Download The Enlightenment, sometimes referred to as the Age of

O’ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI OLIY
VA O’RTA MAXSUS TA’LIM
VAZIRLIGI
NAMANGAN DAVLAT UNIVERSITETI
FILOLOGIYA FAKULTETI
INGLIZ TILI VA ADABIYOTI KAFEDRASI
Ermirzayev Abbosning
COMPARATIVE ANALYSES OF THE FEATURES
OF THE LITERATURE OF ENLIGHTENMENT IN
ENGLISH AND UZBEK LITERATURE
Dissertatsiya
Namangan-2016
COMPARATIVE ANALYSES OF THE FEATURES OF THE
LITERATURE OF ENLIGHTENMENT IN ENGLISH AND UZBEK
LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….….2
CHAPTER I
SPECIFIC FEATURES OF ENLIGHTENMENT IN THE HISTORY OF
ENGLISH LITERATURE………………………………………………….….6
1.1. General characteristics of the age of Enlightenment as a literary period……...6
1.2. Specific features of the Enlightenment in literature………………………….13
1.3. Literary aspects of poetry in the period of Enlightenment…………………...19
CHAPTER II
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN
ENLIGHTENMENT………………………………………………….…….32
2.1. Historical aspects of American Enlightenment………………………………32
2.2. Thomas Paine – American Enlightener and his “The Age of Reason” ……...40
CHAPTER III
HISTORICAL ANALYSES OF THE DEVELOPMENT ENGLIHTMENT
IN UZBEK LITERATURE…………………………………………………...47
3.1.
Jadidizm- as a literary Enlightenment in Uzbek culture and literature……47
3.2.
Development and changes in Culture values in Jadid period………………54
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………..65
BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………...…...73
2
INTRODUCTION
Actuality of theme. As an independent state Uzbekistan achieved great
successes in all spheres of life. It strengthened its political position in world arena.
By our ancient tradition elder people are respected highly. By the initiation
of our president Islam Karimov great respect and attention is paid to elder
generation in our country.
A solemn meeting, dedicated to the 22nd anniversary of the Constitution of
the Republic of Uzbekistan was held on December 5, 2014 in Tashkent Palace of
international forums.
Speaking at the ceremony, the President of Uzbekistan Islam Karimov
offered to name 2015 as the Year of Attention and Care for Elder People, which
was supported by the participants.1
"Our rapidly changing time, life itself put in front of us more and more
extremely important and urgent tasks in the field of education of the young
generation" - said in the speech Islam Karimov2.
This effectiveness of these measures have already been recognized at the
international level. Thus, in a recent statement at the conclusion of the
International Monetary Fund noted that Uzbekistan's economy continues to grow
rapidly, with strong positions in the fiscal and external sector, stable banking
system, low level of public debt, and a cautious approach to foreign borrowing
protect the country from negative effects of the global crisis. Stressing that in 2011
the country's GDP grew by 8.3 percent, and for the first nine months of 2012 - up
8.2 percent, the IMF mission among key factors for sustainable economic
development of Uzbekistan named and economic policy measures with a focus on
domestic consumption and investment in leading role of the state.
As a result, in recent years, thanks to the full support and strong incentives
from the government significantly increased production, expanded the range of
food and non-food products and the products manufactured by domestic
1
http://www.uzdaily.com/articles-id-30258.htm
2 http://mfa.uz/en/press/news/wellbeing/
3
enterprises. Moreover, not yielding as these products are cheaper than similar,
imported by import. And as a consequence, more and more families are getting
modern cars, furniture, refrigerators, televisions, washing machines and other
household appliances, shoes, clothing, manufactured in Uzbekistan. And recently,
as we reported in the country arranged production of mobile phones, the high
demand for them is still extremely satisfied by imports3.
In consistent realization of the Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan “On
Education”, National Program of Personnel Training, significant place is reserved
for construction of new schools, academic lyceums, vocational colleges, higher
education institutions, capital reconstruction and strengthening material-technical
base of the existing ones, their provision with modern educational equipment4.
The resolution of the President of Uzbekistan “On measures to further
improve system of foreign languages teaching” dated from 10 December 2012 is
being implemented in whole country.
This document serves as an important guideline in development of new
textbooks for teaching foreign languages, introduction of advanced teaching
methods using modern pedagogical and information-communication technologies,
education of a new generation to foreign languages, cardinal improvement of the
system of training of specialists, fluent in these languages, creation of conditions
and opportunities for wide use of information resources by students.
Persistent works on raising awareness of the public concerning the essence
and significance of the resolution, ensuring its execution are being carried out.
The actuality of our theme is closely connected with above mentioned
opinions and the problem of stylistics, lexicology and literature.
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, is the name given to
the period in Europe and America during the 1700s when mankind was emerging
from centuries of ignorance into a new age enlightened by reason, science, and
respect for humanity. People of the Enlightenment were convinced that human
3 http://ruslanmedia.uz/news/view/606
4 http://www.gov.uz/en/press/society/17255
4
reason could discover the natural laws of the universe and determine the natural
rights of mankind; hereby unending progress in knowledge, technical achievement,
and moral values would be realized.
The Jadids were Muslim modernist reformers within the late 19th and early
20th
century.
They
normally
referred
to
themselves
by
the
Turkic
terms Taraqqiparvarlar ('progressives'), Ziyalilar ('intellectuals'), or simply Yäşlär
/Yoshlar ('youth'). Jadids maintained that Muslims in the Russian Empire had
entered a period of decay that could only be rectified by the acquisition of a new
kind of knowledge and modernist, European-modeled cultural reform. Although
there were substantial ideological differences within the movement, Jadids were
marked by their widespread use of print media in promoting their messages and
advocacy of the usul ul-jadid or "new method" of teaching in the maktabs of the
empire, from which the term Jadidism is derived. A leading figure in the efforts to
reform education was the Crimean Tatar Ismail Gasprinski who lived from 1851–
1914. Intellectuals such as Mahmud Khoja (author of the famous play "The
Patricide" and founder of one of Turkestan's first Jadid schools) carried Gaspirali's
ideas back to Central Asia.
Jadid thought often carried distinctly anti-clerical sentiment. Many members
of the Ulama opposed the Jadid's programs and ideologies, decrying them as unIslamic, heretical innovations. Many Jadids saw these "Qadimists" (proponents of
the old ways) not only as inhibitors of modern reform but also as corrupt, selfinterested elites whose authority lay not in Islamic ideology as dictated by
the Quran and sunnah but rather in local tradition that were both inimical to
"authentic" Islam and harmful to society. In his Cairo publication al-Nahdah,
Gasprinski published cartoons that depict mullahs and sheikhs as rapacious and
lustful figures who prevented women from taking their rightful place as social
equals and exploited the goodwill and trust of lay Muslims.
The main aim of the work is to analyze historical development of
Enlightenment in English and Uzbek l literature.
Tasks of the work. While investigating the theme we planned to:
5
 To learn short history the Enlightenment in literature
 To overview of theoretical aspects of the Enlightenment as a literary period
 Comparatively analyze the features of the Enlightenment in English and Uzbek
literature.
The novelty of our work is that the analysis of the age of Enlightenment in
world literature.
From the theoretical point of view this work presents the comprehensive
study of the Enlightenment as a literary period
There were done some researches in the field and this work will be
additional to those works.
During our research we investigated that amny
researcher such as Kors, Alan5, John Robertson6, John Stanley7, Richard Van
Dulmen and Anthony William8, Frost, Martin9 made researches oh features and
historical aspects of Enlightenment in English literature.Allworth, Edward10,
Khalid, Adeeb11, Kuttner, Thomas12, Erkinov, Aftandil13, Zulhimor Halilova,
Dilmurod Quronov and many others investigated history of Jadidizm in Uzbek
literature
The practical value of the work is that the results of the research can be
used in the courses of lectures and seminars of English and Uzbek literature.
The structure of the work. The work consists of introduction, three
chapters, conclusion and bibliography.
5
Kors, Alan Charles. Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003. Print.
John Robertson, "Antonio Genovesi: The Neapolitan Enlightenment and Political Economy," History of Political
Thought (1987) 8#2 pp: 335–44.
7
John Stanley, "Towards A New Nation: The Enlightenment and National Revival in Poland", Canadian Review
of Studies in Nationalism, 1983, Vol. 10 Issue 2, pp 83–110
6
Frost, Martin (2008), The age of Enlightenment, retrieved 2008-01-18 Die Moderne – Ein unvollendetes Projekt.
Philosophisch-politische Aufsätze, Leipzig 1990.
10
Allworth, Edward (1989). "The focus of literature". In Edward Allworth. Central Asia: 120 Years of Russian
Rule. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0930-7.
11
Khalid, Adeeb (1998). The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21356-2.
12
Kuttner, Thomas (1975). "Russian Jadīdism and the Islamic world: Ismail Gasprinskii in Cairo, 1908. A call to the
Arabs for the rejuvenation of the Islamic world". Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique (3): 383–
424. doi:10.3406/cmr.1975.1247.
13
Erkinov, Aftandil. “Persian-Chaghatay Bilingualism in the Intellectual Circles of Central Asia during the 15th18th Centuries (the case of poetical anthologies, bayāz)”. International Journal of Central Asian Studies. C.H.Woo
(ed.). vol.12, 2008, pp. 57–82
9
6
CHAPTER I
SPECIFIC FEATURES OF ENLIGHTENMENT IN THE HISTORY
OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
1.1. General characteristics of the age of Enlightenment as a literary
period
The Age of Enlightenment was a cultural
beginning
in
late
17
th-century
movement of intellectuals
Europe
emphasizing
reason
and individualism rather than tradition. Its purpose was to reform society using
reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance
knowledge through the scientific method. It promoted scientific thought,
skepticism, and intellectual interchange.14 The Enlightenment was a revolution in
human thought. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with
clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the
conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in the light of the
evidence.
Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers
collaborated with Enlightened despots, absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly
put some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the
Enlightenment continue to exert significant influence on the culture, politics, and
governments of the Western world.
Originating in the 17th century, it was sparked by philosophers Francis
Bacon (1562-1626), Baruch
Pierre
Spinoza (1632–1677), John
Bayle (1647–1706), Voltaire (1694–1778), Francis
1746), David
Hume (1711–1776)
and
physicist Isaac
Locke (1632–1704),
Hutcheson,
(1694–
Newton (1643–1727).
Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered these figures and even attempted to
apply their ideas of government in what was known as enlightened absolutism.
The Scientific Revolution is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries
overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature
and man's place within it. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, at
14
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment#Great_Britain
7
which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way
to Romanticism, which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a CounterEnlightenment began to increase in prominence. The Romantics argued that the
Enlightenment was reductionistic insofar as it had largely ignored the forces of
imagination, mystery, and sentiment.
In France, Enlightenment was based in the salons and culminated in the
great Encyclopédie (1751–72) edited by Denis Diderot (1713–1784) and (until
1759) Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783) with contributions by hundreds of
leading intellectuals who were called philosophes, notably Voltaire (1694–
1778), Rousseau (1712–1778) and Montesquieu (1689–1755). Some 25,000 copies
of the 35 volume encyclopedia were sold, half of them outside France. These new
intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England,
Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, Spain.
It was also very successful in America, where its influence was manifested in the
works of Francophiles like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, among
others. It played a major role in the American Revolution. The political ideals of
the Enlightenment influenced the American Declaration of Independence,
the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and
of the Citizen, and the Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of May 3, 1791.
Thomas Hobbes wrote the 1651 book Leviathan, which provided the
foundation for social contract theory. Though he was a champion of absolutism for
the sovereign, Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of
European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all
men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction
between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power
must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal
interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not
explicitly forbid.15
15
Pierre Manent, An Intellectual History of Liberalism(1994) pp 20–38
8
John Locke was one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers. He
influenced other thinkers such as Rousseau and Voltaire, among others. "He is one
of the dozen or so thinkers who are remembered for their influential contributions
across a broad spectrum of philosophical subfields--in Locke's case, across
epistemology, the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind, metaphysics,
rational theology, ethics, and political philosophy."
Closely associated with the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who led the
parliamentary grouping that later became the Whig party, Locke is still known
today for his liberalism in political theory. Locke is well known for his assertion
that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property," and his belief that the
natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke,Anthony AshleyCooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706 "There is a mighty Light which
spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and
Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn".
Mary Wollstonecraft is considered one of the earliest feminist philosophers.
She argued for a society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should
be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman.
The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well
as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. During the Enlightenment there was
a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance.
Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of
prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism - especially by
Thomas Paine in "The Age of Reason" and by Thomas Jefferson in his short
Jefferson Bible - from which all supernatural aspects were removed.
Benjamin Franklin was influential in America, England, Scotland, and
France, for his political activism and for his advances in physics.
Most work on the Enlightenment tends to emphasise what intellectuals wrote
about what education should be and not about what education actually was during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Leading educational theorists like
9
England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasised
the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment there was
a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the
American and French Revolutions.
Enlightenment children were taught to memorise facts through oral and
graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance. The predominant
educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European
countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates
ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment
ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a
practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms
of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower
and middle orders of society.
Many of the leading universities associated Enlightenment progressive
principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the
universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh.
These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a
significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American
Republic. Within the natural sciences Edinburgh's medical also led the way in
chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology.
However, in general the universities and schools of France and most of
Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the
Enlightenment. In France the major exception was the medical university at
Montpellier.
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the
key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial
Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower
prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals –
"media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development
likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and
10
increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of
the realm of the commercial, and outside the realm of the upper and middle
classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to
gauge, but Robert Darnton writes that, in France at least, the rates doubled over the
course of the 18th century.
Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf
Engelsing has argued for the existence of a Reading Revolution. Until 1750,
reading was done "intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and
read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read
"extensively", finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them
alone.16 On the other hand, as Jonathan Israel writes, Gabriel Naudé was already
campaigning for the "universal" library in the mid-17th century. And if this was an
ideal only realistic for state institutions and the very wealthy (and indeed, an ideal
that was seldom achieved), there are records for extremely large private and staterun libraries throughout Europe in the 17th and 18th-centuries.
Of course, the vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a
private library. And while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the
17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of
reading material.
On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of
cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural
and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval
romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While
historians, such as Roger Chartier and Robert Darnton, have argued against the
Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue, at the
very least, represents a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability, whether
or not this was actually achieved.
Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to
material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a
16
Elizabeth Williams, A Cultural History of Medical Vitalism in Enlightenment Montpellier (2003) p. 50
11
small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small
lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals
and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The
Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely
associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in
various establishments in the city. Indeed, this is an example of the triple or even
quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read,
discussed and even produced on the premises.
As Darnton describes in The Literary Underground of the Old Regime, it is
extremely difficult to determine what people actually read during the
Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries not only
gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries, it
also ignores censured works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason,
Darnton argues that a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for
discerning reading habits.
All across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and
publishers
had
to
negotiate
censorship
laws
of
varying
strictness.
The Encyclopédie, for example, narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved
by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing
companies were conveniently located outside of France so as to avoid overzealous
French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise – both pirated copies and
censured works – across the border, where it would then be transported to
clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers.
Darnton provides a detailed record of one clandestine bookseller's (one de
Mauvelain) business in the town of Troyes. At the time, the town's population was
22,000. It had one masonic lodge and an "important" library, even though the
literacy rate seems to have been less than 50 percent. Mauvelain's records give us a
good representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since the
clandestine nature of his business provided a less restrictive product choice. The
most popular category of books was political (319 copies ordered).
12
This included five copies of D'Holbach's Système social, but around 300
libels and pamphlets. Readers were far more interested in sensationalist stories
about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself.
The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have
a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in
authority") likewise betrayed the high demand for generally low-brow subversive
literature. These works, however, like the vast majority of work produced by
Darnton's "grub street hacks", never became part of literary canon, and are largely
forgotten today as a result.
Nevertheless, the Enlightenment was not the exclusive domain of illegal
literature, as evidenced by the healthy, and mostly legal, publishing industry that
existed throughout Europe. "Mostly legal" because even established publishers and
book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. The Encyclopédie, for example,
condemned not only by the King but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its
way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of
French censorship law.
13
1.2. Specific features of the Enlightenment in literature
European literature of the 18th century refers to literature (poetry, drama and
novels) produced in Europe during this period. The 18th century saw the
development of the modern as literary genre, in fact many candidates for the first
novel in English date from this period, of which Daniel Defoe's 1719 Robinson
Crusoe is probably the best known. Subgenres of the novel during the 18th century
were the epistolary novel, the sentimental, histories, the gothic novel and
the libertine novel.
18th Century Europe started in the Age of Enlightenment and gradually
moved towards Romanticism. In the visual arts, it was the period of Neoclassicism.
The 18th century in Europe was The Age of Enlightenment and literature
explored themes of social upheaval, reversals of personal status, political satire,
geographical exploration and the comparison between the supposed natural state of
man and the supposed civilized state of man. Edmund Burke, in his A Vindication
of Natural Society (1757), says: "The Fabrick of Superstition has in this our Age
and Nation received much ruder Shocks than it had ever felt before; and through
the Chinks and Breaches of our Prison, we see such Glimmerings of Light, and feel
such refreshing Airs of Liberty, as daily raise our Ardor for more"
In 1700 William Congreve's play The Way of the World premiered.17
Although unsuccessful at the time The Way of the World is a good example of the
sophistication of theatrical thinking during this period, with complex subplots and
characters intended as ironic parodies of common stereotypes.
In 1703 Nicholas Rowe's domestic drama The Fair Penitent, an adaptation
of Massingerand Field's Fatal Dowry, was pronounced by Dr Johnson to be one of
the most pleasing tragedies in the language. Also in 1703 Sir Richard Steele's
comedy 'The Tender Husbandachieved some success.
In 1704 Jonathan Swift published A Tale of a Tub and The Battle of the
Books and John Dennis published his Grounds of Criticism in Poetry. The Battle
of the Books begins with a reference to the use of a glass (which, in those days,
17
Jacob W. Grimm (1982). Selected Tales pg 19. Penguin Classics
14
would mean either a mirror or amagnifying glass) as a comparison to the use of
satire. Swift is, in this, very much the child of his age, thinking in terms
of science and satire at one and the same time. He was one of the first English
novelists and also a political campaigner. His satirical writing springs from a body
of liberal thought which produced not only books but also political pamphlets for
public distribution. Swift's writing represents the new, the different and the modern
attempting to change the world by parodying the ancient and incumbent. The
Battle of the Books is a short writing which demonstrates his position very neatly.
From 1704 to 1717, Antoine Galland published the first European translation
of the One Thousand and One Nights (also known as The Arabian Nights in
English). His version of the tales appeared in twelve volumes and exerted a huge
influence on subsequent European literature and attitudes to the Islamic world.
Galland's translation of the Nights was immensely popular throughout Europe, and
later versions of the Nights were written by Galland's publisher using Galland's
name without his consent.
In 1707, Henry Fielding was born (22 April) and his sister Sarah
Fielding was born 3 years later on 8 November 1710. In 1711 Alexander
Pope began a career in literature with the publishing of his An Essay on Criticism.
In 1712 French philosophical writer Jean Jacques Rousseau born 28 June and his
countryman Denis Diderot was born the following year 1713 on 5 October. Also in
1712 Pope published The Rape of the Lock and in 1713Windsor Forest.
In 1708, Simon Ockley publishes an English translation of Ibn Tufail's Hayy
ibn Yaqdhan, a 12th-century philosophical novel, as The Improvement of Human
Reason: Exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan. This was the first English
translation directly from the Arabic original.
Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709 in Lichfield, Staffordshire,
England.
Horace Walpole was born on 24 September 1717.
Daniel Defoe was another political pamphleteer turned novelist like
Jonathan Swift and was publishing in the early 18th century. In 1719 he
15
published Robinson Crusoe, in 1720,Captain Singleton and, in 1722, Moll
Flanders.
Other authors publishing in 1722 included Sir Richard Steele, Penelope
Aubin and Eliza Haywood.
From 1726 to 1729 Voltaire lived in exile mainly in England.
Also in 1726, Jonathan Swift published Gulliver's Travels, one of the first
novels in the genre of satire.
In 1728 John Gay wrote The Beggar's Opera which has increased in fame
ever since. The Beggar's Opera began a new style in Opera, the "ballad opera"
which brings the operatic form down to a more popular level and precedes the
genre of comic operettas. Also in 1728 came the publication of Cyclopaedia, or, A
Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (folio, 2 vols.), an encyclopedia
by Ephraim Chambers. The Cyclopaedia was one of the first general encyclopedias
to be produced in English and was the main model for Diderot's Encyclopédie
(published in France between 1751 and 1766).
In 1729, Jonathan Swift published A Modest Proposal, a satirical suggestion
that Irish families should sell their children as food. Swift was, at this time, fully
involved in political campaigning for the Irish.
In 1731, George Lillo's play The London Merchant was a success at the
Theatre-Royal in Drury Lane. It was a new kind of play, a domestic tragedy, which
approximates to what later came to be called a melodrama.
In 1738, London, a poem in imitation of Juvenal’s Third Satire, by Samuel
Johnson is published. Like so many poet of the 18th century Johnson sought to
breathe new life into his favorite classical author Juvenal.
In 1740, Samuel Richardson published Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded.
1744 Alexander Pope died.
1745 Jonathan Swift died.
1748 and 1749, John Cleland published Memoirs of a Woman of
Pleasure (Fanny Hill)
1749 Henry Fielding published The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling.
16
1751 Thomas Gray wrote Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Denis
Diderot began the Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et
des métiers. Over the next three decades Encyclopédie attracted, alongside of those
from Diderot, notable contributions from other great intellectuals of the 18th
Century including Voltaire, Rousseau and Louis de Jaucourt
1752 a satirical short story by Voltaire, Micromégas featured space travellers
visiting earth. It was one of the first stories leaning toward what later
became Science fiction. Its publication at this time is indicative of the trend toward
scientific thinking prevalent in the age of enlightenment.
1754 Henry Fielding died 8 October.
1755 After 9 years Samuel Johnson completes his A Dictionary of the
English Language which is greeted with enthusiasm in the literary world.
1759 Voltaire published Candide. Johann
Christoph
Friedrich
von
Schiller was born 10 November.
1760–1767 Laurence Sterne wrote Tristram Shandy.
1761 Rousseau published Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse.
1762 Rousseau published Émile.
1764 Horace Walpole published The Castle of Otranto (initially under a
pseudonym and claiming it to be a translation of an Italian work from 1529.) The
first gothic novel.
1766 Oliver Goldsmith published The Vicar of Wakefield.
1767 August Wilhelm von Schlegel was born 8 September.
1768 Sarah Fielding died.
1770 April birth of William Wordsworth.
1772 Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel was born 10 March.
1773 Oliver Goldsmith's play She Stoops to Conquer, a farce, was
performed in London.
1774 Goethe wrote The Sorrows of Young Werther, a novel which
approximately
marks
the
beginning
of
the Romanticismmovement
in
the arts and philosophy. A transition thus began, from the critical, science inspired,
17
enlightenment writing to the romantic yearning for forces beyond the mundane and
for foreign times and places to inspire the soul with passion and mystery.
1777 the comedy play The School for Scandal, a comedy of manners, was
written by Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
1778 Death of Voltaire. Death of Jean Jacques Rousseau 2 July. Two major
contributors to Diderot's Encyclopédie dead in the same year.
1779–1781 Samuel Johnson writes and publishes Lives of the Most Eminent
English Poets. This compilation contains mini-biographies of 52 influential poets
(most of whom lived in the 18th century) along with critical appraisals of their
works. most notable are Alexander Pope, John Dryden, John Milton, Jonathan
Swift, and Joseph Addison.
1783 Washington Irving was born.
1784 Denis Diderot died 31 July. Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot have all
died within a period of a few years and Frenchphilosophy had thus lost three of its
greatest enlightened free thinkers. Rousseau's thinking on the nobility of life in the
wilds, facing nature as a naked savage still had great force to influence the next
generation as the romantic movement gained momentum. Beaumarchais wrote The
Marriage of Figaro. Maria and Harriet Falconar publish Poems on Slavery. The
anti-slavery movement was growing in power and many poems and pamphlets
were published on the subject.
On 13 December 1784 Samuel Johnson died.
1785 William Cowper published The Task
1786 Robert Burns published Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect. The
mood
of
literature
was
swinging
toward
more
interest
in
diverse
ethnicity. Beaumarchais' The Marriage of Figaro (Le Nozze di Figaro) was adapted
into
a
comic
opera
composed
by Wolfgang
Amadeus
Mozart,
with libretto by Lorenzo da Ponte.
1789 James Fenimore Cooper was born 15 September in America.
1791 Dream of the Red Chamber is published for the first time in movable
type format.
18
1792 Percy Bysshe Shelley was born (August 4).
1793 Salisbury Plain by William Wordsworth.
1794 Robert Goldsmith was born.
In 1795 Samuel Taylor Coleridge met William Wordsworth and his sister
Dorothy. The two men published a joint volume of poetry, Lyrical Ballads (1798),
which became a central text of Romantic poetry.
1796 Thomas Chandler Haliburton was born. Denis Diderot's Jacques le
fataliste was published posthumously.
1796 Matthew Lewis published his controversial, anti-catholic novel The
Monk.
1796 Charlotte Turner Smith published her novel Marchmont.
Selected list of novels
Simon Ockley, The Improvement of Human Reason: Exhibited in the Life of
Hai Ebn Yokdhan (British, 1708) - English translation of Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn
Yaqdhan (12th century)
Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, (British, 1719) - considered the first novel
in English
Eliza Haywood, Love in Excess, (British, 1719)
Samuel Richardson, Pamela, (British, 1740)
Henry Fielding, Tom Jones, (British, 1749)
Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, (British, 1759–1767)
Tobias Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, (Scottish, 1771)
Ignacy Krasicki, The Adventures of Nicholas Experience (Polish, 1776) the first Polish novel
Frances Burney, Evelina, (British, 1778)
Ann Radcliffe, The Mysteries of Udolpho, (British, 1794)
Mary Hays, Memoirs of Emma Courtney, (British, 1796)
Matthew Lewis, The Monk, (British, 1796)
19
3.2. Literary aspects of poetry in the period of Enlightenment
In the age of Enlightenment, poets wrote in direct counterpoint and direct
expansion of one another, with each poet writing satire when in opposition. There
was a great struggle over the nature and role of the pastoral in the early part of the
century, reflecting two simultaneous movements: the invention of the subjective
self as a worthy topic, with the emergence of a priority on individual psychology,
against the insistence on all acts of art being performance and public gesture
designed for the benefit of society at large. The development seemingly agreed
upon by both sides was a gradual adaptation of all forms of poetry from their older
uses18. Odes would cease to be encomium, ballads cease to be narratives,
elegies cease to be sincere memorials, satires no longer be specific entertainments,
parodies no longer be performance pieces without sting, song no longer be pointed,
and the lyric would become a celebration of the individual rather than a lover's
complaint. These developments can be seen as extensions of Protestantism, as Max
Weber argued, for they represent a gradual increase in the implications of Martin
Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, or they can be seen as a growth
of the power and assertiveness of the bourgeoisie and an echo of the displacement
of the worker from the home in growing industrialization, as Marxists such as E.P.
Thompson have argued. It can be argued that the development of the subjective
individual against the social individual was a natural reaction to trade over other
methods of economic production. Whatever the prime cause, a largely conservative
set of voices argued for a social person and largely emergent voices argued for the
individual person.
The entire Augustan age's poetry was dominated by Alexander Pope. His
lines were repeated often enough to lend quite a few clichés and proverbs to
modern English usage. Pope had few poetic rivals, but he had many personal
enemies and political, philosophical, or religious opponents, and Pope himself was
quarrelsome in print. Pope and his enemies (often called "the Dunces" because of
18
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustan_poetry
20
Pope's successful satirizing of them in The Dunciad) fought over central matters of
the proper subject matter for poetry and the proper pose of the poetic voice.
There was a great struggle over the nature and role of the pastoral in the
early part of the century. After Pope published his Pastorals of the four seasons in
1709, an evaluation in the Guardian praised Ambrose Philips's pastorals above
Pope's, and Pope replied with a mock praise of Philips's Pastorals that heaped scorn
on them. Pope quoted Philips's worst lines, mocked his execution, and delighted in
pointing out his empty lines. Pope later explained that any depictions of shepherds
and their mistresses in the pastoral must not be updated shepherds, that they must
be icons of the Golden Age: "we are not to describe our shepherds as shepherds at
this day really are, but as they may be conceived then to have been, when the best
of men followed the employment" (Gordon). Philips's Pastorals were not
particularly awful poems, but they did reflect his desire to "update" the pastoral. In
1724, Philips would update poetry again by writing a series of odes dedicated to
"all ages and characters, from Walpole, the steerer of the realm, to Miss Pulteney
in the nursery." Henry Careywas one of the best at satirizing these poems, and
his Namby Pamby became a hugely successful obliteration of Philips and Philips's
endeavor. What is notable about Philips against Pope, however, is the fact
that both poets were adapting the pastoral and the ode, both altering it. Pope's
insistence upon a Golden Age pastoral no less than Philips's desire to update it
meant making a political statement. While it is easy to see in Ambrose Philips an
effort at modernist triumph, it is no less the case that Pope's artificially restricted
pastoral was a statement of what the ideal should be.
Pope's friend John Gay also adapted the pastoral. Gay, working at Pope's
suggestion, wrote a parody of the updated pastoral in The Shepherd's Week. He
also imitated theSatires of Juvenal with his Trivia. In 1728, his The Beggar's
Opera was an enormous success, running for an unheard-of eighty performances.
All of these works have in common a gesture of compassion. In Trivia, Gay writes
as if commiserating with those who live in London and are menaced by falling
masonry and bedpan slops, and The Shepherd's Week features great detail of the
21
follies of everyday life and eccentric character. Even The Beggar's Opera, which is
a satire of Robert Walpole, portrays its characters with compassion: the villains
have pathetic songs in their own right and are acting out of exigency rather than
boundless evil.
Throughout the Augustan era the "updating" of Classical poets was a
commonplace. These were not translations, but rather they were imitations of
Classical models, and the imitation allowed poets to veil their responsibility for the
comments they made. Alexander Pope would manage to refer to the King himself
in
unflattering
tones
by
"imitating"
Horace
in
his Epistle
to
Augustus. Similarly, Samuel Johnson wrote a poem that falls into the Augustan
period in his "imitation of Juvenal" entitled London. The imitation was inherently
conservative, since it argued that all that was good was to be found in the old
classical education, but these imitations were used for progressive purposes, as the
poets who used them were often doing so to complain of the political situation.
In satire, Pope achieved two of the greatest poetic satires of all time in the
Augustan period. The Rape of the Lock (1712 and 1714) was a gentle mockheroic. Pope applies Virgil's heroic and epic structure to the story of a young
woman (Arabella Fermor) having a lock of hair snipped by an amorous baron
(Lord Petre). Thestructure of the comparison forces Pope to invent mythological
forces to overlook the struggle, and so he creates an epic battle, complete with
a mythology of sylphs and metempsychosis, over a game of Ombre, leading to a
fiendish appropriation of the lock of hair. Finally, a deux ex machina appears and
the lock of hair experiences an apotheosis. To some degree, Pope was adapting
Jonathan Swift's habit, in A Tale of a Tub, of pretending that metaphors were
literal truths, and he was inventing a mythos to go with the everyday. The poem
was an enormous public success.
A decade after the gentle, laughing satire of The Rape of the Lock, Pope
wrote his masterpiece of invective and specific opprobrium in The Dunciad. The
story is that of the goddess Dulness choosing a new Avatar. She settles upon one of
Pope's personal enemies, Lewis Theobald, and the poem describes the coronation
22
and heroic games undertaken by all of the dunces of Great Britain in celebration of
Theobald's ascension. When Pope's enemies responded to The Dunciad with
attacks, Pope produced theDunciad Variorum, with a "learned" commentary upon
the original Dunciad. In 1743, he added a fourth book and changed the hero from
Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber. In the fourth book of the new Dunciad, Pope
expressed the view that, in the battle between light and dark (enlightenment and
the Dark Ages), Night and Dulness were fated to win, that all things of value were
soon going to be subsumed under the curtain of unknowing.
John Gay and Alexander Pope belong on one side of a line separating the
celebrants of the individual and the celebrants of the social. Pope wrote The Rape
of the Lock, he said, to settle a disagreement between two great families, to laugh
them into peace. Even The Dunciad, which seems to be a serial killing of everyone
on Pope's enemies list, sets up these figures as expressions of dangerous
and antisocial forces in letters. Theobald and Cibber are marked by vanity and
pride, by having no care for morality. The hireling pens Pope attacks mercilessly in
the heroic games section of the Dunciadare all embodiments of avarice and lies.
Similarly, Gay writes of political society, of social dangers, and of follies that must
be addressed to protect the greater whole. Gay's individuals are microcosms of the
society at large. On the other side of this line were people who agreed with
the politics of Gay and Pope (and Swift), but not in approach. They include, early
in the Augustan Age, James Thomson and Edward Young. Thomson's The
Seasons (1726–30) is poetry of natural description, but they are unlike Pope's
notion of the Golden Age pastoral. Thomson's poet speaks in the first person from
direct observation, and his own mood and sentiment color the descriptions of
landscape. Unlike Pope's Windsor Forest, Thomson's seasons have no mythology,
no celebration of Britain or the crown. Winter, in particular, is melancholy and
meditative. Edward Yonge's Night Thoughts (1742–1744) was immediately
popular. It was, even more than Winter, a poem of deep solitude, melancholy, and
despair. In these two poets, there are the stirrings of the lyric as
23
the Romantics would see it: the celebration of the private individual's idiosyncratic,
yet paradigmatic, responses to the visions of the world.
These hints at the solitary poet were carried into a new realm with Thomas
Gray, whose Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard (1750) set off a new craze
for poetry of melancholy reflection. It was written in the "country," and not in or as
opposed to London, and the poem sets up the solitary observer in a privileged
position. It is only by being solitary that the poet can speak of a truth that is wholly
individually realized. After Gray, a group often referred to as the Churchyard
Poets began imitating his pose, if not his style. Oliver Goldsmith (The Deserted
Village), Thomas Warton, and even Thomas Percy (The Hermit of Warkworth),
each conservative by and large and Classicist (Gray himself was a professor of
Greek), took up the new poetry of solitude and loss.
When the Romantics emerged at the end of the 18th century, they were not
assuming a radically new invention of the subjective self themselves, but merely
formalizing what had gone before. Similarly, the later 18th century saw a ballad
revival, with Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. The relics were
not always very ancient, as many of the ballads dated from only the 17th century
(e.g. theBagford Ballads or The Dragon of Wantley in the Percy Folio), and so
what began as an antiquarian movement soon became a folk movement. When this
folk-inspired impulse combined with the solitary and individualistic impulse of the
Churchyard Poets, Romanticism was nearly inevitable.
In the Augustan era, poets were even more conversant with each other than
were novelists (see Augustan prose). Their works were written as direct
counterpoint and direct expansion of one another, with each poet writing satire
when in opposition. There was a great struggle over the nature and role of
the pastoral in the early part of the century, primarily between Ambrose
Philips and Alexander Pope and then between their followers, but such a
controversy was only possible because of two simultaneous movements. The more
general movement, carried forward only with struggle between poets, was the same
as was present in the novel: the invention of the subjective self as a worthy topic,
24
the emergence of a priority on individual psychology, against the insistence on all
acts of art being performance and public gesture designed for the benefit of society
at large. Underneath this large banner raged multiple individual battles. The other
development, one seemingly agreed upon by both sides, was a gradual
expropriation and reinvention of all the Classical forms of poetry. Every genre of
poetry
was
recast,
reconsidered,
and
used
to
serve
new
functions. Ode, ballad, elegy, satire, parody, song, andlyric poetry would all be
adapted from their older uses. Odes would cease to be encomium, ballads cease to
be narratives, elegies cease to be sincere memorials, satires no longer be specific
entertainments, parodies no longer be bravura stylistic performances, songs no
longer be personal lyrics, and the lyric would become a celebration of the
individual rather than a lover's complaint.
These two developments (the emphasis on the individual and the willingness
to reinvent genre) can be seen as extensions of Protestantism, as Max
Weber argued, for they represent a gradual increase in the implications of Martin
Luther's doctrine of the priesthood of all believers and the Calvinist emphasis on
individual revelation of the divine (and therefore the competence and worth of the
individual). It can be seen as a growth of the power and assertiveness of
the bourgeoisie and an echo of the displacement of the worker from the home in
growing industrialization, as Marxists such as E.P. Thompsonhave argued, for
people were no longer allowed to remain in their families and communities when
they had to travel to a factory or mill, and therefore they grew accustomed to
thinking of themselves as isolates. It can be argued that the development of the
subjective individual against the social individual was a natural reaction to trade
over other methods of economic production, or as a reflection of a breakdown in
social cohesion unconsciously set in motion by enclosure and the migration of the
poor to the cities. There are many other plausible and coherent explanations of the
causes of the rise of thesubjective self, but whatever the prime cause, poets showed
the strains of the development as a largely conservative set of voices argued for a
social person and largely emergent voices argued for the individual person.
25
The entire Augustan age's poetry was dominated by Alexander Pope. Since
Pope began publishing when very young and continued to the end of his life, his
poetry is a reference point in any discussion of the 1710s, 1720s, 1730s, or even
1740s. Furthermore, Pope's abilities were recognized early in his career, so
contemporaries acknowledged his superiority, for the most part. Indeed, seldom
has a poet been as publicly acknowledged as a leader for as long as was Pope, and,
unlike the case with figures such as John Dryden orWilliam Wordsworth, a second
generation did not emerge to eclipse his position. From a technical point of view,
few poets have ever approached Alexander Pope's perfection at the iambic
pentameter closed couplet ("heroic verse"), and his lines were repeated often
enough to lend quite a few clichés and proverbs to modern English usage.
However, if Pope had few rivals, he had many enemies. His technical perfection
did not shelter him from political, philosophical, or religious opponents, and Pope
himself was quarrelsome in print. His very technical superiority led Pope to
injudicious improvements in his editing and translation of other authors. However,
Pope and his enemies (often called "the Dunces" because of Pope's successful
satirizing of them in The Dunciad of 1727 and 1738) fought over central matters of
the proper subject matter for poetry and the proper pose of the poetic voice, and the
excesses and missteps, as much as the achievements, of both sides demonstrated
the stakes of the battle.
The Pope/Philips debate occurred in 1709 when Alexander Pope published
his Pastorals.
Pope's Pastorals were
of
the
four
seasons.
When
they
appeared, Thomas Tickell, a member of the "Little Senate" of Addison's (see
above) at Button's Coffee-shop, wrote an evaluation in Guardian that praised
Ambrose
Philips's
pastorals
above
Pope's.
Pope
replied
by
writing
in Guardian with a mock praise of Philips's Patorals that heaped scorn on them.
Pope quoted Philips's worst lines, mocked his execution, and delighted in pointing
out his empty lines. Philips responded by putting a staff in the floor of Button's
with which to beat Pope, should he appear. In 1717, Pope explained his theory of
the pastoral in the Discourse on Pastoral Poetry. He argued that any depictions of
26
shepherds and their mistresses in the pastoral must not be updated shepherds, that
they must be icons of the Golden Age: “we are not to describe our shepherds as
shepherds at this day really are, but as they may be conceived then to have been,
when the best of men followed the employment" (Gordon). Philips's Pastorals were
not particularly awful poems, but they did reflect his desire to "update" the
pastoral.
In 1724, Philips would update poetry again by writing a series of odes
dedicated to "all ages and characters, from Walpole, the steerer of the realm, to
Miss Pulteney in the nursery." To do so, he shortened his line length to 3.5', or
almost half a normal iambic pentameter line. Henry Carey was one of the best at
satirizing these poems, and his Namby Pamby became a hugely successful
obliteration of Philips and Philips's endeavor. What is notable about Philips against
Pope, however, is not so much the particular poems and their answers as the fact
that both poets were adapting the pastoral and the ode, both altering it. Pope's
insistence upon a Golden Age pastoral no less than Philips's desire to update it
meant making a political statement. While it is easy to see in Ambrose Philips an
effort at modernist triumph, it is no less the case that Pope's artificially restricted
pastoral was a statement of what the ideal (based on an older Feudal arrangement)
should be.
The Scribbleran Club wrote poetry as well as prose, and the club included
among its number John Gay, who was not only a friend and collaborator of Pope's,
but also one of the major voices of the era. John Gay, like Pope, adapted the
pastoral. Gay, working at Pope's suggestion, wrote a parody of the updated pastoral
in The Shepherd's Week. He also imitated the satires of Juvenal with his Trivia. In
1728, his The Beggar's Opera was an enormous success, running for an unheard-of
eighty performances. All of these works have in common a gesture of compassion.
In Trivia, Gay writes as if commisserating with those who live in London and are
menaced by falling masonry and bedpan slops, and The Shepherd's Week features
great detail of the follies of everyday life and eccentric character. Even The
Beggar's Opera, which is a clear satire of Robert Walpole, portrays its characters
27
with compassion. The villains have pathetic songs in their own right and are acting
out of exigency rather than boundless evil. Gay's tone is almost the opposite of
Jonathan Swift's. Swift famously said that he hated mankind but loved individual
humans, and Gay's poetry shows a love of mankind and a gentle mocking of overly
serious or pretentious individuals.
Old style poetic parody involved imitation of the style of an author for the
purposes of providing amusement, but not for the purpose of ridicule. The person
imitated was not satirized. Ambrose Philips's idea was of adapting and updating
the pastoral to represent a contemporary lyric (i.e. to make it a form for housing
the personal love complaints of modern shepherds), where individual personalities
would be expressed, and this desire to move from the universal, typical, and
idealized shepherd to the real, actual, and individual shepherd was the heart of the
debate. Prior to Ambrose Philips, John Philips, whose The Splendid Shilling of
1701 was an imitation of John Milton's blank verse for a discussion of the miseries
of poverty, was championed by Addison's Kit-Kats. The Splendid Shilling, like
Pope's poetry and the other poetry by the "Tory Wits," is a statement of the social
man. The shilling, the poverty, and the complaint are all posited in terms of the
man in London, the man in society and conviviality, and not the man as a particular
individual or with idiosyncrasies. It was a poem wholly consonant with the poetry
of the Scribblerians. After Ambrose Philips, though, poets would begin to speak of
peculiarities and actualities, rather than ideals. It is a debate and a poetic tension
that would remain all the way to Samuel Johnson's discussion of the "streaks of
the tulip" in the last part of the century (Rasselas).
Gay adapted Juvenal, as Pope had already adapted Virgil's Eclogues, and
throughout the Augustan era the "updating" of Classical poets was a commonplace.
These were not translations, but rather they were imitations of Classical models,
and the imitation allowed poets to veil their responsibility for the comments they
made. Alexander Pope would manage to refer to the King himself in unflattering
tones
by
"imitating" Horace in
his Epistle
to
Augustus. Similarly, Samuel
Johnson wrote a poem that falls into the Augustan period in his "imitation of Satire
28
III" entitled London. The imitation was inherently conservative, since it argued
that all that was good was to be found in the old classical education, but these
imitations were used for progressive purposes, as the poets who used them were
often doing so to complain of the political situation.
.Readers of adaptations were assumed to know the originals. Indeed, original
translation was one of the standard tests in grammar school. Pope's translation
ofHomer's Iliad and Odyssey was not an attempt to make the works available to an
Augustan audience, but rather to make a new work occupying a middle ground
between Homer and Pope. The translation had to be textually accurate, but it was
intended to be a Pope translation, with felicity of phrase and neatness of rhyme
from Pope. Additionally, Pope would "versify" John Donne, although his work
was widely available. The changes Pope makes are the content, the commentary.
Pope's edition of Shakespeare claimed to be textually perfect (although it was
corrupt), but his desire to adapt led him to injudicious attempts at "smoothing" and
"cleaning" Shakespeare's lines.
In satire, Pope achieved two of the greatest poetic satires of all time in the
Augustan period, and both arose from the imitative and adaptive demands
of parody. The Rape of the Lock (1712 and 1714) was a gentle mock-heroic, but it
was built upon Virgil's Aeneid. Pope applied Virgil's heroic and epic structure to
the story of a young woman (Arabella Fermor) having a lock of hair snipped by an
amorous baron (Lord Petre). The structure of the comparison forced Pope to invent
mythological forces to overlook the struggle, and so he borrowed sylphs from
ludicrous (to him) alchemistParacelsus and makes them the ghosts of vain women.
He created an epic battle over a game of Ombre, leading to a fiendish appropriation
of the lock of hair. Finally, a deus ex machina appears and the lock of hair
experiences an apotheosis. To some degree, Pope was adapting Jonathan Swift's
habit, in A Tale of a Tub, of pretending that metaphors were literal truths, and he
was inventing a mythos to go with the everyday. The parody was in no way a
comment on Virgil. Instead, it was an imitation made to serve a new purpose. The
epic was transformed from a paean to national foundations to a satire on the
29
outlandish self-importance of the country nobility. The poem was an enormous
success, at least with the general public19.
After that success, Pope wrote some works that were more philosophical and
more political and therefore more controversial, such as the Essay on
Criticism and Essay on Man, as well as a failed play. As a result, a decade after the
gentle, laughing satire ofThe Rape of the Lock, Pope wrote his masterpiece of
invective and specific opproprium in The Dunciad. Pope had translated Homer and
produced an errant edition of William Shakespeare, and the 1727 Dunciad was an
updating and redirection of John Dryden's poison-pen battle of MacFlecknoe. The
story is that of the goddess Dulness choosing a new Avatar. She settles upon one of
Pope's personal enemies, Lewis Theobald, and the poem describes the coronation
and heroic games undertaken by all of the dunces of Great Britain in celebration of
Theobald's ascension. When Pope's enemies responded to The Dunciad with
attacks, Pope produced the Dunciad Variorum, which culled from each dunce's
attack any comments unflattering to another dunce, assembled the whole into a
commentary upon the original Dunciad and added a critical comment by Pope
professing his innocence and dignity. In 1743, Pope issued a new version of The
Dunciad ("The Dunciad B") with a fourth book added. He also changed the hero
from Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber. In the fourth book of the new Dunciad,
Pope expressed the view that, in the battle between light and dark (enlightenment
and the Dark Ages), Night and Dulness were fated to win, that all things of value
were soon going to be subsumed under the curtain of unknowing.
John Gay and Alexander Pope belong on one side of a line separating the
celebrants of the individual and the celebrants of the social. Pope wrote The Rape
of the Lock, he said, to settle a disagreement between two great families, to laugh
them into peace. He wrote the Essay on Criticism and the Essay on Man to
emphasize, time and again, the public nature of human life and the social role of
letters. Even The Dunciad, which seems to be a serial killing of everyone on Pope's
enemies list, sets up these figures as expressions of dangerous and antisocial forces
19
Gordon, I. R. F. "Pastorals 1709". Retrieved 29 June 2005.
30
in letters. Theobald and Cibber are marked by vanity and pride, by having no care
for morality, so long as they are famous. The hireling pens Pope attacks
mercilessly in the heroic games section of the Dunciad are all embodiments of
avarice and lies. Similarly, Gay, although he always has strong touches of personal
humor and the details of personal life, writes of political society, of social dangers,
and of follies that must be addressed to protect the greater whole. On the other side
of this line, however, were people who agreed with the politics of Gay and Pope
(and Swift), but not in approach.
The other side of this division include, early in the Augustan Age, James
Thomson and Edward Yonge. Thomson's The Seasons (1726-30) are nature poetry,
but they are unlike Pope's notion of the Golden Age pastoral. Thomson's poet
speaks in the first person from direct observation, and his own mood
and sentiment color the descriptions of landscape. Winter, in particular, is
melancholy and meditative. Edward Yonge's Night Thoughts (1742–1744) was
immediately popular. It was, even more than Winter, a poem of deep solitude,
melancholy, and despair. In these two poets, there is the stirrings of the lyric as
the Romantics would see it: the celebration of the private individual's idiosyncratic
(but paradigmatic) responses to the visions of the world. Both of these works
appeared in Pope's lifetime, and both were popular, but the older, more
conservative poetry maintained its hold for a while to come. On the other
hand, Thomas Gray'sElegy Written in a Country Churchyard set off a new craze
for poetry of melancholy reflection.
Gray's Elegy appeared in 1750, and it immediately set new ground. First, it
was written in the "country," and not in or as opposed to London. In fact, the poem
makes no reference at all to the life of the city and society, and it follows no
classical model. Further, it is not an elegiac in the strictest sense. Also, the poem
sets up the solitary observer in a privileged position. It is only by being solitary
that the poet can speak of a truth that is wholly individually realized, and the poem
is a series of revelations that have been granted only to the contemplative (and
superior) mind. After Gray, a group often referred to as the Churchyard
31
Poets began imitating his pose, if not his style. These imitations followed no
convenient or conventional political or religious division. Oliver Goldsmith (The
Deserted Village), Thomas Warton, and even Thomas Percy (The Hermit of
Warkworth), each conservative by and large and Classicist (Gray himself was a
professor of Greek), took up the new poetry of solitude and loss.
Additionally, Thomas Chatterton, among the younger poets, also followed. The
only things these poets had in common was that they were not centered in London
(except Chatterton, for a time), and each of them reflected, in one way or another,
on the devastation of the countryside20.
Therefore, when the Romantics emerged at the end of the 18th century, they
were not assuming a radically new invention of the subjective self themselves, but
merely formalizing what had gone before. Similarly, the later 18th century saw a
ballad revival, with Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. The relics
were not always very ancient, as many of the ballads dated from only the 17th
century (e.g. the Bagford Ballads or The Dragon of Wantley in the Percy Folio),
and so what began as an antiquarian movement soon became a folk movement.
When this folk-inspired impulse combined with the solitary and individualistic
impulse of the Churchyard Poets, Romanticism was nearly inevitable.
20
The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia 1759. Jack Lynch, ed. Retrieved 15 July 2005.
32
CHAPTER II
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT
2.1. Historical aspects of American Enlightenment
The American Enlightenment is a period of intellectual ferment in
the thirteen American colonies in the period 1714–1818, which led to
the American Revolution, American Independence, the creation of the American
Republic under the United States Constitution of 1787, the Bill of Rights in 1790,
the development of Federal and State laws and institutions, the liberties defined in
the constitution over the next three decades, and the War of 1812 or "Second War
of Independence". Influenced by the 18th-century European Enlightenment, and its
own native American Philosophy, the American Enlightenment applied scientific
reasoning to politics, science, and religion, promoted religious tolerance, and
restored literature, the arts, and music as important disciplines and professions
worthy of study in colleges. The "new-model" American style colleges of King's
College New York (now Columbia University), and the College of Philadelphia
(now Penn) were founded, Yale College and the College of William & Mary were
reformed, and a non-denominational moral philosophy replaced theology in many
college curricula; even Puritan colleges such as the College of New Jersey (now
Princeton) and Harvard reformed their curricula to include natural philosophy
(science), modern astronomy, and math. The foremost representatives of the
American Enlightenment included men who were Presidents of Colonial Colleges:
Puritan religious leaders President Jonathan Edwards, President Thomas Clap,
and President Ezra Stiles, and Anglican moral philosophersAmerican President
Samuel
Johnson and Provost
William
Smith.
It
also
included
political
thinkers John Adams, James Madison, James Wilson, and Alexander Hamilton,
and polymaths Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson.
Various dates for the American Enlightenment have been proposed,
including the dates 1750-1820, 1765 to 1815, and 1688-1815. One somewhat more
precise start date proposed is the introduction of a collection of donated
Enlightenment books by Colonial Agent Jeremiah Dummer into the library of the
33
small college of Yale at Saybrook Point, Connecticut on or just after October 15,
1714. They were received by a young post-graduate student Samuel Johnson, of
Guilford Connecticut, who studied the Enlightenment works. Finding they
contradicted all his hard learned Puritan learning, he wrote, using the metaphors of
light that would soon be used to characterize the age, that, “All this was like a
flood of day to his low state of mind”, and that “he found himself like one at once
emerging out of the glimmer of twilight into the full sunshine of open day." Two
years later in 1716 as a Yale Tutor, Johnson introduced a new curriculum into Yale
using the donated Dummer books, offering what Johnson called "The New
Learning", which included the works and ideas of Francis Bacon, John Locke,
Isaac Newton, Boyle, Copernicus, and literary works by Shakespeare, Milton, and
Addison. Joseph Ellis has traced the impact of the newly introduced Enlightenment
ideas on the Yale Commencement Thesis of 1718.21
A switch from sectarian politics and established religion in many states to
religious tolerance, ecumenicalism, and the disestablishment of state religion was
one of the distinguishing features of the American Enlightenment. The passage of
the new Connecticut Constitution on October 5, 1818, overturned the 180-year-old
"Standing Order" and the The Connecticut Charter of 1662, whose provisions
dated back to the founding of the state in 1638 and the Fundamental Orders of
Connecticut; it has been proposed as a date for the triumph if not the end of the
American Enlightenment. The new constitution guaranteed freedom of religion,
disestablished the Congregational church, and ended the last effectivetheocracy in
America, as well overturning the last state constitution dating from the British
Empire.
Between 1714 and 1818 a great intellectual change took place that changed
the British Colonies of America from separate Puritan and Anglican backwater
enclaves into a leader in the fields of moral philosophy, educational reform,
religious revival, industrial technology, science, and, most notably, political
21
Ellis, Joseph J., The New England Mind in Transition: Samuel Johnson of Connecticut, 1696-1772, Yale
University Press, 1973, Chapter II
34
philosophy. It saw the disestablishment of religion in all the states, and a consensus
on a "pursuit of happiness" based political philosophy. It gave the British Empire
its greatest artist, the ex-patriot painter Benjamin West; his British emigrant and
native American pupils carried his influence back to America. After 1780,
the Federal-style of American Architecture began to diverge from the Georgian
style and became a uniquely American genre; in 1813, the American
architect Ithiel Town designed and in 1814-1816 built the first Gothic Style church
in North America, Trinity Church on the Green in New Haven, predating the
English Gothic revival by a decade. In the fields of literature, poetry, music and
drama some nascent artistic attempts were made, particularly in pre-war
Philadelphia, but American (non-popular) culture in these fields was largely
imitative of British culture for most of the period, and is generally considered not
very distinguished.
Politically, the age is distinguished by an emphasis upon economic
liberty, republicanism and religious tolerance, as clearly expressed in the United
States Declaration of Independence. Attempts to reconcile science and
religion resulted in a rejection of prophecy, miracle, and revealed religion,
resulting in an inclination toward deism among some major political leaders of the
age. American republicanism emphasized consent of the government, riddance of
aristocracy, and fear of corruption. It represented the convergence of classical
republicanism and English republicanism (of 17th century Commonwealthmen and
18th century English Country Whigs).
J.G.A. Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:
The Whig canon and the neo - Harringtonians, John Milton, James
Harrington and Sidney, Trenchard,Gordon and Bolingbroke, together with the
Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far as Montesquieu,
formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its values and concepts were
those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the
personality was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually
threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal
35
source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, faction,
standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia); established churches (opposed
to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion); and the promotion of a
monied interest—though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat
hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies
of settlement.
Sources of the American Enlightenment are many and vary according to
time and place. As a result of an extensive book trade with Great Britain, the
colonies were well acquainted with European literature almost contemporaneously.
Early influences were English writers, including James Harrington, Algernon
Sidney, the Viscount Bolingbroke, John Trenchardand Thomas Gordon (especially
the two's Cato's Letters), and Joseph Addison (whose tragedy Cato was extremely
popular). A particularly important English legal writer was Sir William
Blackstone, whose Commentaries on the Laws of England served as a major
influence on the American Founders and is a key source in the development
Anglo-American common
law.
Although John
Locke's Two
Treatises
of
Government has long been cited as a major influence on American thinkers,
historians David Lundberg and Henry F. May demonstrate that Locke's Essay
Concerning Human Understanding was far more widely read than were his
political Treatises.22
The Scottish Enlightenment also influenced American thinkers. David
Hume's Essays and his History of England were widely read in the colonies, and
Hume's political thought had a particular influence on James Madison and the
Constitution.
Another
important
Scottish
writer
was Francis
Hutcheson.
Hutcheson's ideas of ethics, along with notions of civility and politeness developed
by the Earl of Shaftesbury, and Addison and Richard Steele in their Spectator,
were a major influence on upper-class American colonists who sought to emulate
European manners and learning.
22
David Lundberg and Henry F. May, "The Enlightened Reader in America," American Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 2
(1976): 267.
36
By far the most important French sources to the American Enlightenment,
however, were Montesquieu's Spirit of the Lawsand Emer de Vattel's Law of
Nations. Both informed early American ideas of government and were major
influences on the Constitution. Voltaire's histories were widely read but seldom
cited. Although Rousseau's influence was initially marginal, 1797 saw an
American edition of his Dissertation on Political Economy, to which was
appended The Social Contract. As a result, Rousseau impacted the formation of
Jeffersonian ideas of pastoralism, and Noah Webster used Rousseau's educational
ideas in his famous Speller. A German influence includes Samuel Pufendorf,
whose writings were also commonly cited by American writers.
Since the 1960s, historians have debated the Enlightenment's role in the
American Revolution. Before 1960 the consensus was that liberalism, especially
that of John Locke, was paramount and that republicanism had a distinctly
secondary role. The new interpretations were pioneered by J.G.A. Pocock who
argued in The Machiavellian Moment (1975) that, at least in the early eighteenthcentury, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pocock's view is
now widely accepted. Bernard Bailyn and Gordon Wood pioneered the argument
that
the Founding
Fathers
of
the
United
Stateswere
more
influenced
by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University Professor Isaac
Kramnick, on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been
highly individualistic and therefore Lockean.
In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and
political leaders of the colonies studied history intently, looking for guides or
models for good (and bad) government. They especially followed the development
of republican ideas in England. Pocock explained the intellectual sources in the
United States:
The
Whig
canon
and
the
neo-Harringtonians, John
Milton, James
Harrington and Sidney, Trenchard, Gordonand Bolingbroke, together with the
Greek, Roman, and Renaissance masters of the tradition as far asMontesquieu,
formed the authoritative literature of this culture; and its values and concepts were
37
those with which we have grown familiar: a civic and patriot ideal in which the
personality was founded in property, perfected in citizenship but perpetually
threatened by corruption; government figuring paradoxically as the principal
source of corruption and operating through such means as patronage, faction,
standing armies (opposed to the ideal of the militia), established churches (opposed
to the Puritan and deist modes of American religion) and the promotion of a
monied interest — though the formulation of this last concept was somewhat
hindered by the keen desire for readily available paper credit common in colonies
of settlement. A neoclassical politics provided both the ethos of the elites and the
rhetoric of the upwardly mobile, and accounts for the singular cultural and
intellectual homogeneity of the Founding Fathers and their generation.
The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made
inevitable the American Revolution, for Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt
and hostile to republicanism, and a threat to the established liberties the Americans
enjoyed.
Leopold von Ranke in 1848 claims that American republicanism played a
crucial role in the development of European liberalism:
By abandoning English constitutionalism and creating a new republic based
on the rights of the individual, the North Americans introduced a new force in the
world. Ideas spread most rapidly when they have found adequate concrete
expression. Thus republicanism entered our Romanic/Germanic world.... Up to this
point, the conviction had prevailed in Europe that monarchy best served the
interests of the nation. Now the idea spread that the nation should govern itself.
But only after a state had actually been formed on the basis of the theory of
representation did the full significance of this idea become clear. All later
revolutionary movements have this same goal.... This was the complete reversal of
a principle. Until then, a king who ruled by the grace of God had been the center
around which everything turned. Now the idea emerged that power should come
from below.... These two principles are like two opposite poles, and it is the
conflict between them that determines the course of the modern world. In Europe
38
the conflict between them had not yet taken on concrete form; with the French
Revolution it did.
Many historians find that the origin of this famous phrase derives from
Locke's position that "no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or
possessions."23 Others suggest that Jefferson took the phrase from Sir William
Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England. Others note that William
Wollaston's 1722 book The Religion of Nature Delineated describes the "truest
definition" of "natural religion" as being "The pursuit of happiness by the practice
of reason and truth."
The Virginia Declaration of Rights adopted by the Virginia Convention of
Delegates on June 12, 1776, adopted a few days before Jefferson's draft but written
earlier, and written by George Mason, is:
That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain
inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by
any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and
liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and
obtaining happiness and safety.
The United States Declaration of Independence, which was primarily written
by Jefferson, was adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.
The text of the second section of the Declaration of Independence reads:
We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that
they are endowed by their Creatorwith certain unalienable Rights, that among these
are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
Both the Moderate Enlightenment and a Radical or Revolutionary
Enlightenment
were
and obscurantism of
reactions
the
against
established
the authoritarianism,
churches.
irrationality,
Philosophers
such
as Voltaire depicted organized Christianity as a tool of tyrants and oppressors and
as being used to defend monarchism, it was seen as hostile to the development of
reason and the progress of science and incapable of verification.
23
Locke, John (1690). Two Treatises of Government (10th edition). Project Gutenberg. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
39
An alternative religion was deism, the philosophical belief in a deity based
on reason, rather than religious revelation or dogma. It was a popular perception
among the philosophes, who adopted deistic attitudes to varying degrees. Deism
greatly
influenced
the
thought
of
intellectuals
and Founding
Fathers,
including John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, perhaps George Washington and,
especially, Thomas Jefferson. The most articulate exponent was Thomas Paine,
whose The Age of Reason was written in France in the early 1790s, and soon
reached the United States. Paine was highly controversial; when Jefferson was
attacked for his deism in the 1800 election, Republican politicians took pains to
distance their candidate from Paine.
Enlightened Founding Fathers, especially Benjamin Franklin, Thomas
Jefferson, James Madison and George Washington, fought for and eventually
attained religious freedom for minority denominations. According to the founding
fathers, the United States should be a country where peoples of all faiths could live
in peace and mutual benefit. James Madison summed up this ideal in 1792 saying,
"Conscience is the most sacred of all property."
40
2.2. Thomas Paine – American Enlightener and his “The Age of
Reason”
Thomas Paine was an English-American political activist, author, political
theorist and revolutionary. As the author of two highly influential pamphlets at the
start of the American Revolution, he inspired the Patriots in 1776 to declare
independence from Britain. His ideas reflected Enlightenment-era rhetoric of
transnational human rights. He has been called "a corset maker by trade, a
journalist by profession, and a propagandist by inclination"24.
Born in Thetford, England, in the county of Norfolk, Paine emigrated to the
British American colonies in 1774 with the help of Benjamin Franklin, arriving
just in time to participate in the American Revolution. His principal contributions
were the powerful, widely read pamphlet Common Sense (1776) that advocated
colonial America's independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and The
American Crisis (1776–83), a prorevolutionary pamphlet series. Common
Sense was so influential that John Adams said, "Without the pen of the author
of Common Sense, the sword of Washington would have been raised in vain."
Paine lived in France for most of the 1790s, becoming deeply involved in
the French Revolution. He wrote the Rights of Man (1791), in part a defence of the
French Revolution against its critics. His attacks on British writer Edmund
Burkeled to a trial and conviction in absentia in 1792 for the crime of seditious
libel. In 1792, despite not being able to speak French, he was elected to the French
National Convention. The Girondists regarded him as an ally. Consequently,
the Montagnards, especially Robespierre, regarded him as an enemy.
In December 1793, he was arrested and imprisoned in Paris, then released in
1794. He became notorious because of his pamphlet The Age of Reason(1793–94),
in which he advocated deism, promoted reason and freethinking, and argued
against institutionalized religion in general and Christian doctrine in particular. He
also wrote the pamphlet Agrarian Justice (1795), discussing the origins of property,
and introduced the concept of a guaranteed minimum income. In 1802, he returned
24
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Paine
41
to America where he died on June 8, 1809. Only six people attended his funeral as
he had been ostracized for his ridicule of Christianity.
Paine was born on January 29, 1736 (NS February 9, 1737) the son of
Joseph Pain, or Paine, a Quaker, and Frances (née Cocke), an Anglican,
in Thetford, an important market town and coach stage-post, in rural Norfolk,
England. Born Thomas Pain, despite claims that he changed his family name upon
his emigration to America in 1774 he was using Paine in 1769, whilst still
in Lewes, Sussex.
He attended Thetford Grammar School (1744–49), at a time when there was
no compulsory education. At age thirteen, he was apprenticed to his corset maker
fther; in late adolescence, he enlisted and briefly served as a privateer, before
returning to Britain in 1759. There, he became a master stay-maker, establishing a
shop in Sandwich, Kent. On September 27, 1759, Thomas Paine married Mary
Lambert. His business collapsed soon after. Mary became pregnant; and, after they
moved to Margate, she went into early labor, in which she and their child died.
In July 1761, Paine returned to The tford to work as a supernumerary officer.
In December 1762, he became an Excise Officer in Grantham, Lincolnshire; in
August 1764, he was transferred to Alford, also in Lincolnshire, at a salary of £50
per annum. On August 27, 1765, he was dismissed as an Excise Officer for
"claiming to have inspected goods he did not inspect". On July 31, 1766, he
requested his reinstatement from the Board of Excise, which they granted the next
day, upon vacancy. While awaiting that, he worked as a stay-maker.25
In 1767, he was appointed to a position inGrampound, Cornwall;
subsequently, he asked to leave this post to await a vacancy, thus, he became a
schoolteacher in London.
On February 19, 1768, he was appointed to Lewes in Sussex, a town with a
tradition of opposition to the monarchy and prorepublican sentiments going back to
the revolutionary decades of the 17th century. Here he lived above the fifteenthcentury Bull House, the tobacco shop of Samuel Ollive and Esther Ollive.
25
Thomas Paine National Historical Association. p. Volume 1, page 20. Retrieved July 18, 2009.
42
There, Paine first became involved in civic matters, and he appears in the
Town Book as a member of the Court Leet, the governing body for the town. He
was also a member of the parish vestry, an influential local church group whose
responsibilities for parish business would include collecting taxes and tithes to
distribute among the poor. On March 26, 1771, at age 34, he married Elizabeth
Ollive, his landlord's daughter.
From 1772 to 1773, Paine joined excise officers asking Parliament for better
pay and working conditions, publishing, in summer of 1772, The Case of the
Officers of Excise, a twenty-one-page article, and his first political work, spending
the London winter distributing the 4,000 copies printed to the Parliament and
others. In spring of 1774, he was again dismissed from the excise service for being
absent from his post without permission; his tobacco shop failed, too. On April 14,
to avoid debtors prison, he sold his household possessions to pay debts. It was
reported that his oppressors in the English corrupted monarchy, judiciary, banks,
and corporate colonists were directly responsible for these dismissals, terminations,
retaliations, business sabotages, and threats to throw him into debtors prison (The
Complete Writings of Thomas Paine, P.S. Foner (ed.), 1945, I, 4/23). Paine's attack
on monarchy in his book Common Sense (1776) is essentially an attack on George
III. Whereas colonial resentments were originally directed primarily against the
king's ministers and Parliament, Paine laid the responsibility firmly at the king's
door. Common Sense was the most widely read pamphlet of the American
Revolution. It was a clarion call for unity, against the corrupt British court, so as to
realize America's providential role in providing an asylum for liberty. Written in a
direct and lively style, it denounced the decaying despotisms of Europe and
pilloried hereditary monarchy as an absurdity. At a time when many still hoped for
reconciliation with Britain, Common Sense demonstrated to many the inevitability
of separation.
On June 4, 1774, he formally separated from wife Elizabeth and moved to
London, where, in September, mathematician, Fellow of the Royal Society, and
Commissioner of the Excise George Lewis Scott introduced him to Benjamin
43
Franklin, who suggested emigration to British colonial America, and gave him a
letter of recommendation. In October, Thomas Paine emigrated from Great Britain
to the American colonies, arriving in Philadelphia on November 30, 1774.
He barely survived the transatlantic voyage. The ship's water supplies were
bad, and typhoid fever killed five passengers. On arriving at Philadelphia, he was
too sick to debark. Benjamin Franklin's physician, there to welcome Paine to
America, had him carried off ship; Paine took six weeks to recover his health. He
became a citizen of Pennsylvania "by taking the oath of allegiance at a very early
period".26 In January, 1775, he became editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine, a
position he conducted with considerable ability.
Paine designed the Sunderland Bridge of 1796 over the Wear River
at Wearmouth, England. It was patterned after the model he had made for
the Schuylkill River Bridge at Philadelphia in 1787, and the Sunderland arch
became the prototype for many subsequent voussoir arches made in iron and
steel. He also received a British patent for a single-span iron bridge, developed a
smokeless candle, and worked with inventor John Fitch in developing steam
engines.
The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous
Theology27 is
a
pamphlet,
written
by
a
British
and American
revolutionary Thomas Paine, that challenges institutionalized religion and the
legitimacy of the Bible, the central text of Christianity. Published in three parts in
1794, 1795, and 1807, it was a bestseller in the United States, where it caused a
short-lived deistic revival. British audiences, however, fearing increased political
radicalism as a result of the French Revolution, received it with more hostility. The
Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what
Paine saw as corruption of the Christian Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire
political power. Paine advocates reason in the place of revelation, leading him to
reject miracles and to view the Bible as an ordinary piece of literature rather than
26
27
Conway, Moncure Daniel, 1892. The Life of Thomas Paine vol. 1 p. 209
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Reason
44
as a divinely inspired text. It promotes natural religion and argues for the existence
of a creator-God.
Most of Paine's arguments had long been available to the educated elite, but
by presenting them in an engaging and irreverent style, he made deism appealing
and accessible to a mass audience.
In December 1792, Paine's Rights of Man, part II was declared seditious in
Britain and he was forced to flee to France in order to avoid arrest. Dismayed by
the French revolution's turn toward secularism and atheism, he composed Part I
of The Age of Reason in 1792 and 1793:
It has been my intention, for several years past, to publish my thoughts upon
religion. . . . The circumstance that has now taken place in France of the total
abolition of the whole national order of priesthood, and of everything appertaining
to compulsive systems of religion, and compulsive articles of faith, has not only
precipitated my intention, but rendered a work of this kind exceedingly necessary,
lest in the general wreck of superstition, of false systems of government and false
theology, we lose sight of morality, of humanity and of the theology that is true.
Although Paine wrote The Age of Reason for the French, he dedicated it to
his "Fellow Citizens of the United States of America", alluding to his bond with
the American revolutionaries.
It is unclear when exactly Paine drafted Part I although he says in the preface
to Part II:
Conceiving... that I had but a few days of liberty, I sat down and brought the
work to a close as speedily as possible; and I had not finished it more than six
hours, in the state it has since appeared, before a guard came there, about three in
the morning, with an order... for putting me in arrestation as a foreigner, and
conveying me to the prison of the Luxembourg. I contrived, in my way there, to
call on Joel Barlow, and I put the Manuscript of the work into his hands...
According to Paine scholars Edward Davidson and William Scheick, he
probably wrote the first draft of Part I in late 1793, but Paine biographer David
Hawke argues for a date of early 1793. It is also unclear whether or not a French
45
edition of Part I was published in 1793. François Lanthenas, who translated The
Age of Reason into French in 1794, wrote that it was first published in France in
1793, but no book fitting his description has been positively identified. Barlow
published the first English edition of The Age of Reason, Part I in 1794 in London,
selling it for a mere three pence.
Meanwhile, Paine, considered too moderate by the powerful Jacobin wing of
the French revolutionaries, was imprisoned for ten months in France. He only
escaped the guillotine by accident: the sign marking him out for execution was
improperly placed on his cell door. When James Monroe, at that time the new
American Minister to France, secured his release in 1794, Paine immediately
began work on Part II of The Age of Reason, despite his poor health. Part II was
first published in a pirated edition by H.D. Symonds in London in October 1795.
In 1796 Daniel Isaac Eaton published Parts I and II, and sold them at a cost of
one shilling and six pence. (Eaton was later forced to flee to America after being
convicted of seditious libel for publishing other radical works.) Paine himself
financed the shipping of 15,000 copies of his work to America. Later, Francis
Place and Thomas Williams collaborated on an edition which sold about 2,000
copies. Williams also produced his own edition, but the British government
indicted him and confiscated the pamphlets.28
In the late 1790s, Paine fled from France to the United States, where he
wrote Part III of The Age of Reason: An Examination of the Passages in the New
Testament, Quoted from the Old and Called Prophecies Concerning Jesus Christ.
Fearing unpleasant and even violent reprisals, Thomas Jefferson convinced him not
to publish it in 1802; five years later Paine decided to publish despite the backlash
he knew would ensue.
Following Thomas Williams's sentence of one year's hard labor for
publishing The Age of Reason in 1797, no editions were sold openly in Britain
until 1818 when Richard Carlile included it in an edition of Paine's complete
28
Bronowski, Julius.William Blake and the Age of Revolution. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1965), 81;
Claeys, 190; Wiener, 108–9.
46
works. Carlile charged one shilling and sixpence for the work, and the first run of
1,000 copies sold out in a month. He immediately published a second edition of
3,000
copies.
Like
Williams,
he
was
prosecuted
for
seditious
libel
and blasphemous libel. The prosecutions surrounding the printing of The Age of
Reason in Britain continued for thirty years after its initial release and
encompassed numerous publishers as well as over a hundred booksellers.
At the beginning of Part I of the Age of Reason, Paine lays out his personal
belief:
I believe in one God, and no more; and I hope for happiness beyond this life.
I believe in the equality of man; and I believe that religious duties consist in
doing justice, loving mercy, and endeavouring to make our fellow-creatures happy.
But, lest it should be supposed that I believe many other things in addition to
these, I shall, in the progress of this work, declare the things I do not believe, and
my reasons for not believing them.
I do not believe in the creed professed by the Jewish Church, by the Roman
Church, by the Greek Church, by the Turkish Church, by the Protestant Church,
nor by any church that I know of. My own mind is my own church.
All national institutions of churches, whether Jewish, Christian or Turkish,
appear to me no other than human inventions, set up to terrify and enslave
mankind, and monopolize power and profit.
I do not mean by this declaration to condemn those who believe otherwise;
they have the same right to their belief as I have to mine. But it is necessary to the
happiness of man that he be mentally faithful to himself. Infidelity does not consist
in believing, or in disbelieving; it consists in professing to believe what he does not
believe.
Paine's creed encapsulates many of the major themes of the rest of his text: a
firm belief in a creator-God; a skepticism regarding most supernatural claims (here
the afterlife, later in the text, miracles); a conviction that virtues should be derived
47
from a consideration for others rather than oneself; an animus against corrupt
religious institutions; and an emphasis on the individual's right of conscience.29
29
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Reason
48
CHAPTER III
HISTORICAL ANALYSES OF THE DEVELOPMENT ENGLIHTMENT IN
UZBEK LITERATURE
3.1.
Jadidizm- as a literary Enlightenment in Uzbek culture and literature
“Jadid” is the Arabic word for “new,” but Jadidism was a drive for cultural
and social renewal among Muslims in the Russian Empire in the early 20th
century.
Historians have taken the term “Jadidism” from usul-i jadid, meaning a
“new method” of teaching in schools, yet Jadidism’s significance extended far
beyond education. In the part of today’s Central Asia that was known
administratively as Turkestan under the Russian tsars, Jadidism briefly became one
of the most remarkable currents of thought in a wide-ranging debate over culture
and society among the region’s Muslims30,.
However, Jadidism did not survive the upheavals ushered in by the
Bolshevik revolution in 1917, and most of the Jadids, as the movement’s partisans
were known, perished in Stalin’s purges. But recent scholarship shows that the
issues Jadidism raised remain vitally important in today’s Central Asia.
Jadidism was not a movement in the strict sense, nor was it a purely Central
Asian phenomenon. In fact, the “new method” of teaching that gave Jadidism its
name is more closely associated with Tatars in Crimea and along the Volga, and
especially with the Crimean Tatar Ismail Bey Gasprinskii (1851-1914), who began
publishing the influential newspaper “Terjuman” in 1883. But one of the most
detailed and thoughtful studies of Jadidism focuses specifically on the
phenomenon in Turkestan, or what would today be Uzbekistan and the adjoining
parts of the Ferghana Valley. The book, which appeared in 1998, is called “The
Politics Of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism In Central Asia,” and its author,
Adeeb Khalid, currently chairs the history department at Carleton College in the
United States.
30
Allworth, Edward (1989). "The focus of literature". In Edward Allworth. Central Asia: 120 Years of Russian
Rule. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0930-7.
49
At the heart of the Jadid project was a new method of teaching to replace the
existing practice in maktabs, as primary schools in Central Asia were known in the
late 19th century. At that time, the maktab existed to transmit knowledge and
proper behavior, but not to inculcate understanding. Students memorized passages
of the Koran in Arabic, but did not learn Arabic and could not understand what
they were reciting. Persian and Turkic texts in the Arabic script functioned as
mnemonic aids for students who could “read” passages they had already
memorized, but were not functionally literate, for they could not read unfamiliar
texts even in languages they knew from birth.
The Jadids sought to change this, teaching the alphabet phonetically and
producing students who were functionally literate. This was the essence of the
“new method,” and the Jadids set up new-method schools to put it into practice and
educate a new generation.
Although many of the Jadids were themselves products of the traditional
maktab, they loathed it, portraying it in their polemical writings as an incubator of
ignorance and enemy of enlightenment. Unsurprisingly, later writers, virtually all
of them educated in an environment far closer to an ideal “new-method” school
than a late-19th-century Central Asian maktab, have often mirrored the Jadids’
views on this issue.
But Khalid shows that there was more to the conflict than this simple
dichotomy between qadim and jadid, old and new. The struggle between the Jadids
and proponents of the traditional way was in fact a contest between two different
understandings of knowledge and its transmission. The maktab emerged in a world
of written, not printed, texts. “The scarcity of the written word in the scribal age
endowed it with a sacral aura,” Khalid writes. “Writing itself was the object of
reverence and the mnemonic, ritual, and devotional uses of the written word
overshadowed its more mundane documentary functions.” But for the Jadids, who
belonged to the age of the printing press and who were great advocates of
newspapers, the meaning of the written word was the proper object of reverence,
not writing itself.
50
The struggle went deeper still. The Jadids’ focus on functional literacy and
print was a direct challenge to the authority of Central Asia’s entrenched cultural
elites. “Print allowed the Jadids to challenge the monopoly of the traditionally
learned over authoritative discourse,” Khalid argues. “In their writings, the Jadids
tended to address a public composed of all those who could read. The use of print
allowed the Jadids to go beyond the concerns of intellectual pedigree and
patronage that provided the framework for literary production in the manuscript
age. The Jadid project involved nothing less than the redefinition of the social
order….” When a Jadid “claimed that newspapers were spiritual leaders of
society…he was directly challenging the authority of the traditional cultural elite,”
according to Khalid31,.
If the new-method school was the Jadids’ preferred means of fomenting
change, and if their challenge to an existing elite ensured that they faced an uphill
battle, progress was their motivating passion. In fact, the term the Jadids preferred
for themselves was “taraqqiparvarlar” — “lovers of progress,” or “progressives.”
The trilingual term points to the rich and varied cultural backdrop to Jadidism, for
“taraqqi” is an Arabic word meaning “elevation” or “progress”; “parvar” a Persian
suffix derived from the word for “nourish”; and “-lar” the Turkic plural ending.
And these progressive “taraqqiparvarlar” were all Muslims who read the Koran in
Arabic and were equally at home in Persian and Turkic, the latter the precursor of
what is today literary Uzbek, although it would not be identified as such until after
1917.
Progress for the Jadids took the form of advancement through knowledge.
“The Jadids’ cult of knowledge…placed them firmly in the mainstream of the
enlightenment project,” Khalid writes. For the Jadids, Europe was the embodiment
of progress. Many of the Jadids visited Europe, and they often presented in their
writings a stark contrast between advanced Europe and backward Central Asia.
Khalid quotes Mirza Siraj Rahim, the son of a Bukharan merchant, who described
31
Allworth, Edward (1989). "The focus of literature". In Edward Allworth. Central Asia: 120 Years of Russian
Rule. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0930-7.
51
a 1902 trip to Europe in terms that, while clearly idealized, movingly evoke the
emotions that fired the Jadids in their labors:
“I did not see in Europe a single person whose clothes were old or torn, not
one building in ruins, nor a street that was unpaved…. But in our country, our poor
merchants and shopkeepers, in their cells and shops dark with dust and [surrounded
by] crowds of beggars, cannot find a minute to breathe properly…. Pity on us, pity
on us. All the time I toured Paris, [my] beloved homeland was constantly in my
mind, and all the time tears flowed from my eyes….”
But for all their belief in progress as embodied by modern Europe, the Jadids
never wavered in their commitment to seeing themselves and their audience as
Muslims. Khalid writes:
“The Jadids were part of a cosmopolitan community of Muslims knit
together by readership of common texts and by travel. They lived in the last
generation when Muslim intellectuals in different countries could communicate
with each other without the use of European languages. Central Asian Jadidism
was located squarely in the realm of Muslim modernism. It was Muslim because
its rhetorical structures were rooted in the Muslim tradition of Central Asia and
because the Jadids derived ultimate authority for their arguments in Islam. The
Jadids never disowned Islam in the way that many Young Turks had done well
before the end of the 19th century. Rather, modernity was fully congruent with the
‘true’ essence of Islam, and only an Islam purified of all accretions of the ages
could ensure the well-being of Muslims.”
The Jadids’ initial understanding of Muslim identity encompassed the
dizzying diversity of Muslims living in and around Central Asia. In 1912,
Munawwar Qari wrote: “Arab, Turk, Fars, Ozbek, Noghay, Tatar, Bashqurd,
Persiyan [sic], Cherkes, Lezgin, Tekke, Turkman, Afghan, Qazaq, Qirghiz,
Qipchaq, Tungan, Taranchi, Hanafi, Shafi’i, Maliki, Hanbali, Ja’fari. All of them
believe in the existence and unity of God and the prophecy of Muhammad, on
whom be peace.”
52
Gradually, however, the Turkic element grew stronger. By 1917, the Jadids
were penning approving appeals to the legacy of such Turkic heroes as Chinggis,
Temur, and Ulugh-bek. The poet Abdurauf Fitrat, who would go on to become one
of the pioneers of Uzbek literature before he was shot in Stalin’s purges and
written out of Soviet history, switched in 1917 from writing in Persian to writing in
Turkic.
Although the ideas the Jadids put forward subverted the dichotomy between
colonizer and colonized and thus did not fit in neatly with the Russian colonial
project, the Jadids were not opponents of Russian colonial rule. Khalid argues that
the Jadids did not fight to break free from the empire, but rather sought “to
establish a Central Asian Muslim presence in mainstream Russian life.”
Nevertheless, the Russian colonial administration treated them with suspicion,
viewing Jadidism “primarily as a political phenomenon,” even though the Jadids
lacked an institutional framework to articulate political interests, faced substantial
opposition within the Muslim community, and remained in essence a loose-knit
cultural movement.
The tsarist government’s tendency to read political significance into cultural
phenomena and see in them a threat to its power proved to be one prerevolutionary
tradition the Bolsheviks were only too eager to adopt and put to their own uses.
Though the Jadids seized on the chaos of the revolutionary period to try to advance
their ideas, they enjoyed only limited success. And while many Jadids rose to
prominence in the 1920s, a cruel fate awaited them under Stalin.
Khalid brings the tale to its sad conclusion: “Munawwar Qari, Cholpan,
Qadiri, Haji Muin, and Ubaydullah Khojaev all disappeared in the Gulag in the
1930s. By 1938, when Fitrat was executed and Fayzullah Khojaev, most famously
of them all, mounted the podium at the Great Purge Trial in Moscow as part of the
‘anti-Soviet bloc of rightists and Trotskyites’ to face the fatal charges of
counterrevolution and anti-Soviet activity, the Jadid generation had been
obliterated. They were replaced by a new generation (the so-called Class of ’38),
53
whose education and worldview had been shaped entirely within the Soviet
context.”
Central Asia today is a vastly different place than the colonial Turkestan the
Jadids sought to refashion into a community of enlightened Muslims. Many of the
particular concerns that occupied such a prominent place in Jadid writings, like the
battle between old-method and new-method schools, are now of purely historical
interest. The rapturous view of Europe as an exemplar of progress rings quaint. Yet
answers to the larger questions the Jadids raised are still being sought across
Central Asia: What, for example, is the best way for Central Asia’s nations to
improve the well-being of their diverse peoples while remaining faithful to their
rich and varied cultural and religious traditions? Should not a strong, forwardthinking sense of Muslim identity serve as the inspiration for enlightened progress?
Such questions may be in the Jadid tradition, but they are not the real lesson
of Jadidism for Central Asia today. As Khalid’s admirably researched examination
of Jadidism shows, these categories and concepts are neither as ancient nor as
traditional as today’s officials might wish us to believe. In demonstrating that the
nation and the faith were not always what they now seem to be — that they were,
in fact, the subject of impassioned debate in the past — the legacy of Jadidism
need not weaken either. Instead, it can strengthen both by opening them up once
again to debate and, as the Jadids would surely insist, to progress32.
32
http://jadid.uz/jadidism_eng/
54
3.2. Development and changes in Culture values in Jadid period
Theater exercised a deep fascination for Jadids throughout the Russian
empire. Looking back on a quarter century of reform, Ismail Bey Gasprinskii could
write in 1901 on the emergence of theater as a major achievement. As with
newspapers, the mere existence of theater was deemed a sign of progress and
civilization. Modern theater came to Central Asia with the Russian conquest, but
until the turn of the century, theatrical activity was confined to the Russian
community in the larger cities. A dramatic literature and professional troupes had
developed among the Muslims of Transcaucasia and the Tatar lands by the end of
the nineteenth century. Transcaucasian and Tatar troupes toured Turkestan in 1911,
after which such tours became common. In addition, dramatic activity was
sustained locally by expatriate Tatars who began staging plays for their community
at least as early as 1905, and by 1913, this activity was strong enough to support a
standing Tatar theater group in Tashkent led by Zeki Bayazidskii. 33
The repertoire of these troupes came whole cloth from European Russia or
Transcaucasia, and it was performed in the languages of those areas. Local Jadids
realized the advantages of the medium and sought to use it for their own goals.
Mahmud Khoja Behbudi wrote The Parricide , the first play to be set in Central
Asia, as early as 1911, but difficulties with the censor delayed its publication until
1913 and its performance until 1914. When it did first play, in Samarqand on 15
January 1914, it was an instant success. The group that performed it, composed of
seven Central Asians, a Tatar, and an Azerbaijani, traveled to Kokand,
Tashkent, and Katta Qurghan in the next few weeks. By early September,
The Parricide had been performed fifteen times by different groups in Turkestan,
often without the permission of the author. The next three years saw intense
activity in local theater. Central Asian Jadids favored plays that dealt specifically
with local issues over those translated from Tatar or Azerbaijani, and therefore
many of them turned playwright and produced a number of plays addressing
33
Khalid, Adeeb (1998). The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21356-2.
55
questions of purely Central Asian interest. Samarqand was the greatest center of
this activity where Behbudi's disciples Haji Muin b. Shukrullah and Nusratullah b.
Qudratullah produced a number of scripts. In addition, Hamza in Kokand, Awlani
in Tashkent, and Abdullah Badri in Bukhara wrote numerous plays in this period,
several of which were never published. Theatrical performances, often in the form
of artistic soirees, became commonplace even in smaller towns like Osh,
Namangan, and Katta Qurghan. This activity was paralleled by visits from
Azerbaijani and Tatar troupes, who also began to perform local plays. Moreover, a
number of Tatar and Transcaucasian plays were translated into local Turkic and
sometimes adapted to a Central Asian setting. Local amateur theater groups began
to form immediately after the first performance of The Parricide . The original cast
of the play, which rehearsed at Behbudi's house in Samarqand, coalesced into a
troupe and began touring Turkestan. Behbudi had apparently directed the troupe in
the beginning, but later the position passed to the Azerbaijani director Ali Asghar
Askarov. Other amateur groups formed in Tashkent and Kokand as well as in
smaller towns. Hamza was at the center of one such group in Kokand, which
performed plays written or translated by Hamza himself. The first engagement of
the group was Hamza's Zaharli hayat (A Poisoned Life), performed in October
1915. In Tashkent, a group formed around Awlani, who had been involved in local
Tatar theater since at least 1909. In 1916, the group was formalized as the Turan
Amateur Dramatic Society, with the mission to "develop the love of serious drama
among the population . . . [and] to stage spectacles for the people, [in order to]
provide healthy diversions to them." In Bukhara, dramatic activity remained in the
hands of local Tatars, who were, however, allowed to stage their plays in old
Bukhara.
In founding a modern theater in Central Asia, the Jadids sought to distance it
from the long tradition of folk theater known as maskharabazlik . Satire was the
stock in trade of this theater, and maskharas could poke brutal fun at various
aspects of society, including the khans and Islam itself. Yet, in preconquest Central
Asia, the whole enterprise was located beyond the pale of adab (adabdan kharij )
56
and hence denied any moral authority. Moreover, the maskharas' use of music was
always susceptible to attack by the ulama on Islamic grounds, and their bodily
movements contravened the rules of proper deportment conveyed by the maktab.
To be a maskhara was the opposite of being a cultured individual; for cultured
individuals to take on the activities of the maskharas was scandalous. The Jadids
sought to make theater respectable through an appeal to the nation and the needs of
the age. For Behbudi, for instance, "theater is a place for preaching and exhortation
[majlis-i wa'z-u nasihat ]" for society and in its lofty purpose had nothing in
common with the crude craft of the maskharas. The Jadids drew inspiration from
the modern, print-based theater of Europe, which had also been adopted by other
Muslim communities of the Russian empire. Indeed, the print antecedents of Jadid
theater need to be emphasized. Unlike the maskharas, the Jadids transmitted their
theatrical work in print. The Jadids published the transcripts of many of their plays,
partly in the hope that all productions of the same play would convey a uniform
message. In conveying its message orally, Jadid theater still aspired to the
uniformity made possible by print.
Theater was immediately put to philanthropic use. The play itself spread the
message while the performance was used to raise money for other Jadid causes.
Since all the actors were amateurs, usually Jadid activists, there were no
performance fees and a large percentage of the revenue could be used for other
purposes. In the three years of its existence, Jadid theater was staged to benefit
reading rooms, new-method schools, a Muslim field hospital on the war front, and
wounded Muslim soldiers. Thus, the first ever performance of The Parricide in
Samarqand raised 329.69 rubles for the city's Muslim Reading Room. This figure
represented the entire net income from the evening after expenses of 170 rubles
had been paid. A performance of the same play in Khujand raised 590 rubles for
the Red Crescent in January 1915, and a performance of The Feast in Samarqand
the previous December raised 245 rubles, a quarter of which was donated to the
war wounded and the rest to new-method schools in the area. The popularity of
theater led to the emergence of cultural soirees that combined cultural, economic,
57
and political functions in one event. A soiree typically included at least one play in
addition to music and a program of songs. The Tatar singer and Jadid activist
Kamil ul-Mutigi Tuhfatullin toured Central Asia at least twice between 1913 and
1915, giving concerts of Tatar music, including poems by such prominent Tatar
Jadids as Abdullah Tuqay set to music.
New Forms of Sociability
The activity surrounding the theater was crucial m forming a public that
came together under new rules to discuss issues concerning society. It eschewed
overtly political matters, but it redrew the boundaries of debate about cultural and
social issues. Similarly, informal discussion circles remained the primary
institutional form of Jadidism in Turkestan. (The situation was different in
Bukhara, where official hostility drove the Jadids into secret societies.) The Central
Asian tradition of gap , circles that brought together men of various crafts or
neighborhoods for weekly or monthly gatherings of mutual hospitality, was
appropriated for new aims by the Jadids. Munawwar Qari was reported by the
tsarist police to be leader of one of the largest gaps in Tashkent. But for many
Jadids such "modern" gaps were merely the beginning. For the Jadids, the key to
progress and development lay in organized effort. Hamza saw all associational endeavors, even commercial ones, as an expression of unity. When
he wrote to prospective investors in 1914, he expressed this hope: "Maybe in this
way our unity will develop, and the rule of joint organization [shirkat qanuni ] will
take root among the Muslims of Ferghana and Turkestan, and soon all our affairs,
currently decaying, will again turn to progress and development." The bookstores
and publishing ventures described above were the most successful in this regard,
and they do show a process of greater institutionalization throughout the decade
preceding 1917. These ventures were commercial, to be sure, but by their nature
they also served as an institutional basis for cultural reform. The Jadids, though,
invested their highest hopes in benevolent societies, such as those which had
flourished among the Tatars since the 1890s. As forms of institutionalized
philanthropy geared to social (rather than individual) goals, such societies neatly
58
tied together the various strands of Jadid reform in an institutional framework. The
issue of establishing a benevolent society in Turkestan was raised in 1906 in the
general atmosphere of enthusiasm, but nothing came of it until 1909, when the
Imdadiya (Aid) society was formally established with Munawwar Qari and
Abdullah Awlani, who had collaborated on the newspaper Shuhrat the previous
year, among its founders. The society defined its aim as "the improvement of the
moral and material position of needy persons of the Mohammedan faith in the Syr
Darya oblast," through opening shelters for the poor, supporting hospitals, and
helping students. The educational goals were broadened in 1913 to include the
opening of schools and reading rooms and the establishment of scholarships. The
society secured the financial help of Said Karim-bay (who also served as chair for
a year), and it lasted until the revolution. It acquired a niche for itself in the public
life of Muslim Tashkent without ever making the kind of difference its founders
had hoped for. Membership dues (a modest six rubles) were the main source of
revenue, although the advent of theater provided another. Still, the total
expenditure for 1914 stood at only 1,975.20 rubles, roughly one-third of which
went to students in various kinds of schools34,.
Imdadiya remained the only benevolent society to operate among the native
population of Turkestan, although numerous such societies existed among the
European and Tatar communities in various cities. Other attempts at organized
philanthropy also had limited success. Thirteen activists led by Behbudi founded a
"Muslim reading room" (qiraatkhana wa mutaliakhana islamiyasi ) in Samarqand
in 1908. It began with 125 subscriptions, but by 1912, only seven members
remained and daily attendance averaged barely ten persons a day. In 1912,
Abdullah Awlani opened the Turan reading room in Tashkent, which received
periodicals from all over the Muslim world, most of them obtained gratis from
34
Khalid, Adeeb (1998). The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21356-2.
59
their publishers. Nevertheless, financial worries never left it, and it seems to have
folded in early 191735.
Patriotism (watanparwarlik ) was also an important virtue for the Jadids.
Abdullah Awlani placed it in the realm of nature when he suggested that even
animals and birds love the place where they are born. Because of this natural
feeling, Arabs continue to live in their blistering hot deserts and Eskimos in the
cold north, "just as we Turkestanis love our homeland more than our lives." In its
traditional meaning, the term watan meant merely one's birthplace. By the period
under consideration, however, it had been attached to the nation, although its
boundaries remained ambiguous. The Jadids used the term in many different ways.
The most common use of "watan" was to denote Turkestan in the Russian
administrative sense of the term. At other times, its extent was vaguer,
incorporating the protectorates and even Chinese Turkestan, and after the outbreak
of war in 1914 "watan" often meant the Russian empire. But these were all purely
territorial designations. The millat and the watan defined each other in the most
common designation of the nation, the Muslims of Turkestan. Similarly, the term
"Turan," which became quite popular in the early twentieth century in Central Asia
(it was borne by three different newspapers, and Awlani used it for a reading room
and a theater troupe he organized) did not carry the baggage attached to it by
Turkists elsewhere. Rather, in Central Asia it signified "Russian Central Asia"
(Turkestan, Bukhara, and Khiva), as when Behbudi wrote of "the 20 million
Muslims in Russia, of which half are us Turanis."
But romantic discourses had begun to encroach on this notion and to impart
to it a new meaning. In its extreme formulation, this new understanding of
Turkestan as the homeland of the Turks differed markedly from its premodern
usage (which in Persian had connoted the land where Turks, as opposed to
Iranians, predominated, just as there was an Arabistan and a Hindustan), for it now
came with claims of political primacy (and ultimately sovereignty) and cultural
Kuttner, Thomas (1975). "Russian Jadīdism and the Islamic world: Ismail Gasprinskii in Cairo, 1908. A call to the
Arabs for the rejuvenation of the Islamic world". Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique (3): 383–
424. doi:10.3406/cmr.1975.1247.
35
60
hegemony for the nation to whom the homeland "belonged." As such, it was
profoundly subversive of the symbiosis of Turks and Iranians that had existed in
Transoxiana for several centuries. This was explicitly stated by the Istanbul Turkist
journal Türk Yurdu , which criticized the fact that Bukhara-yi sharif was being
published in Persian "when [Bukhara's] people are entirely Turks and children of
Turks [Türk oglu Türk ]."Elsewhere, the same journal expressed the hope that
"since the Bukharans are all Turks, the situation [of Persian being the official
language] will change in the near future. The official language and the publications
of Turkic state will of course be Turkic, and the Persian language will be used, to
an extent proportionate to their numbers, only for the few Tajiks who have
immigrated from Iran." This argument was reproduced almost intact by
Dawlatshaev, who claimed that Turan, the land north of the Amu Darya, had
always been Turkic, and that the prevalence of Persian speech, limited in any case
only to the three cities of Bukhara, Samarqand, and Khujand, was the result of
forced migrations of Iranian population by the Turkic Ozbek khans of Bukhara in
previous centuries, and of the high esteem for Persian literature among urban
sophisticates. The claim was preposterous, of course (and perhaps because of this it
has resonated ever since in nationalist discourses in Central Asia) but, given the
basic premises of the new notions of identity, logical in its own way. Nevertheless,
it is important to keep in mind that although the essential Turkicness of Turkestan
was thus asserted, it did not automatically imply that it was the homeland of all
Turks or that all Turks had equal claims to it. The Central Asians might be Turks,
but for the Jadids they were so on their own terms. Even as they discovered
common ties with other Turkic peoples, the Jadids drew lines marking themselves
off from them.
If the rhetoric of the homeland marked Central Asians off from other Turks
and Muslims implicitly, debates over language did so quite explicitly. At bottom
lay the brand-new idea that (as a local author put it) "every nation takes pride in its
language." Language had never served as a marker of identity in Central Asia, and
the idea that an individual should work and feel pride in his or her native language
61
would have been incomprehensible a generation earlier. Romantic notions of
nationhood were partly the cause, but the real change came with schooling. If
functional literacy was a desired goal, it had to be achieved only in the child's
native language. A central point in the Jadids' criticism of the old maktab was that
a number of texts used in it were in Persian, which the children could not
understand. The need for textbooks written in the vernacular led to the elaboration
of a modern literary Central Asian Turkic language.
The fact that the maktab did not teach language as such now came to be seen
as a major shortcoming. Before it could be taught as a subject, however, language
had to be abstracted from lived experience and rendered into an object of study.
This process began with the publication in 1916 of a volume on orthography by
Ashura Ali Zahiri. At the same time, the Jadids hoped to simplify the written
language and bring it closer to speech. The process was not simple, of course, as
models, both lexical and grammatical, were borrowed indiscriminately from Tatar
and Ottoman. Jadid authors began to use new letters to represent the phonemes and
/v/. But the trend toward simplification by ridding the language of borrowings from
Persian and Arabic, common to all Turkic languages of the period, and underlain
again by romantic notions of authenticity, was less successful in Central Asia than
anywhere else. Authors commonly doubled more arcane (Arabic and Persian)
words with their more popular (Turkic) equivalents, using the sign of equality as a
punctuation mark, but there was little interest in a more thoroughgoing purification
of the language.
The logic of simplifying and rendering the written language closer to the
spoken led to the crystallization of distinct literary standards. The history of the
transition of numerous Turkic dialects from speech to print languages is a
contentious matter. Turkists insist that all Turkic languages are essentially a single
language, arguing that the distinction between Turkic and Turkish does not exist in
Turkic languages and that the distinctions between the "dialects" have been
imposed by the divide-and-rule policies of the Soviet regime. The argument is
specious, since it misrepresents the situation until the nineteenth century and
62
refuses to acknowledge the transition from spoken to print language undergone by
all Turkic languages since then.
Historically, Turki/Turkcha referred not to a single language but to a range
of dialects sharing a common grammatical structure. Until the nineteenth century,
two literary standards coexisted, each with its own orthographic conventions and
rules of syntax. However, because literary standards were as much about virtuosity
as about communication, their connection with spoken speech was minimal. The
roots of the Turkist contention lie in the late nineteenth century, when Gasprinskii,
motivated by the hope of bringing about the unity of deed, thought, and language
(Ishte, fikirde, dilde birlik , in his words) among the Turks of the world, sought to
create a common literary language out of the numerous dialects that had begun to
appear in print. This hope became a fundamental plank of Turkist thought, for if
Turks were a single nation, then they had to share a common language. Terjüman ,
written in a simplified form of Ottoman, was widely read throughout the Turkic
world, but the rapid rise of Tatar as a literary language at the end of the century put
paid to the hope of creating a common Turkic language. The Transcaucasian press
also retained peculiarities of local speech in its orthography. Written in the Arabic
script, which concealed differences in vowels, all these variants remained mutually
comprehensible in written form, but clearly local variants had emerged as fullfledged languages. The market and the ideal of schooling in the vernacular (with
the emphasis on comprehension and literacy) combined to create new literary
languages out of mere dialects. For literary languages are not a product of nature
but are created historically through complex interactions of states, markets, and
academies. Ultimately, the best analogy for the development of the Turkic
languages is to be drawn with the manner in which imperial courts, national
markets, and (later) academies marked off ranges of Romance dialects into the
national languages of today. Some, such as French, Spanish, and Italian, became
"national" literary languages, while others, such as Catalan and Provençal,
remained (at least until recently) dialects. The Soviet period was different in the
63
systematic manner in which languages were delineated one from another, but the
process had begun well before 1917.
In Central Asia, where the spoken language was close to the literary standard
of Chaghatay Turkic (which has the same relation to the Uzbek of today that
Ottoman has to modern Turkish), the debates about the creation of a common
language around a modified Ottoman, so dear to Gasprinskii, had little appeal. The
only trace of this debate in the Jadid press of Central Asia is a short piece by Haji
Muin. Titled "On Language Unity," the piece is notable more for its brevity and
casual tone than for its content. There was little to indicate that the article
addressed a burning issue of the day. Haji Muin wrote: "In my opinion, the first
step in this direction would be to replace the words not understood by most Turks
with those understood by all." He went on to provide a list of words that Tatar
authors might replace with their Chaghatay equivalents. The problem would be
solved if the Tatars deferred to Central Asians.
The language of Central Asia might have been called "Turkic" (turki,
turkcha ), but it was always qualified as "Turkestan Turkic" (Turkistan shewasi,
Turkistan shewa-yi turkiyasi ). Similarly, primary school textbooks in Central Asia
were avowedly written in "Turkestani Turkic" (Turkistan shewasida, achiq tilda ),
as was prominently displayed on their title pages. This was to be a common
language for all of Turkestan but not one common to all of Turks of the world.
Local authors whose writings bore Tatar or Ottoman influences were criticized for
not writing in Central Asian Turkic. A reader criticized Awlani on this count:
"Only a person who knows Ottoman [usmanlicha ] can understand his poems.
Now, at least Ottoman is a delicious and very literary dialect [lehja ]; but what do
we have to do with Tatar, which neither our literati, nor our students know?" There
were instances when local newspapers refused to print articles because they were
not in the local language. Reviews of theatrical performances published in the
Jadid press often criticized Transcaucasian Muslims and (especially) Tatars, who
were prominent in the first years of modern theater, for declaiming in their own
64
languages, which, according to the reviewers, were not easily understood by the
audience36.
But what was the "Turkestan Turkic" to be? Behbudi's Ayina was published,
according to the Turkic inscription on the title page, in "Turkic and Persian [turki
wa farsi orta shewada ];" the Russian inscription on the same page, however,
described those languages and "Ozbek and Persian [na uzbekskom i persidskom
iazykakh ]." Much as the Jadids had come to see the "unmarked" Turkic population
of Central Asia as Ozbek, so they saw its Turkic speech as Ozbek. The roots of
modern Uzbek predate the Soviet regime.
Kuttner, Thomas (1975). "Russian Jadīdism and the Islamic world: Ismail Gasprinskii in Cairo, 1908. A call to the
Arabs for the rejuvenation of the Islamic world". Cahiers du Monde Russe et Soviétique (3): 383–
424. doi:10.3406/cmr.1975.1247.
36
65
CONCLUSION
The Age of Enlightenment a cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in
late
17th-century
Europe
emphasizing
reason and individualism rather
than tradition. Its purpose was to reform society using reason, to challenge ideas
grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge through the scientific
method.
It
promoted
scientific
thought,
skepticism,
and
intellectual
interchange.37 The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. This new
way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses
correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and
then revises the principles in the light of the evidence.
Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers
collaborated with Enlightened despots, absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly
put some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the
Enlightenment continue to exert significant influence on the culture, politics, and
governments of the Western world.
European literature of the 18th century refers to literature (poetry, drama and
novels) produced in Europe during this period. The 18th century saw the
development of the modern novel as literary genre, in fact many candidates for the
first novel in English date from this period, of which Daniel Defoe's
1719 Robinson Crusoe is probably the best known. Subgenres of the novel during
the 18th century were the epistolary novel, the sentimental novel, histories,
the gothic novel and the libertine novel.
In 1707, Henry Fielding was born (22 April) and his sister Sarah
Fielding was born 3 years later on 8 November 1710. In 1711 Alexander
Pope began a career in literature with the publishing of his An Essay on Criticism.
In 1712 French philosophical writer Jean Jacques Rousseau born 28 June and his
countryman Denis Diderot was born the following year 1713 on 5 October. Also in
1712 Pope published The Rape of the Lock and in 1713Windsor Forest.
37
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment#Great_Britain
66
In 1708, Simon Ockley publishes an English translation of Ibn Tufail's Hayy
ibn Yaqdhan, a 12th-century philosophical novel, as The Improvement of Human
Reason: Exhibited in the Life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan. This was the first English
translation directly from the Arabic original.
Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709 in Lichfield, Staffordshire,
England.
Horace Walpole was born on 24 September 1717.
Daniel Defoe was another political pamphleteer turned novelist like
Jonathan Swift and was publishing in the early 18th century. In 1719 he
published Robinson Crusoe, in 1720,Captain Singleton and, in 1722, Moll
Flanders.
Other authors publishing in 1722 included Sir Richard Steele, Penelope
Aubin and Eliza Haywood.
From 1726 to 1729 Voltaire lived in exile mainly in England.
Also in 1726, Jonathan Swift published Gulliver's Travels, one of the first
novels in the genre of satire.
In 1728 John Gay wrote The Beggar's Opera which has increased in fame
ever since. The Beggar's Opera began a new style in Opera, the "ballad opera"
which brings the operatic form down to a more popular level and precedes the
genre of comic operettas. Also in 1728 came the publication of Cyclopaedia, or, A
Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (folio, 2 vols.), an encyclopedia
by Ephraim Chambers. The Cyclopaedia was one of the first general encyclopedias
to be produced in English and was the main model for Diderot's Encyclopédie
(published in France between 1751 and 1766).
In 1729, Jonathan Swift published A Modest Proposal, a satirical suggestion
that Irish families should sell their children as food. Swift was, at this time, fully
involved in political campaigning for the Irish.
In 1731, George Lillo's play The London Merchant was a success at the
Theatre-Royal in Drury Lane. It was a new kind of play, a domestic tragedy, which
approximates to what later came to be called a melodrama.
67
In 1738, London, a poem in imitation of Juvenal’s Third Satire, by Samuel
Johnson is published. Like so many poet of the 18th century Johnson sought to
breathe new life into his favorite classical author Juvenal.
In 1740, Samuel Richardson published Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded.
1744 Alexander Pope died.
1745 Jonathan Swift died.
1748 and 1749, John Cleland published Memoirs of a Woman of
Pleasure (Fanny Hill)
1749 Henry Fielding published The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling.
1751 Thomas Gray wrote Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Denis
Diderot began the Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et
des métiers. Over the next three decades Encyclopédie attracted, alongside of those
from Diderot, notable contributions from other great intellectuals of the 18th
Century including Voltaire, Rousseau and Louis de Jaucourt
1752 a satirical short story by Voltaire, Micromégas featured space travellers
visiting earth. It was one of the first stories leaning toward what later
became Science fiction. Its publication at this time is indicative of the trend toward
scientific thinking prevalent in the age of enlightenment.
1754 Henry Fielding died 8 October.
1755 After 9 years Samuel Johnson completes his A Dictionary of the
English Language which is greeted with enthusiasm in the literary world.
1759 Voltaire published Candide. Johann
Christoph
Friedrich
von
Schiller was born 10 November.
1760–1767 Laurence Sterne wrote Tristram Shandy.
1761 Rousseau published Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse.
1762 Rousseau published Émile.
1764 Horace Walpole published The Castle of Otranto (initially under a
pseudonym and claiming it to be a translation of an Italian work from 1529.) The
first gothic novel.
1766 Oliver Goldsmith published The Vicar of Wakefield.
68
1767 August Wilhelm von Schlegel was born 8 September.
1768 Sarah Fielding died.
1770 April birth of William Wordsworth.
1772 Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel was born 10 March.
1773 Oliver Goldsmith's play She Stoops to Conquer, a farce, was
performed in London.
1774 Goethe wrote The Sorrows of Young Werther, a novel which
approximately
marks
the
beginning
of
the Romanticismmovement
in
the arts and philosophy. A transition thus began, from the critical, science inspired,
enlightenment writing to the romantic yearning for forces beyond the mundane and
for foreign times and places to inspire the soul with passion and mystery.
1777 the comedy play The School for Scandal, a comedy of manners, was
written by Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
1778 Death of Voltaire. Death of Jean Jacques Rousseau 2 July. Two major
contributors to Diderot's Encyclopédie dead in the same year.
1779–1781 Samuel Johnson writes and publishes Lives of the Most Eminent
English Poets. This compilation contains mini-biographies of 52 influential poets
(most of whom lived in the 18th century) along with critical appraisals of their
works. most notable are Alexander Pope, John Dryden, John Milton, Jonathan
Swift, and Joseph Addison.
1783 Washington Irving was born.
1784 Denis Diderot died 31 July. Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot have all
died within a period of a few years and Frenchphilosophy had thus lost three of its
greatest enlightened free thinkers. Rousseau's thinking on the nobility of life in the
wilds, facing nature as a naked savage still had great force to influence the next
generation as the romantic movement gained momentum. Beaumarchais wrote The
Marriage of Figaro. Maria and Harriet Falconar publish Poems on Slavery. The
anti-slavery movement was growing in power and many poems and pamphlets
were published on the subject.
On 13 December 1784 Samuel Johnson died.
69
1785 William Cowper published The Task
1786 Robert Burns published Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect. The
mood
of
literature
was
swinging
toward
more
interest
in
diverse
ethnicity. Beaumarchais' The Marriage of Figaro (Le Nozze di Figaro) was adapted
into
a
comic
opera
composed
by Wolfgang
Amadeus
Mozart,
with libretto by Lorenzo da Ponte.
1789 James Fenimore Cooper was born 15 September in America.
1791 Dream of the Red Chamber is published for the first time in movable
type format.
1792 Percy Bysshe Shelley was born (August 4).
1793 Salisbury Plain by William Wordsworth.
1794 Robert Goldsmith was born.
In 1795 Samuel Taylor Coleridge met William Wordsworth and his sister
Dorothy. The two men published a joint volume of poetry, Lyrical Ballads (1798),
which became a central text of Romantic poetry.
1796 Thomas Chandler Haliburton was born. Denis Diderot's Jacques le
fataliste was published posthumously.
1796 Matthew Lewis published his controversial, anti-catholic novel The
Monk.
1796 Charlotte Turner Smith published her novel Marchmont.
Simon Ockley, The Improvement of Human Reason: Exhibited in the Life of
Hai Ebn Yokdhan (British, 1708) - English translation of Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn
Yaqdhan (12th century)
Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, (British, 1719) - considered the first novel
in English
Eliza Haywood, Love in Excess, (British, 1719)
Samuel Richardson, Pamela, (British, 1740)
Henry Fielding, Tom Jones, (British, 1749)
Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy, (British, 1759–1767)
Tobias Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, (Scottish, 1771)
70
Ignacy Krasicki, The Adventures of Nicholas Experience (Polish, 1776) the first Polish novel
Frances Burney, Evelina, (British, 1778)
Ann Radcliffe, The Mysteries of Udolpho, (British, 1794)
Mary Hays, Memoirs of Emma Courtney, (British, 1796)
Matthew Lewis, The Monk, (British, 1796)
The Jadids were Muslim modernist reformers within the late 19th and early
20th
century.
They
normally
referred
to
themselves
by
the
Turkic
terms Taraqqiparvarlar ('progressives'), Ziyalilar ('intellectuals'),
or
simply Yäşlär/Yoshlar ('youth'). Jadids maintained that Muslims in the Russian
Empire had entered a period of decay that could only be rectified by the acquisition
of a new kind of knowledge and modernist, European-modeled cultural reform.
Although there were substantial ideological differences within the movement,
Jadids were marked by their widespread use of print media in promoting their
messages and advocacy of the usul ul-jadid or "new method" of teaching in
the maktabs of the empire, from which the term Jadidism is derived. A leading
figure in the efforts to reform education was the Crimean Tatar Ismail
Gasprinski who
lived
from
1851–1914.
Intellectuals
such
as Mahmud
Khoja (author of the famous play "The Patricide" and founder of one of
Turkestan's first Jadid schools) carried Gaspirali's ideas back to Central Asia.
Jadid thought often carried distinctly anti-clerical sentiment. Many members
of the Ulama opposed the Jadid's programs and ideologies, decrying them as unIslamic, heretical innovations. Many Jadids saw these "Qadimists" (proponents of
the old ways) not only as inhibitors of modern reform but also as corrupt, selfinterested elites whose authority lay not in Islamic ideology as dictated by
the Quran and sunnah but rather in local tradition that were both inimical to
"authentic" Islam and harmful to society. In his Cairo publication al-Nahdah,
Gasprinski published cartoons that depict mullahs and sheikhs as rapacious and
lustful figures who prevented women from taking their rightful place as social
equals and exploited the goodwill and trust of lay Muslims.
71
To be clear, Jadids asserted that the Ulama as a class were necessary for the
enlightenment and preservation of the Muslim community, but they simultaneously
declared Ulama who did not share their vision of reform to be unacquainted with
authentic knowledge of Islam. Inevitably, those who opposed their modernist
project were decried as motivated by self-interest rather than a desire to uplift their
fellow Muslims. Sufi mystics received an even more scathing indictment. Jadids
saw the Ulama and the Sufis not as pillars of Islamic principals, but rather as
proponents of a popular form of Islam that was hostile to both modernization and
authentic Islamic tradition. Central Asian Jadids accused their religious leaders of
permitting the moral decay of society (as seen in the prevalence of alcoholism,
pederasty, polygamy, and gender discrimination) while simultaneously cooperating
with Russian officials to cement their authority as religious elites.
Despite this anti-clericism, the Jadids often had much in common with the
Qadimists. Many of them were educated in traditional maktabs and madrassas, and
came from clerical or bourgeois families. In short, they had been born and bred
into a class of elites. As historian Adeeb Khalid asserts, Jadids and the Qadimist
Ulama were essentially engaged in a battle over what values elite groups should
project onto Central Asian Muslim culture. Jadids and Qadimists both sought to
assert their own cultural values, with one group drawing its strategic strength from
its relationship to modern forms of social organization and media and the other
from its position as champion of an existing way of life in which it already
occupied stations of authority.
One of the Jadid's principal aims was educational reform. They wanted to
create new schools that would teach quite differently from the maktabs, or primary
schools, that existed throughout the Muslim areas of the Russian empire. The
Jadids saw the traditional education system as "the clearest sign of stagnation, if
not the degeneracy, of Central Asia." They felt that reforming the education system
was the best way to reinvigorate a Muslim society ruled by outsiders. They
criticized the maktabs' emphasis on memorization of religious texts rather than on
explanation of those texts or on written language. Khalid refers to the memoirs of
72
the Tajik Jadid Sadriddin Ayni, who attended a maktab in the 1890s; Ayni
explained that he learned the Arabic alphabet as an aid to memorization but could
not read unless he had already memorized the text in question.
73
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VI. Internet saytlari
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www.google.uz
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
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