Download Level 2 History (90470) 2010 Assessment Schedule

NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 1 of 19
Assessment Schedule — 2010
History: Examine individual or group identity in an historical setting, in an essay (90470)
Describe and explain how longer-term and shorter term factors influenced a specific individual or
group’s characteristics / identity. Describe and explain how the actions of the specific individual or
group expressed their identity.
Judgement Statement
This achievement standard requires writing an essay describing factors that have contributed to the formation of
individual or group identity, and ways the identity was expressed, in an historical setting, and describing
characteristics of this individual or group identity.
Achievement
Achievement with Merit
Achievement with Excellence
NOTE 1: Assessors should not overly penalise candidates for what might seem to be errors in differentiating
between longer and shorter-term causal factors; however, for Merit and Excellence differentiation is required as
per the instructions below.
NOTE 2: There is no requirement for the characteristics of the group / individual to be explicitly stated: this
criterion of the standard is covered implicitly when candidates describe / explain the factors leading to the shaping
of the identity.
NOTE 3: The specific group / individual must be identified by the candidate, either explicitly or implicitly
NOTE 4: Although accuracy in evidence is desirable (eg dates, figures, statistics, quotes, names) this standard is
not assessing recall of specific details; candidates should not be penalised at any grade level unless lack of
accuracy detracts from the examination of identity.
CONTENT
The way in which longer-term and
shorter term factors helped shape
the characteristics / identity of a
specific individual or group is
described.

As a guide, at least TWO
factors in total are required,
longer and / or shorter term
NOTE: There may be limited / nonexistent differentiation between
longer- and shorter-term factors.
and
How the actions of the specific
individual or group expressed their
identity is described.

As a guide, at least TWO ways
are required
(Describing means a relevant idea
is stated and followed up with some
amplification.)
The way in which longer-term and
shorter term factors helped shape
the characteristics / identity of a
specific individual or group is
explained.
The way in which longer-term and
shorter term factors helped shape the
characteristics / identity of a specific
individual or group is
comprehensively explained.

As a guide, at least THREE
factors in total are required,
longer and shorter term (even if
these are implicit)
NOTE: There should be some
differentiation between longer- and
shorter-term factors evident.
and
How the actions of the specific
individual or group expressed their
identity is explained.



As a guide, at least THREE
ways are required
(Explaining means: describing the
longer-term and shorter-term
factors and making links as to how
these helped shape the
characteristics / identity of a specific
individual or group. Similarly there
needs to be links between the
actions and how these were an
expression of identity. Explanation
is supported with appropriate facts.)
As a guide, at least THREE
factors in total are required,
longer and shorter term
NOTE: Differentiation between
longer- and shorter-term factors
evident.
and
How the actions of the specific
individual or group expressed their
identity is comprehensively
explained.
As a guide, at least THREE
ways are required
(Comprehensive means the essay
builds on the requirements for Merit
by covering a wide range of
relevant content. The explanation is
supported with appropriate facts.
The writing style of the candidate
complements the required level of
content and explanation.)
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 2 of 19
STRUCTURE
The historical information could be organised in an appropriate essay
format that includes:
 an introduction and conclusion that make reference to at least one of
the questions
 evidence of paragraphing
The historical information should be
organised in an effective essay
format that includes:
 an introduction and conclusion
that address both questions
 structured and / or sequenced
paragraphs with evidence of
argument
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 3 of 19
Selected topic or setting: Indian Independence Movement
Selected individual or group: Gandhi / Indian National Congress
Ways in which longer-term and shorter term factors helped shape a specific individual or group’s
characteristics / identity could include:
NOTE: Generally ‘longer-term’ factors will be those that have had a cumulative influence over a sustained
timeframe (eg culture, values, and historic events) and ‘shorter-term’ will usually be more recent events or
experiences. Do not penalise candidates over differences of interpretation (between marker and candidate) of what
constitutes ‘longer-term’ and ‘short-term’ unless the interpretation is clearly wrong (eg an event several years
before the timeframe of the candidate response is written of as ‘longer-term’).
Longer term
Culture / values:
Indian culture is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy, reinforced by the pantheon of gods. While there are
significant regional differences, far more powerful is the traditional Hindu division into ‘non-polluting’ and ‘polluting’
occupations (through the caste system). The religion of more than 80.4 per cent of the people is Hinduism. Islam is
practiced by around 13.4 per cent of all Indians. Because Hinduism has no set creed there is a wide variety of
beliefs encompassed, making it a very tolerant religion. Nationalistic sentiments and expression encompass that
India’s ancient history as the birthplace of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Vedic Civilisation, as well as four major
world religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Indian nationalists see India stretching along these
lines across the Indian Subcontinent. Muslim kings are also a part of Indian pride. Akbar the Great was a powerful
Mughal emperor who sought to resolve religious differences, and was known to have a good relationship with the
Roman Catholic Church as well as with his subjects – Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains.
Nationalist movements: T he goal of ending British rule in India, whether by violent or non-violent means. The
earliest resistance to colonial rule can be traced back to the 16th century in Karnataka under Portuguese rule and
Bengal under the British East India Company in the mid-17th century. The Indian National Congress was formed in
1885 based on the “3Ps” – prayer, petition and [peaceful] protest.
‘Sepoy rebellion’: In 1857, a local rebellion by an army of sepoys rapidly spread across northern India. This
resistance, although short-lived, was triggered by widespread resentment generated by decades of ethnic and
cultural differences between Indian soldiers and their British officers. The rebellion took six months to suppress,
with heavy loss of life on both sides. Afterwards, the British government assumed direct control over India, ushering
in the period known as the British Raj, where an appointed governor-general administered India and Queen
Victoria was crowned the Empress of India. The East India Company was dissolved the following year. Queen
Victoria promised equal treatment under British law, but Indian mistrust of British rule remained a legacy of the
1857 rebellion.
Indian National Congress: The decades following the Sepoy Rebellion were a period of growing political
awareness and emergence of Indian leadership at national and provincial levels, culminating in 1885 with the
formation of the Indian National Congress. At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and
commanded few of the resources essential to a political organisation. It functioned more as a debating society that
met annually to express its loyalty to the British Raj and pass numerous resolutions on less controversial issues
such as civil rights or opportunities in government, especially the civil service. These resolutions were submitted to
the Viceroy’s government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress’s early gains were meagre.
Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants
from other economic backgrounds remained negligible. By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an allIndia political organisation, its achievement was undermined by its singular failure to attract Muslims, who felt that
their representation in government service was inadequate.
Swaraj: The policy of Swaraj (self-determination) developed from around this time. It opposed the British education
system that ignored and defamed India’s culture, history and values and resented the denial of freedom of
expression for nationalists, and the lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation.
“Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it” became the source of inspiration for Indians.
Bengal crisis: Viceroy and Governor-General Curzon’s partition of Bengal in 1905, for administrative purposes,
caused outrage. New methods of nationalist struggle were adopted, including swadeshi (self-sufficiency) and
boycott movements. The Congress-led boycott of British goods was so successful that it unleashed anti-British
forces to an extent unknown since the Sepoy Rebellion. In the face of ongoing unrest, Britain reversed the partition
decision.
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Ways the specific individual or group expressed their identity.
NOTE: Candidates may legitimately write on some of the points covered below as ‘shorter-term’ factors, but should
also be able to write at the appropriate grade level on ‘expression of identity’ without unduly repeating material.
WWI: Contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt, WWI began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty
and goodwill towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream political leadership. India contributed
massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers
served. However, in Bengal and Punjab nationalist activities continued, including the ‘Hindu-German conspiracy’
and several unsuccessful mutiny attempts. In the unsettled times after the war, the pre-war nationalist movement
revived as moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand as a
unified front. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact, a temporary alliance with the Muslim
League over the issues of political power and the future of Islam in the region. In response to the pressure Britain
made some moves towards greater Home Rule.
Gandhi – background: Born into an upper class family, Gandhi first became interested in religion while part of a
study group in London. After being accepted to the bar and having a short, unsuccessful career in Mumbai, Gandhi
accepted a position in South Africa. Here, he first experienced racial discrimination, being thrown off a train despite
having a valid first class ticket. Such experiences led him to begin questioning India’s place within the British
Empire. He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in 1894; and through this organisation, he molded the Indian
community of South Africa into a political force. During the campaign against the Transvaal government’s law
requiring the registration of all Indians, Gandhi began to develop his satyagraha strategy (“devotion to the truth” or
non-violent protest). Although ultimately not successful, the strategy did cause General Smuts to negotiate with
him. He returned to India in 1915.
Champaran and Kheda: Campaigns here were intended to alleviate economic exploitation, including the
obligation to grow cash crops and pay taxes during times of famine. Gandhi organised his first satyagraha in
Kheda. In Champaran, he led organised protests and strikes against the landlords, who with the guidance of the
British government, signed an agreement granting more compensation and control over farming for the poor
farmers of the region, and cancellation of revenue hikes and collection until the famine ended. It was during this
agitation that Gandhi was first addressed by the people as Bapu (Father) and Mahatma (Great Soul). The main
impact came with his arrest. Thousands protested outside the jail, resulting in his release. Some historians say that
this was the biggest victory against the British Empire since the American Revolution.
Amritsar Massacre: (Jallianwala Bagh Massacre) – After WWI, the Rowlatt Acts, legislation that imposed
authoritarian restrictions on Indian people, were passed as unrest and agitation for more autonomy continued. The
notion of habeas corpus was discarded, and the police and army were empowered to search and seize property,
and detain and arrest any Indian without the slightest need for evidence. Furthermore, many Indians were already
infuriated by the British authorities’ decision to send Indian soldiers to World War I without the slightest consultation
with the Indian people in any manner or form. Widespread strikes and disruption in the Punjab region increased
tension. In the wake of a rampage that had seen the death of a number of British civilians in Amritsar, British troops
fired on an illegal gathering of (unarmed) protesters, causing up to 1 500 casualties.
Non-cooperation movement: This was the first-ever series of nationwide protest actions of nonviolent resistance
and civil disobedience, led by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress in the wake of the Amritsar
Massacre. The Movement opened the “Gandhi Era” in the Indian Independence Movement and took place from
September 1920 until February 1922. “Non-cooperation” enjoyed widespread appeal and success, increasing
excitement and participation from all strata of Indian society. Gandhi was elected President of the Indian National
Congress in 1919 and 1920, as well as the All India Home Rule League. When protests became violent, Gandhi
called off the campaign. Despite his moderating influence, Gandhi was arrested. Gandhi’s action caused a split in
the nationalist movement, but some historians say that the non-cooperation movement effectively broke British
rule, despite it taking another twenty-odd years to achieve that goal.
Salt March: In 1928, after no Indians were include in constitutional reforms that year, Gandhi called on the British
government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete
independence for the country as its goal. After the Indian National Congress declared 26 January as India’s
Independence Day, Gandhi launched a new satyagraha against the tax on salt in March 1930, highlighted by the
famous Salt March. Thousands of Indians joined him on this march to the sea. This campaign was one of his most
successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60 000 people. In response to
the campaign’s success, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London as the sole
representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference, however, was a disappointment to Gandhi and the
nationalists, as it focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than the transfer of power.
WWII / Partition: Although Gandhi initially supported cautious ‘moral’ support for the British war effort, others in the
Indian National Congress were angered by Britain’s failure to consult before committing India to the war. All
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 5 of 19
Congressmen elected to resign from office en masse. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for
independence, drafting a resolution calling for the British to Quit India. This was Gandhi’s and the Congress Party’s
most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from Indian shores. Mass arrests followed in the wake of the
campaign, and deaths and injuries grew as protests were suppressed. Although the Quit India movement had
moderate success in its objective, the ruthless suppression of the movement brought order to India by the end of
1943. At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. At
this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100 000 political prisoners were released, including the
Congress’s leadership. Two self-governing countries (India and Pakistan) legally came into existence at the stroke
of midnight on 15 August 1947. On 30 January 1948, Gandhi was shot and killed.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 6 of 19
Selected topic or setting: Russian Revolution
Selected individual or group: Lenin / the Bolsheviks
Ways in which longer-term and shorter term factors helped shape a specific individual or group’s
characteristics / identity could include:
NOTE: Generally, ‘longer-term’ factors will be those that have had a cumulative influence over a sustained
timeframe (eg culture, values, and historic events) and ‘shorter-term’ will usually be more recent events or
experiences. Do not penalise candidates over differences of interpretation (between marker and candidate) of what
constitutes ‘longer-term’ and ‘short-term’ unless the interpretation is clearly wrong (eg an event several years
before the timeframe of the candidate response is written of as ‘longer-term’).
Longer term
Culture / values:
Lenin / the Bolsheviks’ policy (and thus identity) underwent change according to events and conditions, but its
longer-term key values essentially can be considered as:

For the establishment of a proletarian, soldiers’ and peasant state through the overthrow of the Tsarist regime
(including the Church and military hierarchy) in Russia. Land, resources and the means of production and
distribution should be nationalised to achieve economic equality for all in a classless society. In theory, there
would be gender and ethnic equality. Soviets (councils) – Bolshevik-dominated – would be the means by which
the workers / soldiers would organise.

The revolution should be brought about by a relatively small group of dedicated (mostly middle-class and
educated) activists, rather than by a mass movement. Within the party, power would be in the hands of a
Central Committee (based on the notion of ‘democratic centralism’). However, Lenin deviated from the
orthodox Marxist view that the workers’ revolution would come only after a bourgeois class had developed and
taken power, a process that could possibly take up to a century. He believed that this phase could be bypassed
in favour of proceeding directly to the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’. Furthermore, co-operation with other
parties or participation in a Constituent Assembly was acceptable only as an expediency necessary to achieve
the revolution.

Violence would likely be needed, both against the existing regime and, once the revolution had occurred,
against reactionaries. This could entail large-scale killing, if necessary.

Internationalist – workers of the world should unite, and thus not engage in a capitalist-driven war (WWI).
Shorter term
Economic and social

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 left peasants legally free but still economically oppressed because of
redemption payments to be paid to the State. Extreme poverty was exacerbated by enormous population
growth, low agricultural productivity and high taxes.

Urban workers suffered from overcrowded housing with often unsanitary and dangerous conditions, as well as
low wages and long hours at work (on the eve of WWI a 10-hour workday, six days a week, was the average
and many were working 11–12 hours a day by 1916). On the other hand, workers living in cities were exposed
to new ideas about the social and political order.

Centuries of oppression towards the lower classes and the failure of land reforms in the early 1900s resulted in
increased peasant disturbances and sometimes full revolts, the goal being to secure ownership of their land.
(Russia consisted mainly of poor farming peasants, with 1.5 per cent of the population owning 25 per cent of
the land.)

The growth of a new ‘proletariat’, due to being crowded together in the cities, allowed revolutionary ideas of
freedom from oppression to spread. Between 1890 and 1910, the population of the capital of St Petersburg
swelled from one to two million, with Moscow experiencing similar growth. One 1904 survey found that an
average of 16 people shared each apartment in St Petersburg, with six people per room.
Political

Tsar Nicholas II was a deeply conservative ruler. He believed in the myth of the ruler as a saintly and blessed
father of his people. A reactionary and often ignorant clergy kept religion static and persecuted dissenters, and
non-Russian nationalities in the empire were repressed. Pogroms were also instituted against the Jews, which
turned many radical Jews to revolutionary activities. Despite this, Nicholas was unable to believe that true
Russians were not as devoted to him as he felt he was to them. He was thus unwilling to allow the democratic
reforms that might have prevented revolution. Even after ‘Bloody Sunday’ and the failed 1905 ‘revolution’,
when he felt forced to allow limited civil rights (October Manifesto) and democratic representation (the Duma),
the Tsar tried to limit these in every possible way. Article 87 of the 1906 Fundamental State Laws reaffirmed
his autocratic rule, and the first two ‘uncooperative’ Dumas were dismissed. Unfulfilled hopes of democracy
fueled the Bolsheviks’ revolutionary ideas and violence targeted at the Tsarist regime.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 7 of 19

Despite the Tsar’s oppressive regime, there was a long history of opposition (although it had never been able
to achieve unity of purpose or action). From the 1890s, socialists of different nationalities formed their own
parties, a process accelerated by the disastrous Russo-Japanese War. Russian liberal activists from the
zemstva (local councils) and from the professions joined with diverse nationalist groups to form an antiautocratic alliance. Lenin, politicised by the execution of his brother for his part in a plot to assassinate the
Tsar, took a Marxist-inspired revolutionary approach.
WWI

The patriotic unity that Tsar Nicholas hoped for when WWI broke out did not last long. Russia’s first major
battle of the war was a disaster. In the 1914 Battle of Tannenberg, over 120,000 Russian troops were killed,
wounded, or captured, while Germany suffered only 20,000 casualties. In the autumn of 1915, Nicholas had
taken direct command of the army, meaning that he could not escape personal responsibility for the ongoing
disasters. Worse still, his ambitious though incapable (German) wife, Alexandra, was left in charge of the
government. Reports of corruption and incompetence in the Imperial government began to emerge, and the
growing influence of Grigori Rasputin in the Imperial family was widely resented. As conditions worsened,
soldiers went hungry and lacked shoes, munitions, and even weapons. Rampant discontent lowered morale,
only to be further undermined by a series of military defeats. Mutinies began to occur; and in 1916, reports of
fraternizing with the enemy started to circulate. The officer class also saw dramatic turnover, especially in the
lower ranks, which quickly filled with rising soldiers usually of peasant or worker backgrounds; these men
would play a large role in the politicisation of the troops in 1917. The crisis in morale “was rooted fundamentally
in the feeling of utter despair that the slaughter would ever end and that anything resembling victory could be
achieved.”

By the end of 1915, there were already clear signs that the economy was breaking down under the heightened
strain of wartime demand. The main problems were food shortages and rising prices. Inflation rapidly forced
down real incomes, and shortages made it difficult to buy even what one could afford. Shortages were
especially a problem in the capital, Petrograd, where distance from supplies and poor transportation networks
made matters particularly bad. The vast demand for factory production of war supplies and workers caused
many more labour riots and strikes. Conscription, already unpopular, stripped skilled workers from the cities,
who had to be replaced with unskilled peasants. When famine began to hit because of the poor railway system,
workers abandoned the cities in droves to look for food. Tsar Nicholas was blamed for all these crises, and
what little support he had left began to crumble, culminating in his abdication in March 1917.
Ways the specific individual or group expressed their identity:
Pre-revolution

As Lenin developed his understanding of Marxism, he began to publish many articles on his views. While he
was in London, he co-established the newspaper Iskra. His pamphlet What is to be Done? instigated the split
with the Mensheviks in 1903 (see below). This pamphlet is said to be one of the most influential in prerevolutionary Russia, with Lenin claiming that three out of five workers had read it or had it read to them. After
the split, Lenin also began a rival newspaper – the Vperyod. In response to philosophical debates on the
proper course of socialist revolution, Lenin wrote Materialism and Empirio-criticism in 1909, a work that
became fundamental in Marxist-Leninist philosophy.

After several accommodations, disagreements and factional fluctuations over party policy within the Russian
Social Democratic Labour Party, the Bolsheviks under Lenin finally emerged as an independent and separate
party in 1912. From this platform, Lenin was able to exert more influence on the direction of Bolshevik policy
(although there was not always unity even within the Bolsheviks).

In the wake of the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War and the turmoil caused by ‘Bloody Sunday’, soviets
(councils of workers and soldiers) were formed in some cities, the most significant being that in St Petersburg.
Bolsheviks were a minority here, but were a majority in the less significant Moscow soviet. The soviets were a
direct challenge to the Tsar’s authority, and were tolerated only whilst the regime struggled to reassert its
control in the wake of the turmoil of the so-called ‘1905 Revolution’.

The Bolsheviks were represented in the four sessions (1906–1914) of the Duma that was established by Tsar
Nicholas as a concession to those seeking political change. Funding for the party came from wealthy
supporters such as the Moscow millionaire Maxim Gorky, as well as from armed hold-ups of banks. Bolsheviks
also infiltrated leadership positions in various trade unions.

During WWI, Lenin was appalled that many socialist parties inside and outside Russia (particularly Germany)
supported the war. This led him to a final split with the Second International, which was composed of socialist
parties in different countries. Under Lenin, the Bolsheviks were convinced to adopt an internationalist stance of
worker unity irrespective of national boundaries, and total opposition to what Lenin saw as an exploitative
imperialist war. These views were articulated in Lenin’s ‘April Theses’, which he propounded when he returned
to Russia in 1917 in the wake of the March Revolution (Tsar Nicholas’ bloodless abdication. From this point on,
a Provisional Government and the Petrograd soviet co-existed uneasily as each competed for legitimacy
amongst the people in an arrangement known as ‘Dual Power’). Other measures proposed by Lenin included
non-cooperation with the “bourgeois” Provisional Government; the abolition of the police, army and state
bureaucracy; rejection of parliamentary democracy in favour of workers’ control of the state through the system
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 8 of 19
of soviets; and that land should be given to the peasants. These views were neatly summed up in the slogan:
“Peace, Land, Bread.”

Lenin fled to Finland in the wake of the ill-advised “July Days” attempted Bolshevik revolution in 1917. Radical
anti-war Social Democrats merged with the Bolsheviks in August, and the Bolshevik Central Committee spent
September and October of 1917 debating whether they should use parliamentary methods or whether they
should seize power by force. Eventually Lenin’s repeated calls from abroad to overthrow the Provisional
Government were heeded, and a Military Revolutionary Council (led by Trotsky) was set up to do the planning.
Lenin returned late in October just in time to lead, from the Smolny Institute, the relatively bloodless revolution.

Events not instigated by the Bolsheviks had earlier played decisively into their hands and allowed them to
pursue their objectives. General Kornilov, appointed military commander by the Provisional Government,
decided to take control of Petrograd himself and neutralise the growing Bolshevik threat. When Prime Minister
Kerensky realised what was happening, he panicked and accepted the Bolsheviks’ offer of Red Guards to
defend the capital. Kornilov’s unsuccessful takeover ended without bloodshed, and the Bolsheviks were seen
as “defenders of the city”. Their support increased immensely; at the same time, support for Kerensky and the
Provisional Government eroded. The Bolsheviks became the majority party in the Petrograd Soviet in early
September 1917, with Leon Trotsky becoming the Soviet’s Chairman.
Post-revolution

In the wake of the 1917 Revolution, the Bolsheviks announced the establishment of a new Provisional
Government but, in elections that an over-confident Lenin allowed, the Bolsheviks gained only 24 per cent of
the popular vote (the opposition Socialist Revolutionaries gained over 40 per cent). Shocked but undeterred,
Lenin established a parallel Constituent Assembly, packed it with his followers, and declared it to be the
Provisional Government. The congress duly passed all the measures submitted to it by the government
spokesmen, including the “Declaration of Rights.” Russia became a “Federation of Soviet Republics,” to be
known as the “Russian Soviet Socialist Republic,” a name that was retained until 1924, when it was renamed
“Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.” The congress acknowledged the Sovnarkom (Council of People’s
Commissars) as the country’s legitimate government, removing from its name the adjective “provisional.” It also
approved the principle of universal labour obligation. In other centres, the Bolshevik party also successfully
took over.

In March 1918, the Bolsheviks negotiated a separate peace with Germany (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk). This
fulfilled the first of Lenin’s promises in the ‘April Theses’, but provoked opposition from the Bolsheviks’
erstwhile allies in the government. Lenin, however, had little interest in placating them. It was also quite easy
for Lenin to deliver on his second promise - land to the peasants. They had been seizing and dividing up large
estates for almost a year before Lenin legally recognised this accomplished fact. What the peasants did not
realise was that, just as Lenin planned to dispose of Brest-Litovsk at the first opportunity, so too did he plan to
nationalise the peasants’ land as soon as he could get away with it. Delivering on the promise of “Bread” was
more difficult with the economy suffering. Lenin merely intensified the brutality of enforcement of the previous
Provisional Government’s price controls on food; rather than starve in the cities, large percentages of the urban
population returned to their family farms in the country. (In the end, even this desperate move would not save
many of them from starvation).

In March 1919, the Communist International (later known as Comintern) was founded. The aim of the
organisation was to fight “by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international
bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete
abolition of the State”.

A secret police force, the Cheka, was quickly established. It was brutal and all-powerful. As the high-ranking
Chekist Latsis explained: “The Extraordinary Commission [Cheka] is neither an investigating body nor a
tribunal. It is an organ of struggle, acting on the home front of a civil war ... We are not carrying out war against
individuals. We are exterminating the bourgeoisie as a class.” The Tsar’s secret police, the Okhrana, had
numbered 15 000, which made it by far the largest body of its kind in the old world. By contrast, the Cheka,
within three years of its establishment, had a strength of 250 000 full-time agents. Censorship was imposed,
other political parties were banned and businesses and banks chaotically nationalised. Conscription and
compulsory labour were introduced.

All of these actions provoked a reaction, and opposition to the Bolsheviks formed a loose and fractious
coalition known as the ‘Whites’. Allied troops were also landed in Russian ports so that, as Churchill said,
Bolshevism would be “strangled in its cradle” and war materiel given by France and Britain would not fall into
German hands. Despite major setbacks for Trotsky’s newly formed Red Army, it was able to hold out due to
strict discipline, terror, and unity of purpose. Trotsky had personally taken control of Petrograd’s defenses
when a surprise attack by British-backed “Whites” threatened to take the city. The major fighting was over by
the end of 1920, and the Bolsheviks had consolidated their power. The Russian economy, however, was
shattered and drought and famine in 1920–21 saw horrific scenes of starvation. Between the civil war and its
aftermath, some 15 million Russians died.

War Communism (central control of industry and food production) saved the Soviet government during the Civil
War, but much of the Russian economy ground to a standstill. Private industry and trade were outlawed, and
the newly established (and barely stable) state was unable to run the economy on a sufficient scale. It is
estimated that the total output of mines and factories in 1921 had fallen to 20 per cent of the pre-World War
level, and many crucial items experienced an even more drastic decline. For example, cotton production fell to
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 9 of 19
5 per cent, and iron to 2 per cent of pre-war levels. The peasants responded to requisitions by refusing to till
the land. By 1921, cultivated land had shrunk to 62 per cent of the pre-war area, and the harvest yield was only
about 37 per cent of normal. The number of horses declined from 35 million in 1916 to 24 million in 1920, and
cattle from 58 to 37 million. The ruble collapsed and was replaced by a system of bartering. The turning point
was the Kronstadt rebellion at the naval base on February 1921. The rebellion had a startling effect on Lenin (it
was eventually crushed by the Red Army) because the Kronstadt sailors had been among the strongest
supporters of the Bolsheviks. After the rebellion, Lenin ended the policy of War Communism and replaced it
with the New Economic Policy.

Under the New Economic Policy – resented bitterly by ardent Marxists in the party – Lenin tacitly
acknowledged that it was impractical to impose full socialist economic theory. To explain the NEP, Lenin had
said, “We are not civilised enough for socialism”, referring to the fact that Russia was still a primarily agrarian
nation, with a very small urban population and a weak industrial base, and thus it did not meet the economic
criteria necessary for full socialism. Limited free trade was permitted, after the requisite taxes had been paid.
Major industries such as coal and steel remained nationalised. Lenin also introduced the Fundamental Law of
the Exploitation of Land by the Workers, which ensured that the peasants had a choice of land tenure. As
anticipated, these two measures saw agricultural production increase rapidly. A resultant imbalance between
rural and industrial production saw inflation rise. Peasants responded by hoarding grain or selling to middlemen who profited from speculative trading, but overall the economy began to improve. Joseph Stalin ended the
NEP in 1928, as he introduced the first Five Year Plan, which focused on industrialisation and collectivisation
of agricultural holdings.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 10 of 19
Selected topic or setting: Weimar-Nazi Germany
Selected individual or group: Hitler / Nazi Party
Ways in which longer-term and shorter term factors helped shape a specific individual or group’s
characteristics / identity could include:
NOTE: Generally ‘longer-term’ factors will be those that have had a cumulative influence over a sustained
timeframe (eg culture, values, historic events) and ‘shorter-term’ will usually be more recent events or experiences.
Do not penalise candidates over differences of interpretation (between marker and candidate) of what constitutes
‘longer-term’ and ‘short-term’ unless the interpretation is clearly wrong (eg an event several years before the
timeframe of the candidate response is written of as ‘longer-term’).
Longer-term factors: culture / values

Mythical glorious Aryan / Teutonic past (volkisch), which emphasised notions of peasant purity (“Blut und
Boden” – ‘blood and soil’) and ‘traditional’ gender roles

Tradition of submission to authoritarian rule (Bismarck and / or the Kaiser)

A tradition of ‘anti-reason’ developed in 19th and early 20th century until it permeated German philosophy,
literature (both academic and popular) and art and had reached a peak by the 1930s: “a solid bedrock of antiindividualist racial collectivism on which political circumstance allowed National Socialism to be built.”

Upsurge of ‘anti-rational’ occult societies and activity from the late 19th Century that was a ‘fusion of German
volkish neo-pagan romanticism and the doctrine of … [Aryan racial superiority].”

Racial inequality (Untermensch / ‘sub-human’ Jews, gypsies, eastern Europeans etc) and thus necessity of
‘racial purity’ for the herrenvolk (‘master race’)
o Adaptation of Social Darwinism
o Nietzsche’s “superman”, the creator of a new heroic morality, represented the highest passion and
creativity of mankind that would transcend the conventional standards of good and evil. His creative “will to
power” would set him off from “the herd” of inferior humanity. In Hitler’s mind, the SS exemplified this spirit.
o Academic ability less important than physical prowess, especially military prowess for boys and
motherhood prowess for girls
o Opposition to ‘immoral’ / modernist art, literature, music etc

Exalting of the State over individual or sector interests
o Gleischaltung: all aspects of German life were to be co-ordinated eg Nazi teachers’, youth, mothers’,
doctors’, labour organisations
o Nationalism and glorification of military conquest

Fuhrerprinzip: adherence to the leader: “Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer (one people, one empire, one leader)”
o rejection of democracy (it was inherently weak and fostered disunity) and, especially,
Bolshevism/communism

Lebensraum: nationalist expansion and unification of all German-speaking peoples.

Opposition to the Treaty of Versailles and multi-lateralism (League of Nations)

(Early emphasis on socialist goals was de-emphasised as the Nazis rose towards power.)
Shorter-term factors: experiences

Unification of Germany through diplomacy and warfare by 1871

Experiences of WWI, the shame of Germany’s surrender (‘stab in the back’ myth – Allied troops had not
entered Germany before it surrendered), and the ‘betrayal’ by the Weimar government that signed the Treaty
of Versailles.

Post-WWI disruption, economic collapse (1923 hyperinflation / 1929 Depression), and ‘moral collapse’ as
modernist art and culture, as well as ‘immoral’ cabarets etc proliferated.

Failure of the Weimar government to deal decisively with assassinations, attempted coups or putsches, and
the consequent rise in influence of the Freikorp.

The ‘Golden Age’ of the mid- to late 1920s dampened somewhat support for extreme political parties and
groups.
Ways the specific individual or group expressed their identity:
(Prior to coming to power)

Vocal opposition to the Treaty of Versailles, in speeches and written material (this continued until the Nazis,
when in power, revised by one means or another the terms of the Treaty).
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 11 of 19

Formation of the Stormtroopers (SA) to intimidate and disrupt opponents meetings, and publishing of the
Volkischer Beobachter newspaper to express Nazi views. The SS (Schutzstaffel) was also formed as a
personal bodyguard for Hitler.

Munich putsch, 1923

In prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, a rambling exposition of his ideas, including a decision to pursue political
means of gaining power. Hitler devoted himself thereafter to reorganising the Party in line with the
Fuhrerprinzip (‘Fuhrer principle’). Mass meetings, adoption of badges, flags, symbols (eg the swastika) and
uniforms all helped imbed the Nazi identity.

Hitler and the Nazi Party contested elections, resulting in Hitler accepting the Chancellorship in January 1933,
with Wilhelm Frick as Minister of the Interior.

Took advantage of the Reichstag fire (27 Feb 1933) to persuade President Hindenburg to pass the “Decree for
the Protection of the People and the State”, which allowed the Nazis to persecute their political opponents and
restrict free speech, individual states’ powers, the right to hold meetings and freedom of the press. 50 000 SA
men were recruited as ‘police auxiliaries’ to enforce the new law. All this was backed up by Goebbels’
incessant propaganda.

After the election in 1933, with a slender coalition majority, the Nazis outlawed the Communist party (KPD)
then, with a Nazi majority in the reduced parliament, passed the “Enabling Act” (Law of removing the Distress
from the People and Reich) in which, through intimidation and propaganda, the Reichstag voted itself out of
existence. Hitler ‘legally’ had his dictatorship.
(After coming to power)

Other political parties were either banned (the SPD) or disbanded themselves; all were outlawed in July 1933.
State governments (except Prussia) were also abolished, being replaced by Nazi governors.

Concentration camps (eg Dachau outside Munich) were established to intern opponents

Hitler acted against Ernst Rohm and the SA in the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ (June 1934), which brought this
organisation firmly under Party control with the killing of over 100 SA men and other opponents.

After Hindenburg’s death in August 1934, Hitler assumed Hindenburg’s powers too. The Army, the only
remaining threat to the Nazi power base, swore an oath of loyalty to the Fuhrer.

Economic policy of autarky introduced in order to reduced dependence on foreign imports

Policy of Gleischaltung implemented: all aspects of German life were to be co-ordinated eg Nazi-controlled
organisations for teachers’, youth, mothers’, doctors’, labour, entertainment, news media
o Education focused on military prowess for boys and motherhood for girls (with racial purity emphasised for
both). The Hitler Youth was established to further this aim, and it was given by law the same status as
home and school in 1936. It was made compulsory in 1939.
o National Reich Protestant Church established in 1933, but it never fully supplanted the traditional
Protestant church (nor Catholic, although a 1933 Concordat with the Vatican smoothed relations)
o Public works schemes and conscription / rearmament (which was against the Treaty of Versailles) reduced
unemployment, while a German Labour Front supplanted trade unions. A Beauty of Work scheme also
improved working conditions and the Strength for Joy scheme provided leisure opportunities.
o Mass marches and celebrations were held to consolidate the Nazis’ place in society.

Persecution of the Jews was stepped up.
o In April 1933, a boycott of all Jewish shops was ordered, and shortly after Jews were banned from
government jobs. In 1935, Jews were banned from serving in the Army. Shortly thereafter, the ‘Nuremberg
Laws’ were passed which prohibited marriages between Jews and non-Jews (Law for the Protection of
German Blood). In September, the Reich Citizenship Law removed all citizenship rights from Jews, making
them ‘aliens’ in Germany. Other laws followed which forced Jews out of other aspects of civil life, such as
practising law, business and medicine. Attacks against Jews increased. In August 1938, all Jews had to
add new names to their identity documents (‘Israel’ for men; ‘Sarah’ for women), plus have a large red ‘J’
was stamped in them. Jewish children were banned from German schools.
o In November 1938, all-out attacks on Jews, Jewish businesses and synagogues occurred (Kristallnacht) in
response to the assassination in France of a German embassy official by a Polish Jew. About 100 Jews
were killed and 20 000 sent to concentration camps. Although the German public were shocked, the Nazis
continued their persecution, blaming the Jews themselves for the violence and fining them as a community
for the damages.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 12 of 19
Foreign policy

The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were systematically revised.

Reparations practically ceased in 1933.

The Rhineland was remilitarised in 1935.

Anschluss with Austria was carried out successfully in 1938.

After the Munich Conference in 1938, Germany annexed the Sudetenland and in March 1939 occupied much
of the rest of Czechoslovakia.

The signing of the Soviet-German Non-aggression pact in August 1939 paved the way for the invasion of
Poland in September 1939.
(WWII)

In line with the policy of Lebensraum and the Nazi racial ideology, Germany invaded Poland, sparking what
would become WWII.

Initially, Jews in Poland were gathered into ghettos (eg Warsaw) as the Nazis tried to figure out what to do with
them. Forced labour became common. After the invasion of Russia in June 1941, Jews were systematically
rounded up and shot by Einsatzgruppen (Special Task Forces).

In the summer of 1941, Die Endlosung (Final Solution) was formulated in response to the ‘Jewish problem’.
The first death camp was built at Belzec on the eastern Polish border and began operation in March 1942.
Over all, more than 30 death camps were established (and numerous concentration and labour camps) with
over 4.5 million people being exterminated 1942–45.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 13 of 19
Selected topic or setting: Vietnam and the Second Indochina War (up to the Tet Offensive)
Selected individual or group: Ho Chi Minh / Viet Minh or Viet Cong
Ways in which longer-term and shorter term factors helped shape a specific individual or group’s
characteristics / identity could include:
NOTE: Generally ‘longer-term’ factors will be those that have had a cumulative influence over a sustained
timeframe (eg culture, values, historic events) and ‘shorter-term’ will usually be more recent events or experiences.
Do not penalise candidates over differences of interpretation (between marker and candidate) of what constitutes
‘longer-term’ and ‘short-term’ unless the interpretation is clearly wrong (eg an event several years before the
timeframe of the candidate response is written of as ‘longer-term’).
Longer-term factors
Culture / values

Despite regional differences, there was a common language in Vietnam.

Confucianism and Buddhism influenced cultural development. For most, life was village-based; the family and
village leaders were extremely important, more so than an Emperor or other ruler.
Culture / values (Ho Chi Minh / Viet Minh)

Through his Western-style education, Ho had learned of the high ideals of the French Revolution – “liberty,
equality and fraternity”. He travelled to France in 1911 and joined the French communist party while in Paris.
He took great interest in the anti-colonial views of Lenin (leader of the Russian Revolution of 1917). Later, Ho
studied and taught in the Soviet Union for a period. Ho came to believe that a total focus on the goal of
independence was the only way that Vietnam would be free. Although the Viet Minh was a nationalist rather
than communist organisation, beliefs such as equality and land distribution to the peasants were important.

Founding of the Viet Minh by Ho Chi Minh in 1940, with its goal of ridding Vietnam of first the Japanese and
then the colonial French, who had disrupted the Vietnamese way of life. Ho and the Viet Minh believed
passionately in a free and independent Vietnam (‘Vietnam for the Vietnamese’). They believed in the ‘rightness’
of their cause.

Although not all of the Viet Minh were specifically Communist, Ho was and this ideology became the dominant
one in the Viet Minh.

There was a belief up until at least the end of WWII that America would support the cause of the Viet Minh,
because America portrayed itself as the champion of freedom and self-determination.
Culture / values (Viet Cong)

Many of the values of the Viet Minh were shared by the Viet Cong.

Opposed to foreign interference and sought to unite the Vietnamese people (despite long-standing regional
differences). Hope arose out of the defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu that the Viet Minh would have a
strong bargaining position at the Geneva Conference, and that China and Russia would support its claims.
(This was followed by disappointment).

Anti-Diem (Diem was viewed as a puppet of the American imperialists).
Shorter-term factors
Experiences (Ho Chi Minh / Viet Minh):
Childhood experiences of nationalism. Ho was born in central Vietnam where French rule was carried out indirectly
through a Vietnamese Emperor. Like other nationalists, Ho developed a dislike of those who were prepared to do
the bidding of foreign rulers. Ho’s father was a nationalist who disliked French rule of Vietnam, no matter how
indirect. Ho was a messenger for his father’s activities and later participated in a series of tax revolts.

Economic exploitation by the French, and their arrogance and ruthlessness when dealing with the Vietnamese
and any resistance to French rule, created a greater determination to overthrow their rule.

A long history of foreign intervention. Foreign powers, especially China, had led to regular uprisings that helped
create a sense of national identity based on a strong resentment of foreign interference. Although the French
and the Japanese were the immediate problem that the Viet Minh was formed to deal with, Ho never forgot that
China was Vietnam’s most powerful and domineering neighbour (even when it had turned communist in 1949).
Ho had said when reluctantly negotiating with the French in 1946: “It is better to sniff France’s dung for a while,
than eat China’s all our lives.”

Return of the French after WWII. This was a bitter experience for Vietnamese nationalists, especially after the
joy of successfully ousting the Japanese, and then the declaration of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. A
bitter experience, too, was the failure of the US to support Ho and the Vietnamese, given its position on the
right of peoples anywhere to choose their own destiny, and the support US agents had given to the Viet Minh
during their struggle against the Japanese.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 14 of 19

Hope arose out of the defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu that the Viet Minh would have a strong bargaining
position at the Geneva Conference, and that China and Russia would support its claims. (This was followed by
disappointment).
Experiences (Viet Cong)
In addition to the above experiences, more specifically:

Opposition to Diem and his regime due to Diem’s nepotism, dictatorship, Catholicism, and being seen as proAmerican; Diem was isolated from the ordinary people of Vietnam. Diem’s actions such as the cancellation of
elections scheduled for 1956, persecution under the ‘Denunciation of Communists’ campaign and ‘Law 10 / 59’
(during which many innocent people were caught up), failure to carry out effective land reform, abolition of
election of village leaders, and the disruption caused by ‘strategic hamlet’ programme all led to opposition.

Opposition to increasing US involvement in Vietnam increased due to America’s support of French in First
Indo-China War, its policy of ‘Two Vietnams’ and support of Diem, the economic impact on local Vietnamese of
the increasing US involvement (prostitution, corruption). ‘Americanising’ the war with a full commitment of US
combat troops after 1964 Tonkin Gulf Resolution passed led to more intense conflict, as did American bombing
of North Vietnam, use of Agent Orange in the South.
Ways the specific individual or group expressed their identity:
Ho Chi Minh / Viet Minh: political

Viet Minh: Ho returned to Vietnam in 1940 after time overseas, including Paris and the USSR, and established
the Viet Minh. This was a coalition which all of the nationalist groups in Vietnam were encouraged to join,
irrespective of any differences they might have. Ho took personal charge of the Viet Minh after returning from a
period of captivity in China.

DRV: When the Japanese had been ousted from Vietnam in August 1945, Ho established a Vietnamese
government in Hanoi, and proclaimed an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Ho used words from
the American Declaration of Independence: “All men are created equal. They are endowed by their creator with
certain inalienable rights, among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” (Ho’s Viet Minh was not
strong enough to resist the return of the French, so he negotiated a compromise that saw the DRV reduced to
the status of a ‘free state within the French Union of Indochinese states’ – a most unsatisfactory arrangement,
but one both sides knew would not last.)

Geneva Conference: The Viet Minh’s position was to negotiate to unite Vietnam under a Viet Minh
government. Despite the efforts of Ho’s delegate, Pham Van Dong, the real players at the conference were the
major powers. The ‘temporary’ division of Vietnam was acceptable only because the Viet Minh already
controlled up to two-thirds of Vietnam, and because of the promise of elections in 1956 – Ho (and everybody
else) believed that the DRV would finally be established through the electoral process.
Ho Chi Minh / Viet Minh: military

Japan: Ho organised resistance to the Japanese occupation during WWII. He called for a general uprising
when the Japanese surrendered on August 10th 1945. The uprising’s slogan was: “Break open the rice stores
to avert famine.” (This was in order to feed the starving Vietnamese people).

France: Ho also organised resistance against the return of the French after WWII. This led to the First IndoChina War. As conflict with the French increased Ho ensured the survival of the Viet Minh by moving into the
mountains and conducting a guerrilla campaign. The decisive battle of the First Indo-China War was at Dien
Bien Phu in 1954. Ho knew that to have a strong position from which to negotiate Vietnamese independence at
the upcoming peace talks in Geneva, the Viet Minh would have to win. Ho was prepared to sustain massive
losses in order to win.
Ho Chi Minh / Viet Minh: social / economic

The Viet Minh distributed food to the starving peasants during the August Revolution. (“Break open the rice
stores to avert famine.”)

After WWII and the return of the French, and particularly as French rule broke down, the Viet Minh created its
own local administration to help run the country-side in its control. Villages were given – for the first time ever –
a real say in governing themselves.

Rents were reduced, and in some cases land was redistributed to the peasants (although the Viet Minh relied
on landlords, too, for support, so couldn’t afford to antagonise them too much). Debts were often written off.

Education was increasingly provided.

The tax system was changed to relieve the burden on the peasants.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 15 of 19
Viet Cong: political / social / economic

Formation of the National Liberation Front (NLF) or Viet Cong in 1960, a broad-based coalition of Vietnamese
nationalist groups, including the Viet Minh’s ‘winter cadre’ or ‘stay behinds’ from the time of the partition of
Vietnam. Its goal was a unified Vietnam free of foreign intervention.

Land reform and propaganda campaigns to win the ‘hearts and minds’ of the Vietnamese peasants

Political aim behind the Tet Offensive (see below) was to undermine support for the war within the US itself by
showing the American public that their leaders had been deceiving them with regard to ‘winning the war in
Vietnam’

Insistence during post-Tet Offensive negotiations that the VC form part of the government in the South
Viet Cong: military

Formation of the People’s Revolutionary Army, commonly referred to as the Viet Cong in 1960, a broad-based
coalition of Vietnamese nationalist groups, including the Viet Minh’s ‘winter cadre’ or ‘stay behinds’ from the
time of the partition of Vietnam.

Beginning of guerrilla campaign in 1961 against the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and US forces

Targeting of ‘strategic hamlets’ and villagers (leaders, teachers etc) who supported the Diem regime or
followed its instructions

New VC tactic of full scale battles began in 1963, although VC losses began to rise dramatically with the
introduction of American troops from 1965

In preparation for the Tet Offensive, a diversionary battle took place at Khe Sanh. The VC subsequently
attacked more than 100 centres in the South, including Hue and Saigon (US Embassy). Huge VC losses
resulted in its virtual destruction, although politically it was successful.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 16 of 19
Selected topic or setting: Vietnam and the Indo-china conflict
Selected individual or group: Ngo Dinh Diem / his government
Ways in which longer-term and shorter term factors helped shape a specific individual or group’s
characteristics / identity could include:
NOTE: Generally, ‘longer-term’ factors will be those that have had a cumulative influence over a sustained
timeframe (eg culture, values, historic events) and ‘shorter-term’ will usually be more recent events or experiences.
Do not penalise candidates over differences of interpretation (between marker and candidate) of what constitutes
‘longer-term’ and ‘short-term’ unless the interpretation is clearly wrong (eg an event several years before the
timeframe of the candidate response is written of as ‘longer-term’).
Longer-term factors: culture / values

Diem was nationalistic, conservative, devoutly Catholic, anti-Communist (and anti-Buddhist), and preferred the
philosophies of personal rule and Confucianism (with its respect for hierarchy and rule of the able). He came
from the village of Phu Cam in central Vietnam where Portuguese missionaries had converted his family to
Catholicism in the 17th century. Devoutly Catholic, Diem’s father took his entire family to mass every morning.

Diem moved to Hanoi to study at the School of Public Administration and Law, a French school that trained
Vietnamese bureaucrats. After graduating, Diem joined the civil service and was rapidly promoted. The French
were impressed by his work ethic but were irritated by his frequent calls to grant more autonomy to
Vietnamese.

Being a conservative, Diem was not a believer in revolutions. However, he came to believe passionately that
Vietnam should be free of colonial rule. Later, even though he depended heavily on the Americans for military
and financial support, he resented their political interference and proved to be an ‘unwilling puppet’.
Shorter-term factors: experiences
Upon Diem’s first encounter with communists spreading propaganda he involved himself in anti-communist
activities for the first time, printing his own pamphlets. In 1929 he helped to round up communist agitators in his
administrative area. He was rewarded with the promotion to the governorship of Phan Thiet Province, and in 1930
and 1931 suppressed in collaboration with French forces the first peasant revolts organised by the communists.

After calling for the French to introduce a Vietnamese legislature, Diem resigned after three months in office
when this was rejected. He was stripped of his decorations and titles and threatened with arrest. For the next
decade, Diem lived as a private citizen with his family, although he was kept under surveillance. He was to
have no formal job for 21 years.

Diem continued to attempt to gather support for himself on an anti-Vietminh platform. Despite having little
success, Ho was sufficiently irritated to order his arrest. Diem then jointly founded the Vietnam National
Alliance, which called for France to grant Vietnam dominion status similar to the Commonwealth of Nations.
The alliance was sufficient to generate support to fund newspapers in Hanoi and Saigon respectively. In the
meantime, the French had created the State of Vietnam and Diem refused Bao Dại’s offer to become the Prime
Minister. He then published a new manifesto in newspapers proclaiming a ‘third force’ different to communism
and French colonialism, but raised little interest.

During the August Revolution in 1945 Diem was arrested by the Vietminh and exiled to a highland village near
the border. Six months later he was taken to meet Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi, but refused to join the Vietminh,
assailing Ho for the death of his brother Khoi, who had been buried alive by Vietminh cadres. The Vietminh’s
dominance in the North and successes in the South convinced Diem that they would have to be ruthlessly
resisted.
Ways the specific individual or group expressed their identity:

With the start of WWII in the Pacific, Diem attempted to persuade the invading Japanese forces to declare
independence for Vietnam in 1942 but was ignored. He founded a secret political party, the Association for the
Restoration of Great Vietnam. When its existence was discovered in the summer of 1944, the French declared
Diem to be a subversive and ordered his arrest. He fled to Saigon disguised as a Japanese officer.

Before going to Europe in 1950, Diem went to Japan where he tried to enlist support to seize power in
Vietnam. Neither this nor an attempt to woo help from General Douglas MacArthur, the American supreme
commander in occupied Japan, yielded meetings. He continued to lobby in Europe and America for support for
his ‘third force’, arguing that Vietnam could only be saved for the “free world” if the US sponsored a
government of nationalists who were opposed to both the Vietminh and the French. As French power in
Vietnam declined, Diem’s support in America made his stock rise.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 17 of 19
Diem in power

With the fall of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, and with the backing of the Eisenhower administration, Bao Dại named
Diem as Prime Minister. The French were utterly opposed to Diem’s appointment, citing what they said was his
incompetence, and they continued to undermine him whenever possible.

Diem’s South Vietnamese delegation at the Geneva Conference chose not to sign the accords, refusing to
have half the country under communist rule, but the agreement went into effect regardless.

The flow of some one million mostly Catholic refugees from the north during the period of voluntary population
exchange – encouraged by a CIA-led propaganda campaign - bolstered Diem’s political position. Diem used
slogans such as “Christ has gone south” and “the Virgin Mary had departed from the North”, alleging antiCatholic persecution under Ho Chi Minh. Over 60 per cent of northern Catholics moved to Diem’s South
Vietnam, providing him with a source of loyal support.

Diem also had to contend with two religious sects, the Cao Dai and Hoa Hao, who wielded private armies in
the Mekong Delta, with the Cao Dai estimated to have 25 000 men. The Vietminh was also estimated to have
control over a third of the country. The situation was worse in the capital, where the Binh Xuyen organised
crime syndicate boasted an army of 40 000 and controlled a vice empire of brothels, casinos, extortion rackets,
and opium factories unparalleled in Asia. In order to impose his own rule, Diem used the Army to ruthlessly
crush his opponents.

The Americans soon discovered that Diem was an unwilling ‘puppet’ ruler. He constantly rejected their advice
and made decisions that upset the South Vietnamese people. Several attempts were made to overthrow Diem
but although the Americans were unhappy with his performance as president, they felt they had no choice but
to support him.

Diem rigged the 1955 elections in the south, destroying Emperor Bao Dai’s political power. Diem recorded 98.2
per cent of the vote, including 605 025 votes in Saigon, where only 450 000 voters were registered. Three days
later, Diem proclaimed the formation of the Republic of Vietnam, naming himself President. He then cancelled
the 1956 elections scheduled to determine the future of Vietnam as a whole, claiming that the Communists
would not allow free and fair elections. Diem also rigged the 1959 elections for a national legislature that had
been urged upon him by the Americans.

Diem’s rule was authoritarian, puritanical and nepotistic (and corrupt). His most trusted official was his brother,
Ngo Dinh Nhu, leader of the primary pro-Diem Can Lao political party. Ngo Dinh Can, his younger brother, was
put in charge of the former Imperial City of Hue. Although neither Can nor Nhu held any official role in the
government, they ruled their regions of South Vietnam, commanding private armies and secret police. Another
brother, Ngo Dinh Luyen, was appointed Ambassador to the United Kingdom. His elder brother, Ngo Dinh
Thục, was the archbishop of Hue. Brothels and opium dens were closed, divorce and abortion made illegal,
and adultery laws were strengthened. Corruption, however, was rife.

Torture and killings of “communist suspects” were committed on a daily basis. The death toll was put at around
50 000 with 75 000 imprisonments, and Diem’s effort extended beyond communists to anti-communist
dissidents and anti-corruption whistleblowers.

In response to growing opposition and the establishment in 1960 of the broad-based but communist-led
National Liberation Front, Diem introduced the Strategic Hamlet Program, which called for the consolidation of
14 000 villages of South Vietnam into 11 000 secure hamlets, each with its own houses, schools, wells, and
watchtowers. The hamlets were intended to isolate the NLF from the villages, their source of recruiting soldiers,
supplies and information.

Diem reversed land reforms introduced by the Vietminh during the 1946–54 war with the French, as upperclass landowners were part of his ideological support base. However, he also declared that landlords could
collect no more than 25 per cent land value as rental, but this was not enforced and in some cases the rent
levels were higher than those under French colonisation. Under US pressure, in 1956 he limited individual land
holdings and redistributed some land to the peasants. Many landlords evaded the redistribution by transferring
the property to the name of family members. The Catholic Church’s lands were exempted. As a result, only 13
per cent of the South Vietnam’s land was redistributed. At the end of Diem’s rule, 10 per cent of the population
owned 55 per cent of the land.

Believing that the central highlands were of strategic importance to the Vietcong or in a potential invasion by
North Vietnam, Diem decided to construct a ‘Maginot Line’ of settlements and 210 000 Vietnamese, mainly
Catholics, were moved to Montagnard land to live in fortified settlements.

As a member of the Catholic Vietnamese minority, Diem pursued pro-Catholic policies that antagonised
Buddhists who made up 70 to 90 per cent of Vietnamese society. Specifically, the government was regarded
as being biased towards Catholics in public service and military promotions, as well as the allocation of land,
aid, business favours and tax concessions. The brutal quelling of a Buddhist protest against these policies
(specifically the unwillingness of the Diem government to allow prayer flags to be flown), leading to the selfimmolation of a Buddhist monk. As protest increased the government’s response escalated. Pagodas were
vandalised, monks beaten, and simultaneous raids were carried out across the country, with the Tu Dam
Pagoda in Hue being looted and the statue of Gautama Buddha demolished. When the populace came to the
defense of the monks, the resulting clashes saw 30 civilians killed and 200 wounded. In all, 1 400 monks were
arrested, and some thirty were injured across the country. This demonstrated Diem’s insensitivity to the
majority religion and how out of touch he was with the people.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 18 of 19
Selected topic or setting: Origins of World War I
Selected individual or group: Dragutin Dimitrijevic (of the Black Hand)/Serbian nationalist movements such as
Narodna Odbrana, Black Hand
Ways in which longer-term and shorter term factors helped shape a specific individual or group’s
characteristics / identity could include:
NOTE: Generally, ‘longer-term’ factors will be those that have had a cumulative influence over a sustained
timeframe (eg culture, values, historic events) and ‘shorter-term’ will usually be more recent events or experiences.
Do not penalise candidates over differences of interpretation (between marker and candidate) of what constitutes
‘longer-term’ and ‘short-term’ unless the interpretation is clearly wrong (eg an event several years before the
timeframe of the candidate response is written of as ‘longer-term’).
Longer-term factors: culture / values

Historically, the nearby Byzantine Empire had a strong influence in the Middle Ages, along with the Serb
Orthodox Church. Serbian culture fell into decline during five centuries of rule under the Ottoman Empire,
although a common Serbo-Croat language and cultural practices maintained a sense of identity. Following
autonomy and eventual independence in the 19th Century, there was a resurgence of Serbian culture. The rise
of Russia as a Great Power in the latter part of the 19th century gave hope to Serbs due to ethnic and cultural
links with that country. (Note: most nationalist movements were secular in nature.)

Anti-Austrian sentiments were powerful in nationalist movements. The series of proto-nationalist revolutions in
a number of European countries in 1848 provided inspiration, however, while other European states such as
Germany and Italy had unified in the 1870s along ethnic lines, Austria-Hungary seemed to be the main
obstacle to Serbia’s similar goal. Furthermore, the ruling Serbian Royal Family was seen by many (including
the Black Hand) as being too weak in its dealing with Austria-Hungary and allowing it to dominate Serbia’s
economy. (By 1905, 84 percent of Serbian exports went to Austria-Hungary, and Austria supplied 53 percent of
goods entering Serbia.)

While some nationalist groups eschewed violence (Narodna Odbrana – National Defence – had been forced
earlier to give up its revolutionary activities by pressure from Austria-Hungary, and turned instead to antiAustrian political action and propaganda), they shared the main objective of the Black Hand: the creation of a
Greater Serbia. However, the Black Hand was prepared to use violence. Its stated aim was: “To realise the
national ideal, the unification of all Serbs. This organisation prefers terrorist action to cultural activities; it will
therefore remain secret.” By 1914, there were around 2 500 members of the Black Hand. The group was
mainly made up of junior army officers but also included lawyers, journalists and university professors.
Shorter-term factors: experiences

Prior to the Bosnian Crisis in 1908, some five million Slavs were already living against their will within the
borders of Austria-Hungary. Even though Serbia had been granted its independence from Turkey in 1878, it
was Austria-Hungary that had been granted administrative control of Bosnia-Herzegovina. This angered
Serbia, which had hoped to unite the Slavic people there with those in Serbia. Relations deteriorated further
from 1878 when Austria-Hungary began a programme of crushing by force the customs, language, religion and
other Slavic ways of the people of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Things came to a head in 1908 when Austria-Hungary
acted to forestall an attempt by Turkey to reassert its control over Bosnia-Herzegovina. It annexed the
territories before Turkey could make its move. This outraged Serbian nationalists, not least because a further
one million Serbs living in Bosnia-Herzegovina were now under full Austrian control.

After the first Balkan War in 1912 Serbia almost doubled in size. Alarmed, Austria-Hungary was instrumental in
having a new state – Albania – created between Serbia and the Adriatic coast. (Austria-Hungary was fearful
that an expanding Serbia would be a threat to its own security, especially as Serbia wished to further expand
by encouraging other Slavs to join with it.) Serbian nationalists, for their part, were outraged as Serbia lost
access to the sea. Sea access would have allowed Serbia to trade more freely, thus escaping economic
domination by Austria-Hungary. In addition, sea access could have dramatically increased Serbia’s power
through allowing it develop a Navy, bringing its pan-Slavic goal closer to realisation. Consequently, AustroSerbian relations deteriorated even further.
NCEA Level 2 History (90470) 2010 — page 19 of 19
Ways the specific individual or group expressed their identity:
Political / social

Nationalist organisations such as Narodna Odbrana – National Defence – had been formed initially to protect
Serbs living in Austria-Hungary. Its activities quickly expanded to include the training of terrorists and the
carrying out of violent acts against Austro-Hungarian interests. Pressure from an angry Austria-Hungary had
obliged the Serbian government to curb its actions. Narodna Odbrana turned instead to fundraising, political
action and propaganda, which took on a virulently anti-Austrian tone as members of the Black Hand infiltrated
the organisation. According to Narodna Odbrana propaganda, Serb nationalism was to be aroused “through
strengthening of the national consciousness, bodily exercises, increase of material and bodily well-being,
cultural improvements, etc … For the sake of bread and room, for the sake of the fundamental essentials of
culture and trade, the freeing of the conquered Serbian territories and their union with Serbia is necessary to
gentlemen, tradesmen, and peasants alike.”

Patriotic books and newspapers carried the same pan-Slav message, and were widely read. A strongly
nationalistic curriculum was taught. The basic geography textbook showed much of the southern Balkans as
Serbian. History texts contained a similar message, and included tales of heroic martyrs who had killed, or
were killed, for their country.

Nationalist movements supported the Serbian government’s expansion during the Balkan Wars, and were
utterly opposed to the creation of Albania – primarily at the behest of Austria-Hungary – in the aftermath of
these wars.
Violence

Both the early Narodna Odbrana and the Black Hand operated in small cell units to maintain secrecy.

The Black Hand trained guerrillas and saboteurs in preparation for an eventual war between Serbia and
Austria-Hungary, and arranged political murders. In 1903, the same year that police fired on students who were
demonstrating against the King’s unwillingness to permit reform or stand up to Austria-Hungary, a group of 120
young, nationalist Army officers lost all patience with the King; led by Dragutin Dimitrijevic (known as Apis, or
‘the Bee’), they killed the King. This act showed that nationalism had strongly influenced elements within the
Army, and it showed that these elements were not under the full control of their senior officers.

Although the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was planned primarily by Dragutin
Dimitrijevic (rather than the full Black Hand executive), there were ample opportunities to stop the action if that
had been desired. There is no evidence to suggest that any of the conspirators believed the action would spark
a conflict wider than one between Austria and Serbia.