Download The Vernacular Bhakti Movement

Important Data for the Midterm (Rel. 103)
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SHRUTI (“what is heard,” works later regarded as not authored by humans, but revealed to the
ancient seers, the rishis)
Rig Veda (circa 1500-1000 BCE?): Review the hymns, paying attention to (1) the distinctive
roles the gods Agni, Varuna, Indra, and Soma have in the life of the worshiper; (2) the Vedic
ideas about natural phenomena such as the sun, the dawn, and the complementarity of heaven
and earth; and (3) reflections on the creation of the world: from “Who?” the golden embryo (see
pp. 19-20 and note 39 in SIT), from desire, the “first seed of thought” that arose out of the
darkness (p. 21), and especially, from the sacrifice of the Purusha (“Man”), the first textual
justification for the caste model of four social classes: brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, shudra. Be
prepared to talk about what is supposed to be the special role of the brahmin (apprenticeship in
Vedic recitation, priestly functions).
Upanishads (the early ones circa 700-500 BCE?): These texts emerged from the genre of works
called Brahmanas (sample on SIT p. 25) that explained the Vedic sacrifice (yajna). In the
Upanishads themselves (SIT ch. 2), the mystery of the sacrifice becomes just a point of departure
for reflections on the source of all things in the world (the divine principle, brahman), and its
corresponding presence in each of us, our atman (“Self,” soul). The human body (as also the
body of the sacrificial horse) is seen as a microcosm (a small-scale version of the cosmos), with
the ritual as a means of giving human beings the capacity to influence their environment directly.
But eventually, the sages of the Upanishads develop a skepticism toward the ritual performance
itself (SIT pp. 31-32), and turn their full attention to an exploration of the microcosm, i.e., the
soul’s presence in the body, the stages of consciousness, the process of death, and the very
question of how we can conceive of this invisible, ungraspable reality hidden within us.
SMRITI (“what is remembered,” works believed to embody sacred knowledge, not in revealed
words, but in those of the ancient sages): the Shastras (doctrines), epics, legends, etc. A rift has
emerged between the ideal of lifelong sacrificial worship of the gods for heavenly blessings and
the ideal of spiritual liberation to be attained through stoicism and tapas (ascetical austerity),
even the abandonment of social and domestic life and ritual. In the Smriti literature, a couple
different models are proposed for reconciling these opposing notions:
“Laws of Manu,” 1st c. CE: the first major compilation of Brahmanical sacred law in verse,
introducing the notions of: the four sources of Dharma (shruti, smriti, the conduct of the holy,
one’s own conscience); the “four aims of humanity” (dharma, artha, kama; and moksha); and the
model of the sequence of ashramas (stages of life: brahmachari [celibate student of the Veda],
householder, hermit, sannyasi [renunciant ascetic]). The yogi is one who “yokes” his body,
mind, and senses to bring about a state of peace and freedom from desire and distraction, so that
an awareness of the soul, the “inner controller” becomes possible. This leads to moksha.
The Bhagavad Gita (“Song of the Lord”): a versified “sermon” on how to live and how to please
God, uttered on the verge of the Mahabharata war by Krishna (God incarnate) to Arjuna,
despairing on the battlefield. Krishna contrasts a karma-yoga (discipline of action) and jnanayoga (discipline of insight, pursued through renunciation), and teaches a synthesis that is superior
to both: bhakti-yoga, the discipline of devotion to God, whereby one offers the “fruits” of all
one’s actions as a gift to God, and thus remains untainted by egoistical desire and worldly
ambition. Moksha is the reward, but withdrawal from worldly life is not necessary, or even
desirable. As proof, Krishna grants Arjuna a momentary, awe-inspiring glimpse of his
transcendent nature. Arjuna goes on to fight in accordance with dharma, God’s will.
Other Smriti texts: statecraft is taught in the Artha Shastra, a work ascribed to the brahmin
chancellor of the first Indian emperor, Chandragupta Maurya (4th c. BCE) (although the text as
we have it dates to about 150 CE). A literature celebrating the role of desire and erotic
sentiments, exemplified by the Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana also emerges. The aesthetics of
emotion that develops plays a role in court poetry and dramatic works, and later provides a basis
for the rasa (“flavor,” mood) theory of bhakti theology.
Summary of Transitions:
How do these two important sacred texts reconcile the old Vedic ideal of a prosperous life of
regular worship of the gods and rewards in heaven, with the newer beliefs in samsara, the theory
of karma, and the importance of moksha (freeing the soul from ignorance, desire, and rebirth),
which were introduced in the Upanishads (and in the teachings of the Buddhist and Jain
movements)?
The Laws of Manu introduces the "ashrama system," a social and religious model according to
which male members of the three highest classes should go through a sequence of stages in life:
brahmachari, married householder, hermit, and sannyasi (wandering mendicant). In this way the
worldly aims of the old Vedic sacrificial religion are maintained, while a "proper time" is set
aside in life (at the end of life) for the ascetical pursuit of moksha (liberation from the cycle of
lives), which requires the rejection of worldly way of life. Likewise, moksha becomes the fourth
legitimate "aim of humanity" parallel to, but antithetical to, the other three: dharma (duty,
righteousness in life), artha (pursuit of gain), and kama (pursuit of pleasure).
The Bhagavad Gita deals with the same contradiction (between worldly values and the logic of
moksha) by offering a third option, which is really a synthesis of the two: one can live "in the
world" as family man (or wife and mother), pursuing one’s personal and social dharma in one’s
work — BUT by giving up the "fruits" (results, rewards) of one’s actions, one will not be
affected by the karma and will be able to become free of desire and passion. This is karma-yoga,
"discipline of action," which Krishna, the teacher of the Bh. G., regards as superior to ascetical
way of life (jnana-yoga, the "discipline of insight") because it allows one to do one’s dharma
(duty) in the world while still rising above the petty concerns of earthly life. This karma-yoga
becomes BHAKTI-yoga ("discipline of devotion to God") when one makes a gift of the fruits of
one’s actions to God in love and humility. God graciously reciprocates by bestowing moksha
upon his devotees. Thus, the true lover of God can live a life of action with the self-control and
inner joy and peace of an ascetic!
What I mean by “Hinduism” vis-a-vis Vedism, Buddhism, etc.
1. Central concern with PERSONAL DEITIES who make themselves available to
worshipers through IDENTIFIABLE EMBODIMENTS, including:
a. visual forms: graphic or sculptural images, visualized abstract or natural forms,
actual persons;
b. names or sounds regarded as sonic embodiments.
2. Central idea behind worship is puja, a ceremony of service and gift-giving, during
which the worshiper makes “eye contact” (darshana) with the deity in its image-form,
various offerings are presented to the image, lights and incense are waved before it (arati),
and a portion of the offering is received back as a gesture of divine grace (prasada).
When performed by a priest, it may include a homa, or fire offering (a simplified version
of the old Vedic yajña).
- Congregational worship is also possible: this is called satsanga (holy
congregation); besides the regular offerings and arati, the main activity is the
singing of hymns (bhajanas).
- At festival times, special events, including lila (sacred dramas) or pilgrimage to
important shrines, may be held.
3. Temple is the preeminent place of worship, although shrines may be of any size and
shape, and also are created in private homes. In a proper temple, the images are formally
consecrated by priests, and are thus permanent bodies for God so long as the temple
remains active.
4. The dominant devotional theme is bhakti, an attitude of direct and whole-hearted
devotion expressed through intense, even passionate selfless love, humility, and service,
and demonstrated through individual or group worship and through vratas, special
patterns of worship and self-denial undertaken periodically or for special aims.
Names of Major Personal Deities:
Shiva
consort: Parvati / Durga
Vishnu
consort: Lakshmi / Shri
Devi (the Goddess), known as:
Parvati (daughter of the Mountain)
Durga (the Unapproachable)
associated deities:
avatars:
Kali (the Black One)
Ganesha (Ganapati)
Rama (epic god-hero) Shri (Radiance, Prosperity)
Murugan (Skanda)
Krishna (Vasudeva) Lakshmi (Wealth)
primary image: linga + yoni
Mother
The Vernacular Bhakti Movement
Begins in the South, in the Tamil country around the 6th c., adapting themes from secular love
and heroic poetry, yielding the songs of the Nayanars and Alvars; spreads north until it
culminated in the Hindi and Bengali songs of the 16th to 18th c. Major traits:
- composed in vernacular (spoken) languages, rather than classical Sanskrit;
- personal voices singing with vivid emotion about private experiences;
- singers are largely outside of traditional structures of religious authority (low castes and
women are heard); audiences identify more easily with them;
- legendary accounts of the singer’s life are preserved, and provide a commentary on the
songs themselves; miraculous events and exemplary devotion > saints;
- songs and legends provide a basis for a critique of the religious importance of caste
(God comes even to the lowest), the divine authority of brahmins, yogis, and Muslim
leaders; and the authenticity and value of outward forms of worship;
- leads to devotional singing as worship; also: vernacular (spoken language) versions of
epic stories and doctrines that are the best known ones today, recited in worship services.
Note the songs of the south Indian singers to Shiva and Vishnu; in the north, Surdas and Mira (to
Krishna) and Tulsidas (to Rama, including a Hindi-language rendition of the Ramayana).
The “Nirguna Bhakti” of the Sants (Holy Ones)
From the 14th c. a movement arises teaching nirguna bhakti (devotion to a God “without material
qualities”) (SIT, pp. 371-378);
- in contrast to the more common saguna bhakti (devotion to God as embodied in various
personal forms, emanations, or avatars. This type of devotion emphasized divine deeds
recounted in the epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana) and sacred histories (Puranas), and
was expressed in worship using physical images of the deity.
Nirguna bhakti’s main features:
1. meditation on and recitation of the DIVINE NAME as a means to salvation;
2. reliance on a GURU (spiritual guide of initiated disciples);
3. rejection of conventional ritual piety (temple puja, purity rules, pilgrimage);
4. rejection of brahmin religious authority and the religious importance of caste.
- connections with Sufis (Muslim mystics)
Review the samples of lyrics in SIT:
Ravidas, leather-worker (camar) of Banaras
-Made his own low status and impurity a metaphor for all humanity's corruption and
lowliness before God; cf. Tiruppan, Tirumankai
--he is like the worm next to the silk, the castor oil plant beside the sandalwood
--yet God rescues even the lowliest devotee
Kabir, a weaver (julaha) from Banaras (15th c.)
-equally antagonistic toward qazi (Muslim authority), brahmin, and yogi, despite his
Muslim name and Hindu imagery.
Nanak (see below).
Nanak and his Sikhs
It is important to be able to view Guru Nanak as a representative of the Sant movement as well
as as the founder of a panth (“path,” religious sect) known to us today as the Sikhs, or “pupils”
of the Guru and of the Satguru (“true/real teacher”, that is, God). Nanak taught that true
devotion is neither Hindu nor Muslim, and viewed all orthodox authorities as hypocrites and
charlatans; he called his disciples to repeat the divine name, to listen for the “unstruck tone” in
the heart. The accounts of his life emphasize the wonders he worked and his transforming
wisdom. You should be able to outline important moments in the subsequent development of the
tradition (see SIT, ch. 16), including the compiling of the Adi Granth (later deemed “Guru”) and
the creation of the Khalsa (the Sikh brotherhood, with its distinctive markers) by the 10th and last
human guru, Guru Gobind Singh (1699).
Gandhi’s nationalist application of spiritual principles
I my lecture on Gandhi, I outlined the social and political climate in which he came to
prominence: the Western and Christian critiques of Indian culture (combined with the
Orientalists’ scholarly idealization of the Vedic period, and their claim that subsequent
developments in India represented a steady degradation and decline) led to a variety of social
reform and religious revival movements, like the Arya Samaj (founded by Swami Dayananda in
1875 to call Hindus back to a simple spirituality modeled on Vedic ideas and eschewing imageworship and Untouchability; see below).
Gandhi, adopting the social reform impulses of those like Gokhale, combined them with the
nationalist spirituality of Aurobindo Ghose, and developed a set of principles derived from Hindu
asceticism but adapted for use in social and political action:
svaraj: self-discipline, demonstrated in dispassion, fasting, and chastity, leads to spiritual
autonomy; it also meant self-reliance by boycotting British machine-made cloth in favor of
homespun (he made a point of spinning thread by hand every day, and was against
industrialization, romanticizing the simple life of the Indian village). If all Indians would adopt
such self-control, it can lead to national self-determination and “self-governance” (svaraj).
satyagraha: “holding fast to what is right/true”; that means, staking your freedom and
life on your principles; Gandhi used fasts and civil disobedience as “the moral equivalent of war”
to compel his opponents to acknowledge the justice of his demands.
ahimsa: the age-old ideal of “not causing harm,” instilled in him by a Jain holy man and
his family’s Vaishnava (vegetarian) values, he converted into a principle of “nonviolence” in
resisting British rule and in dealing with other political opponents (like the Muslim League).
Despite his efforts to bring about a free and ethnically and politically united India, an agreement
to partition the territory into two countries, Pakistan and India proper, was in the end
implemented in 1947, leading to the displacement of huge numbers of people and much
bloodshed and bitterness. Gandhi was assassinated in 1948 by a member of a Hindu nationalist
group angry at what they regarded as undue concessions to the Muslim minority. Tensions
between Hindus and Muslims (who are blamed for all the offenses of Muslim rulers in India, and
are treated as foreigners by some Hindus) continue to persist.
OTHER CHALLENGES TO THE BRAHMANICAL TRADITION
Traditional accounts of the life and teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama, the
Shakyamuni [sage of the Shakya clan]) and the Jina Mahavira (the Victor, the Great Hero)
represent them as princes who abandoned worldly ambitions and domestic comforts to seek
enlightenment and release from samsara. Each gave rise to an order of monks (the Buddhist
Sangha of the bhikkhus; the Jain munis), and developed a theory of the soul and its bondage.
You should focus on the life stories of these figures as models for those who would imitate them.
The Buddhist Sangha and Its Institutions
sangha: the monastic “community” or order of monks (bhikshu) and nuns (bhikshuni) ; the term
is also applied to individual local communities of monks, embodied in:
vihara: a building containing private chambers (provided with stone couch, for one or two monks
as well as a common hall; a monastery composed of such facilities, often housed in
excavated complexes in early times.
upasaka: lay “devotee,” supporter of the monastic order through dana (alms-giving and the
endowment of stupas, temples, and monastic institutions; upasakas mark their devotion
by “taking refuge” in the three jewels or refuges: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the
Sangha.
The “Three Baskets” : collections of scriptures in the Pali Canon; they are the Vinaya Pitaka., the
Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Sayings of the Buddha), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. (Basket
of Philosophical Explanations)
vinaya: the monastic code of “conduct,” expressed in legends, codified in rules.
pratimoksha: a congregational statement of adherence to the Buddha’s teachings; later, a
collective confession of misdeeds, recited in:
uposatha (Pali term): a semi-monthly ceremony reaffirming monks’ discipline.
Candragupta Maurya: founder of the Mauryan dynasty (4th c. BCE); reputed to have become a
Jain monk in later life.
Asoka: 3rd Mauryan king, converted to Buddhism (mid-3rd c.); commissioned rock edicts and
pillar edicts throughout his realm, describing his commitment to and implementation
of the dharma, from the layperson’s standpoint.
dharma-raja: ‘pious king’, the exemplary royal upasaka that Asoka aimed to be.
Magadha: region of the rise of Buddhism; in modern Bihar State; capital: ancient Pataliputra
(modern Patna).
stupa (Pali: thupa): royal burial mound for relics of the Buddha; the focus of worship; Ashoka is
said to commissioned 84,000 of them. On top is a square reliquary representing a
palace, surmounted by royal parasols. Around the outside is the a fence often
illustrated with sculpted panels depicting stories from the life of the Buddha, or his
previous lives (jatakas).
Sanchi: site of a well-known stupa (I CE) in central India, famed for its elaborate railings and
gates.
Sarnath: the location of the Deer Park where the Buddha first preached the dharma; in the Gupta
period, much Buddhist art was produced in the workshops here (near Benares).
Buddhist Doctrine (according to the Theravada, “Doctrine of the Elders”)
Theravada scriptures call the Buddha’s teaching “the middle path” (between worldly selfindulgence and excessive ascetical rigor)
A. The Four Noble Truths:
1. Suffering (unhappiness) (duhkha):
a. duhkha-duhkha: plain old suffering, pain, discomfort,
b. suffering from the impermanence of pleasant things and states,
c. the suffering of existing merely as a bundle of characteristics, without real
identity = anatman
2. the Arising of suffering;
3. the Cessation of the Arising of suffering;
4. the Path leading to the cessation of suffering (see D below).
B. The Five Heaps of traits that constitute existence in the world:
1. Bodily form: the material body;
2. Sensations: the experience of messages from the sense organs and mind/heart--which
may seem good, bad, or indifferent;
3. Conceptualizations: thoughts, intellectual activity;
4. Mental dispositions: inclinations or tendencies of the mind;
5. Consciousness: awareness of sensations.
The characteristic of impermanence governs the existence of every physical thing and mental
event in the world, including every aspect of every person. All of these are "streams" of
momentary atoms (or mental instants), each of which gives rise to a similar (but not identical)
one that immediately follows. It is in this sense that things exist, yet have no real nature or
identity, since they are ever-changing states of objective processes; identity is only recognized by
convention, and is both provisional and temporary.
Attachment to impermanent things leads to duhkha. This tendency is like entropy, since
the ceaseless change constantly makes things unsuitable to one's desire for stability and
peace. Liberation requires the marshaling of one's mental energies to resist this pressure.
The cycle of change is described by:
C. The Chain of Dependent Origination (simplified): ignorance (not understanding how things
really are) => consciousness and sense of individuality => perceptions of things as separate from
oneself => experiences of the world => cravings and feelings of attachment => continued
engagement in samsara.
D. The Noble Eightfold Path:
1. proper viewpoint + 2. proper thinking + 3. proper speech = WISDOM
4. proper action + 5. proper livelihood + 6. proper effort = CONDUCT
7. proper mindfulness + 8. proper concentration (stillness) = MEDITATION (dhyana)
E. The Three Refuges: Every Buddhist vows to take refuge (from samsara) in (1) the Buddha, (2)
the Dharma, and (3) the Sangha. For laypeople, this means (1) venerating the memory of the
Buddha, and visiting stupas and temples, (2) hearing the Dharma preached and attempting to
apply it in their life by following the Five Precepts (not killing, not stealing, not engaging in
sensual misconduct, not lying, and not taking intoxicants), and (3) by giving (dana) generously to
the monks and nuns, and endowing Buddhist institutions.
F. The Vinaya (monastic code of conduct): For monks there are more than 250 specific rules
(many more for nuns). Monks embody the example of the Buddha for later generations; the code
ensures that monks remain on the Path to enlightenment and liberation, and maintains the
exemplary character of the institution in the eyes of the lay community.
G. Monastic life includes:
- meditation (samatha [stillness meditation, aimed at quieting the mind by holding it steady] and
vipashyana [insight meditation, aimed at cultivating mental patterns of thought conducive to
bodhi].
- recitation and copying of Buddhist scriptures, to preserve and transmit the Buddha’s teaching.
- study of logic and debate, to hone the rational capacity of the mind to better understand the
Dharma, and to improve monks’ ability to teach effectively.
- alms-gathering, to provide opportunities for laypeople to earn merit through giving.
- tending temples and ministering to the laity.
The Mahavamsa
History of Buddhism told in such as way as to show the special importance of a particular place,
Lanka, and as reinforcing Lanka’s kingship as Buddhist is character and purpose, from the earthshaking reign of king Tissa (including his special link with the Emperor Asoka, and the fact that
the mission to Lanka was led by Asoka’s son, Mahinda). Note the importance of ordaining
monks in Lanka, and of establishing the worship of the Buddha’s relics in the land. Note also to
many miracles and special powers attributed to the Buddha and other monks.