in which he described his ideas of a perfect society. The book was very successful
all over Europe.
Utopia : An imaginary place or state of things in which everything is perfect. The original
Utopia was an imaginary island described by Thomas More in a book of the same name
which appeared in 1516. He criticized the political systems of France and England and
went on to describe life in utopia, where everyone shared their possessions and led a
happy life.
Chapter 7, 8 & 9
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Act of Settlement: an act of Parliament in 1701, saying that the children of James I ‘s
granddaughter Sophia would be the future kings and queens. The government made this
law because the king at that time, William III, had no children, and they wanted to stop
the catholic Stuarts from becoming kings and queens, Sophia was a Protestant. She
was married to the Elector = a type of prince) of Hanover. Their son became king George
I, the first king of the house of Hanover.
Act of Union: either the two acts of Parliament. The first Act of Union, in 1707, officially
joined England and Scotland as one kingdom, called Great Britain, ruled by the
parliament in London .The second Act of Union, in 1808, added Ireland to this group of
countries, which was then called the United kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The Arts and Crafts Movement: a social and artistic movement in Britain in the second
half of the 19th century, led by William Morris and John Ruskin. Following the
Industrial Revolution, when more and more things were made by machines, the aim of
the Arts and Crafts Movement was to make things such as furniture and silver objects
by hand that were beautiful as well as useful.
Francis Bacon: an English lawyer , politician and philosopher. He was very successful in
his early career and became Lord Chancellor to King James I in 1618, but he was later
accused of accepting money illegally and sent to prison. He was released after only four
days, but never returned to public service. Bacon’s books, including the Advancement of
Learning, show a scientific interest in the world, which was new at the time. Since
1856, some people have claimed that Francis bacon is the real author of Shakespeare’s
plays, because they feel that Shakespeare’s background were not good enough to have
produced such great literature.
The Battle of the Boyne: a victory in Ireland in 1690 for the English king William III
over the Jacobite armies of the former King James II. About 35000 Protestants under
William defeated about 25000 Irish and French Catholics near the Boyne river. The event
is celebrated by Protestants in Northern Ireland on 12 July every year.
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Bill of Rights: it is the informal name of the Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of
the Subject, which was passed by Parliament in 1689. This Act dealt with the
relationship between the king or queen and Parliament , not with the rights of
individuals. The earlier Declaration of Right had greatly reduced the power of the king or
queen, and the new Act helped make Britain a constitutional monarchy, in which real
power lies with Parliament, not with the monarch. The Act also prevented a Roman
Catholic from being king or queen.
William Blake: (1757-1827) an English artist and poet who from childhood claimed to
have visions and talk to beings from heaven. He had a very personal style, full of religious
symbols. He produced ‘ illuminated books’ of his work, containing his poems and
paintings to illustrate them, done by hand. The most famous of these is Songs on
Innocence and of Experience. His best-known poems are Jerusalem and the Tiger He
was very poor all his life and is buried in a common grave in London.
Boer war: (also the South African war) A war (1899-1902) between the British and the
Boers, Dutch farmer who had settled in South Africa. The Boers had established two
independent republics (Transvaal and Orange Free State) in what is now South Africa,
and the British wanted to control the whole region. The British won, but only after harsh,
bitter fighting.
Bloodless revolution: the events in Britain in 1688 when the Roman Catholic James II
was removed as king and replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband William
III (William of Orange). So many of James’s Protestant officers joined William’s side
that there was no fighting, and James escaped to France with his family. These events are
also called the Glorious Revolution because constitutional monarchy was introduce at
the same time.
Cavalier: a supporter of King Charles I in the English Civil War. The name
Cavaliers, which originally meant soldiers on horses, was first used by their enemies, the
Roundheads, to show their disapproval of the Cavalier’s enthusiasm for war: The children
play war games like Roundheads and Cavaliers in the playground.
The Charge of the Light Brigade : a famous attack by British cavalry during the
Crimean War in 1854. An order was understood wrongly, and the soldiers, armed only
with swords were sent into a valley with heavy guns on both sides of them. 247 out of 637
men were killed. The event is remembered as an outstanding example of bad military
leadership and the blind courage of soldiers obeying orders.
Charles I : king of England, Scotland and Ireland (1625-49) He often disagreed with
Parliament, and in 1629 he stopped it meeting and tried to rule the country without it until
1640, when he needed Parliament to help raise money for a war against Scotland. The
Long Parliament refused to help him, and his led to the English Civil War. Charles was
arrested and beheaded.
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Charles II : king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was the son of Charles I. He spent
most of the English Civil War abroad until Parliament invited him to return to be the king
after the death of Oliver Cromwell. He enjoyed the pleasures of life and was well known
for having affairs with many women, including Nell Gwyn.
The Commonwealth: a period (1649-60) in English history when the country was
governed without a king or queen. For the first for years after the death of King Charles
I, the country was governed by the House of Commons. The in 1653 the army gave
power to Oliver Cromwell with the title of Lord Protector. The years 1653-9 are
therefore known as the Protectorate. The Commonwealth ended with the Restoration of
King Charles II.
Crimean War: it was a war fought by Britain, France and Turkey against Russia between
1853 and 56 in the Crimea, a part of the Ukraine. Russia wanted power over Turkey, and
Britain and France wanted to end Russia’s power in the Black Sea. Most of the military
action was around Sebastopol; the Russian navy base. It was the first war during which
the public were able to follow events as they happened, because of the invention of the
telegraph.
Benjamin Disraeli: a British Conservative politician who was twice Prime Minister. He
also wrote a number of popular novels, which showed his interest in social change. He
became leader of the Conservative Party in 1846 and created its modern central
organization. As Prime Minister, he increased Britain’s influence abroad and he bought
half of the Suez Canal for Britain. He also introduced improvements in housing for poor
people in the cities and increased the number of people who could vote at election.
He became a close friend of Queen Victoria, and she made him an earl (Earl of
Beaconsfield).
William Gladstone: (1809-1898) An English Liberal politician who was Prime Minister
four times. He began as a Tory MP but left to form the Liberal Party, becoming its leader
in 1867. He and his rival Disraeli were the leading figures in British politics for over 30
years . Gladstone was responsible for many improvements to life in Britain: he made
voting secret, gave the right to vote to most men (but not women), and gave all children
the right to an education. He also believed that the countries in the British Empire should
govern themselves and that Ireland should have home rule, but he died before these aims
could be achieved.
Great Exhibition: an exhibition of products from many countries around the world that
took place in London in 1851. It was the world’s first international trade fair and the
crystal palace was built for it.
Great Plague: the serious and widespread attack of bubonic plague (= a disease causing
fever, swellings and death) in London 1664-5, when about one fifth of the population
died. The disease was spread by the fleas(= insects that feed on blood) from rats and
killed over 70 000 people. Most British people know about the plague from pictures,
stories and films in which bodies are collected each morning in the street.
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Gunpowder Plot: a secret plan by a group of Roman Catholics to blow up the Houses
of Parliament and kill King James I in 1605. They put gunpowder in the cellars
before the opening of parliament by the King on 5 November. The plan was
discovered before the gunpowder could be exploded, and one of the group, Guy Fawkes,
was arrested and forced to give the names of the others. His name has remained the only
one most people know, although he was not the leader of the group. Every year, before
the opening of Parliament, the cellars are searched in a special ceremony.
Habeas Corpus: a writ (legal order) saying that a particular person who is being held
by the police or in prison must be brought before a court of law so that the court can
decide whether he or she is being held legally. Habeas Corpus is one of the most
important ways of protecting people’s personal freedom. It formally became a part of law
in Britain in 1679. US procedure is also based on this Act. Article I of the American
Constitution says that a person’s right to get a writ of Habeas Corpus can never be taken
away except in cases of rebellion or invasion. ‘habeas corpus’ is part of the Latin phrase
Habeas corpus ad sujiciendum, which means: you should have the body brought before
the judge.
Highland Clearances: the forced removal of farmers from their small rented farm
called crofts in the Highlands of Scotland during the late 18th century. The owners of
the land wanted to use it for sheep and, later, deer. The Clearance caused great poverty
and many farmers and their families left Scotland to live in the US.
Thomas Hobbes: an English philosopher who developed a range of theories about
nature, human behavior and society. He did not believe in god and thought that the only
way to hold society together was to have strong social institutions and a strong ruler.
His book Leviathan sets out these views.
William Hogarth: an English painter and engraver, best known for his sets of paintings
that tell a moral story, such as the Rake’s progress and Marriage à la mode. His house in
Chiswick, London, is now a museum.
Home Rule: the government of the Irish by the Irish. There was a strong political
movement for this from the 1870s to 1914, when a Home Rule Bill was passed by the
British Parliament, because World war I nothing was actually done about it. The IRA was
formed and started to use violent methods in order to get a greater degree of independence
than the Bill allowed. This led to a change in the situation when in 1920 Ireland was split
in Northern Ireland and the Irish free State (now the Republic of Ireland). Many people in
Northern Ireland are still strongly opposed to the idea of being ruled by the government in
Dublin.
David Hume: a Scottish philosopher and historian who is regarded as one of the great
British thinkers. He said that people cannot be certain about anything that is not directly
taken in through their senses. Hume was greatly respected during his lifetime, but was
unable to get a university teaching job because he was agnostic. His most important works
include A Treatise of Human Nature and History of England.
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Industrial Revolution : The phrase used to describe Britain’s progress in the 18th and
19th century from being largely an agricultural country to being an industrial one. Britain
was the first country to change in this way. During this time, many important machines
were invented. These were mostly made possible by the discovery of steam power from
coal and the invention of the steam engine, which allowed one person to do what before
had required many workers. As a result, big factories were built which could produce a
wide variety of goods in large quantities. New methods of transport, in particular canals
and railways, were developed for transporting coal and good goods from place to place.
During the Industrial Revolution, the populations of cities grew rapidly as people moved
from the known as the ‘workshop of the world’. The same kind of development soon
began in other countries in Europe and in the US. See also IRONBRIDGE.
Jack the Ripper : The name given to an unknown man who murdered and cut up several
prostitutes in Whitechapel, Londen, in 1888. The name was used in the letter by someone
who claimed to be the killer but may have been a journalist. People have tried ever since
to find out who he was, but without success. There have been many novels, plays and
films about the murders. See also BOSTON STRANGLER, YORKSHIRE RIPPER.
James I : (1566-1625) the king of England from 1603 to 1625 and of Scotland (as James
VI) from 1567 to 1625. His mother was Mary Queen of Scots. As a relative of Elizabeth I
he became King of England after she died, uniting Scotland and England under one
government. He was not a popular king, however, and Roman Catholic opposition led to
the Gunpowder Plot (1605). His on Charles I became king after he died. James I is
associated with the Jacobean period in literature and the arts. Se also AUTHORIZED
VERSION.
James II : (1633-1701) the king of England an Scotland from 1685 to 1688. He was the
son of Charles I and the younger brother of Charles II, becoming king after Charles II
died. He faced a lot of opposition because he was a Roman Catholic, and in 1688 he was
replaced by the Protestant William III. James went to Ireland in 1689 to try to win back
power, but was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne. He lived the rest of his life in France.
John Constable (OGBAC) : (1776-1837) an English painter who is considered to be one
of the greatest English landscape artists. He often painted scenes from the countryside of
East Anglia, especially along the River Stour, an area that is now described in tourist
advertisements as Constable Country. One of the most famous of these paintings is The
Hay Wain. A large collection of his work was given by his daughter to the Victoria and
Albert Museum in London
John Locke (OGBAC) : (1632-1704) an English philosopher. In his Two Treatises of
Government (1690) he opposed the ideas of Thomas Hobbes, arguing that governments
should rule only if they are supported by the people. This was an important influence on
the later revolutions in America and France, and on the development of Western
democracy. Locke also wrote books on religion, education and economics. His most
famous work of philosophy is An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), an
attempt to show what can and cannot be known.
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Florence Nightingale (OGBAC) : (1820-1910) an English nurse who became famous for
her work during the Crimean War. In spite of a lot of opposition from army officials, she
greatly improved the conditions of military hospitals and reduced the numbers of soldiers
dying of disease. She used to walk round the hospital beds at night with her lamp,
comforting the patients, and so became known as the ‘Lady of the Lamp’. Later she ran a
campaign to change the British hospital system and improve the training of nurses. In
1907, she became the first woman to receive the Order of Merit.
Samuel Pepys (OGBAC) : (1633-1703) an Englishman known today because of his
detailed diaries, written between 1660 and 1669 but not published until the 19th century.
He was a senior government officer in the service of two kings, Charles II and James II,
and he wrote about court and social life in the 17th century, as well as recording major
events such as the Great Fire of London. He also included many private details about his
own life. He knew many of the most important figures of his day, including Sir
Christopher Wren and Sir Isaac Newton. Pepys often ended his writing for the day with
the phrase ‘And so to bed’, which people sometimes use in a humorous way today.
The potato famine (OGBAC) : A disaster that happened in Ireland between 1845 and
1849 when most of the potato crop was destroyed by a plant disease. Potatoes were the
main food of the poor in Ireland then, and about a million people died for lack of food.
Two million people left Ireland for Britain and America because of the famine and many
of them died on the way to America because of disease and hunger in ships known as
‘coffing ships’.
Henry Purcell (OGBAC) : (1659-1695) an English baroque composer. Many people
regard him as the greatest English composer of the period. He wrote many different types
of music, including songs, church music and theatre music, and his Dido and Aeneas
(1689) is considered the first English opera. He was an important influence on later
composers, especially Handel.
Roundhead (OGBAC) : A supporter of Parliament against King Charles I in the English
Civil War. Roundheads were given the name because of their short hair. Their opponents
were the Cavaliers.
Adam Smith (OGBAC) : (1723-1790) a Scottish philosopher and economist. He
believed in free trade and private enterprise (= the idea that business and industry should
be controlled by private individuals or companies, not by the state). His book, The Wealth
of Nations, is regarded as the first major work in the modern science of economics. His
ideas have influenced several politicians in modern times, including Margaret Thatcher
and Gordon Brown.
The Test Act (OGBAC) : A law passed in England in 1673 which prevented Roman
Catholics from holding any official public position, including becoming Members of
Parliament, studying at a university or joining military forces. The law stated that people
had to be members of the Church of England to do any of these things. It was not
cancelled until 1828.
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Tory : a member of one of the two main political parties in Britain from the 1670s
until the 1830s. The Tories were originally a group of politicians who wanted the
Roman Catholic James, Duke of York (later James II) to be allowed to become
king of England. They were powerful for various periods during the 18 th and 19th
centuries. In the 1830s, the Tories developed into the Conservative Party and the
name is widely used as an informal alternative name for the Conservative Party.
Battle of Trafalgar : an important sea battle (1805) in which the English,
commanded by Lord Nelson, defeated both the French and the Spanish. It was
fought near Cape Trafalgar, in south-west Spain, during the Napoleonic Wars.
During the battle Nelson was badly wounded on his ship, HMS Victory. As he lay
dying he made the famous request to one of his senior officers: “Kiss me, Hardy”.
The victory established Britain as the world’s leading power at sea for many
years.
Victoria : (1819-1901) a British queen who ruled from 1837 tot 1901. She was
the granddaughter of King George III and became queen after the death of King
William IV. Her rule was the longest of any British king or queen, and happened
at the same time as Britain’s greatest period of world power and industrial
development. In 1840 she married her cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-CoburgGotha. They had nine children. After Albert’s death Victoria took no further part in
public affairs, but was persuaded to return by her prime minister Benjamin
Disraeli, who gained for her the title Empress of India. She is often remembered
as a bad-tempered old woman. However in her early life she was a happy and
enthusiastic queen who was very popular with ordinary people.
Victorian : having the qualities associated with middle-class people of the 19th
century. These qualities are sometimes called Victorian values. Some people
think they are mainly good, and see them as including loyalty, self-control and the
willingness to work hard. Others think they are mainly bad, and see them as
including sexual hypocrisy, lack of concern for the poor, and lack of a sense of
humour.
Robert Walpole : (1676-1745) a British Whig politician who was Britain’s first
prime minister (1715-1717 and 1721-1742). He also served the longest time of
any prime minister and was the first to live at Number Ten, Downing Street. His
periods in power were times of peace and economic succes for the country,
although Walpole himself was accused of dishonest behaviour in government. He
was made an earl in 1742.
Whig (1) : a member of a British political party established in the late 17 th century.
The Whigs believed that Parliament should have more power than the king or
queen, and supported the Hanoverian kings against the Stuarts. They believed in
religious freedom and political reforms. The Whigs, who were mainly rich
businessmen and people who owned land in the country, were in power for the
first half of the 18th century. In the 19th century they changed into the Liberal
Party. Compare Tory.
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William Turner : (1775-1851) a major English artist, famous for his landscape
and seascape paintings (= scenes of the countryside and of the sea). A
characteristic feature of his work is his original treatment of light and weather
conditions. His style had a great influence on later artistic movements, especially
Impressionism and abstract expressionism. Turner spent much of his life
travelling widely in Britain and Europe, doing drawings for his paintings. His bestknown paintings include The Fighting Téméraire (1838) and Rain, Steam and
Speed (1844), both of which are in the National Gallery in London. Many of his
paintings became the property of the British nation after his death and are in Tate
Britain in London. In 1987 the Clore Gallery was added to the Tate especially to
display Turner’s works.
Workhouse : a place where very poor people were sent by the authorities to live
and work. Conditions in these places were very bad and the people living there
had to work very hard and obey strict rules. As a result, poor people were
frightened of being sent there. Life in the workhouse is described in some of the
novels of Charles Dickens.