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Exam 4 Review (Chapters 25, 26, 27, Male -28)
Chapter 25 – Nutrition and Metabolism
coenzymes
catabolism
pyruvic acid
proton motive force.
Glycogenesis
ketogenesis
Heat cramps
metabolism
oxidation
Translation/Transcription
ATP Synthase
Glycogenolysis
Deamination
Heat exhaustion
hypoglycemia
reduction
acetyl Co A
anabolism
Lipolysis
Ketosis
Heat stroke (sunstroke)
1. Know the 6 types of nutrients.
2. Carbohydrates (what are carbohydrates?)
 Types/Forms / Functions
3. Lipids (What are lipids?)
 Function of lipids / Types of lipids
4. Proteins Types and functions
 What is the structural unit of proteins?
5. Minerals and Vitamins - Types
 Examples of both minerals and vitamins
6. What are energy carriers/transporters? Examples?
7. Know which form of NAD is reduced/oxidized and why.
8. What vitamin is necessary in order to synthesize NAD?
9. Know which form of FAD is reduced/oxidized and why.
10. What vitamin is necessary in order to form FAD?
11. Know the three mechanisms that generate ATP?
12. Understand the metabolism of carbohydrates (glucose).
 Anaerobic Respiration –Glycolysis
o Location, phases, final products
o Where the final products are sent and how.
 Aerobic Respiration
o Know the process of cellular respiration and its primary purpose
o The complete degradation of glucose by cellular respiration can be written:
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
KNOW THIS EQUATION
13. What is the Krebs –Citric Acid Cycle-TCA? What is its function?
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 What are the final products of this cycle? Where do they go?
 What is a vital component necessary for the function of this cycle? (Acetyl-CoA)
14. What is the Electron Transport Chain?
 Understand the mechanisms involved in how the ETC produces ATP.
 You will also need to know
o where they receive electrons from
o the organization of the chain, its location
 electron receiver complexes
o how are NADH and FADH2 are associated with the ETC
15. What is chemiosmosis?
16. What is the Proton motive force?
17. What are the final products of Cellular respiration?
18. Know the four types of lipoproteins and their specific function.
19. What is the process used to break down free fatty acids? (beta-oxidation) What is the end
product of this process? Where does that end product enter in the metabolic pathways?
20. How are proteins metabolized? Anabolized? Translation? Transcription?
21. How is energy supplied if a person is fasting and starving?
22. How does the body regulate heat?
Chapter 26 Urinary System
1. Know the various functions of the kidney.
2. What are nitrogenous wastes and what is the conversion process to remove them from
the body?
3. What is urea, uric acid?
4. What is BUN? Normal concentration levels.
5. Know the following terms. What is their function? For a disorder, what is the cause?
 azotemia
 uremia
 polyuria
 renal insufficiency
 diabetes insipidus
• creatinine
• kidney Stones
• urinary incontinence
• cystitis
• hemodialysis
 micturition
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Know the various structural components of the kidney.
1. Know the layers of the kidney, their location and function.
2. Know the vascular path of the blood supply to the kidneys.
3. What is a nephron?
4. What are the two types of nephrons? How do they differ in function and location? Which
type has is more common?
5. Know these components and structures of the filtration section of the nephron and their
specific function.
 Bowman’s capsule
 outer (parietal) layer of Bowman's capsule
 the capsular space.
 the glomerulus
 afferent arteriole
 efferent arteriole.
 peritubular capillaries
 vasa recta
 podocytes.
 pedicels
 filtration slits.
 How do the anatomical structures (fenestrations, epithelial cells connections, etc) of
the glomerular capillaries enhance filtration?
6. Know the FUNCTION and location of the tubular portion of the nephron.
 Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
 Loop of Henle (thin/thick; ascending/descending)
 Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
 Collecting duct (CT)
7. How are the cells of the tubular portion of the nephron critical to its function?
o Proximal convoluted tubule: simple cuboidal epithelial cells with numerous microvilli
o Thin portion of loop of Henle: simple squamous cells without microvilli
o Thick portion of loop of Henle: simple cuboidal cells with very few microvilli
o Distal convoluted tubule: simple cuboidal cells with few microvilli
o Collecting duct: simple cuboidal cells called intercalated cells and principal cells;
intercalated cells have microvilli.
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URINE FORMATION
What are the three processes of urine formation?
1. Glomerular Filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
1) Urine formation - Glomerular filtration
1. Understand the entire process of glomerular filtration. What type of substances are filtered?
Where does filtration occur? How is blood pressure involved in filtration? What types of
substances do not leave the plasma?
2. What is the average filtrate volume per min? per day?
3. How much of the filtrate becomes urine?
4. Know the structural components of the filtration membrane and how they are designed to
provide maximum filtration.
5. Understand the following pressure gradients:
 Glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (GBHP)
 Capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP) opposes GBHP.
 Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) opposes GBHP.
6. What is the glomerular filtration rate?
7. Know the three operations of GFR regulation.
 Renal Autoregulation: Understand the actions of the following:
o Macula densa / Juxtaglomerular cells
o What is the connection between JG cells and rennin?
o Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)
I. Vasoconstriction/vasodilation
II. How does the action of the juxtaglomerular apparatus control GFR?
8. Nervous/Hormonal Regulation
9. What would be the results of a GFR that was too fast? Too slow?
10. Understand the actions of the following:
 Sympathetic renal nerves stimulation
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) mechanism – know how this
mechanism is formed from the stimulation of rennin production to aldosterone release
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2) Urine formation - Tubular Reabsorption- PCT
1. How does reabsorption occur in the tubules?
2. Know which substances are reabsorbed in the PCT, DCT and CT. and how.
3. What methods are used to reabsorb filtrate and how do they operate?
 transcellular pathway occurs where? How?
 paracellular pathway occurs where?
 What is solvent drag?
4. What is transport maximum? Why is transport necessary? What is negative effect of
transport maxium?
 What is a symport? Antiport?
5. What role does sodium have in reabsorption?
 Where Is most of the sodium reabsorbed?
 What mechanism is utilized to prevent sodium from accumulating in the tubule cells?
 What is osmolarity?
 How does the action of sodium change osmolarity?
6. How is water reabsorbed? Where is most of the water reabsorbed?
 Which tubular cells are impermeable to water?
7. Where does the action of ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) and aldosterone occur? What
conditions would stimulate the release of ADH or aldosterone?
8. What reabsorption action occurs in the distal convoluted tubules?
9. What type of cells are found in the collecting ducts? What is their function?
10. Why is the reaborption and secretion of urea important?
11. Where is the urine concentrated? How?
12. How does the action of a countercurrent multiplier affect tubule filtrate reabsorption?
13. How does the osmolarity of the renal medulla affect reabsorption?
14. Where is the highest salt concentration in the tubules?
15. What is the function of the vasa recta? Where is it located?
16. What is an aquaporin? What stimulates the synthesis of aquaporins? (principal cells)
3) . Mechanism of Urine Formation - Tubular Secretion
1. What is secretion? How is it accomplished? Where does it occur?
2. What are the purposes of secretion?
3. Know the conversion process of carbon dioxide into carbonic acid—bicarbonate.
4. How does carbon dioxide change the acid/base balance of the body?
5. What is the chloride shift?
6. How does bicarbonate operate as a buffer for pH?
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Know these associates structures of the urinary system.
Ureters
 What is the structure, purpose of the ureters?
 What often forms in the ureters due to calcium deposits?
Urinary Bladder
 What is the bladder? Its function?
 Know the various structural components of the mucosa of the bladder.
 What is the purpose of rugae?
 What muscle is present in the bladder? What is its structure?
 What are the sphincters of the bladder and what accounts for their structure?
Urethra
 How does the urethra differ in males and females?
 What type of mucosa is found in the urethra?
 How does urination occur? What controls and regulates urination?
Study this diagram. It will help you to clarify the areas and substances that are moved out
of with the filtrate, reabsorbed and secreted back into the filtrate for elimination in the
urine.
Chapter 27 Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid/Base Balance
1. Know the Body fluid locations
2. What constitutes fluid deficiency? Causes
3. What is hypovolemia?
4. What type of conditions can result from dehydration?
5. Why are infants more vulnerable to dehydration?
6. Be able to give an example of fluid sequestration.
7. What is an electrolyte?
8. What is the difference between a cation and an anion?
9. Know which electrolytes are cations and anions?
10. Know the following concerning these electrolytes:
Sodium - Sodium (Na+)
 Function
 Know how it is regulated and by what substances. (EX: ADH, aldosterone, ANP)
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Chloride - Chloride ions
 Function
 What is a chloride shift?
Potassium - K+ ions
 Function ; Regulation
 Outcome of high levels (Hyperkalemia); low levels (Hypokalemia)
Bicarbonate - Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
 Function
 How is bicarbonate formed?
Calcium (Ca2+) - Calcium (Ca2+) ions
 Functions; Regulation
 Consequences of Hypocalcemia: low blood calcium level
 Consequences of Hypercalcemia: high blood calcium level
Phosphate - Phosphate (PO43-) I
 Functions; Regulation
 Results from interaction with calcium
17. Why is acid/base homeostasis important?
 How is acid/base balance achieved?
 How is it regulated?
18. What is the normal pH level of blood plasma?
19. How are hydrogen ions (H+) connected to pH?
20. What type of situations can alter the acid/base balance of the body?
21. Understand the actions of the buffer systems.
Physiological buffer- body control
• urinary system- can take several hours to days
• respiratory system -buffers within minutes
Chemical buffer- bind/release of H+
• Protein buffer
• Carbonic acid / bicarbonate ion
• Phosphate buffer
22. How effective is each system? Which is the most effective?
23. What acts as a buffer in erythrocytes?
24. What acts as a buffer in blood plasma?
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25. How does renal regulation differ from respiratory?
26. What is respiratory acidosis? What is respiratory alkalosis?
28. What is metabolic acidosis? What is metabolic alkalosis?
Chapter 28 MALE Reproductive System
Cryptorchidism
Erectile dysfunction
Spermatogenesis
Testes-determining factor (TDF)
SRY Gene
nitric oxide
spermiogenesis
Inguinal canal
Circumcision
Vasectomy
Urology
Tunica albuginea
1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the factors that affect sexual determination?
What is the chromosomal determination (autosomes/sex chromosomes)
How do the X and Y chromosomes affect sexual determination?
What is androgen-insensitivity syndrome? How does this syndrome development of male or
female characteristics?
Primary and secondary sex organs of male reproductive systems. Know the following structures and
their primary function:
5. Gubernaculum
6. Tunica vaginalis
7. Scrotum
8. Spermatic cord
□ cremaster muscle
□ dartos muscle
□ pampiniform plexus
9. Testes – structure/function
10. Seminiferous tubules
11. Cells:
□ Sertoli or sustentacular cells- function;regulation
□ Leydig or interstitial cells –function; regulation
12. Hormone influence: inhibin, FSH, ABP
13. Spermatic Ducts
o efferent ductules
o the epididymis
o ductus (vas) deferens
o ejaculatory duct
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14. Accessory Glands
□ Seminal vesicle, prostate, and bulbourethral glands - function
□ Amount of semen contribution from each gland?
15. Urethra
o Prostate, membranous, spongy
16. Penis
o corpus spongiosum
o corpora cavernosa
o glans penis
o Prepuce (foreskin)
17. What processes (neural and hormonal) are involved in erection?
18. What are the mechanisms that produce ejaculation? Why does urine not flow into the
seminal fluid?
19. Understand the process of spermatogenesis via mitosis and meiosis which produces primary
spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, which eventually become sperm.
20. Sperm- structure/function (Ex: what area of the sperm contains enzymes to break through
membrane of ovum?)
21. Sperm facts: numbers produced, amounts in the ejaculate, consequences for low numbers.
22. When do the sperm become active and move under their own power?
23. Semen: volume, pH, function
24. Hormonal regulation - action of individual hormones on sperm production, male
characteristics
o Hypothalamus (GnRH)
o Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
o Androgen binding protein
o Inhibin
o Luteinizing hormone (LH)
25. Once the sperms are formed in the testes what is the route they will exit the man’s body and
how? Know the process from testes, what occurs along the way, contributions from glands,
ducts, involved, and exit route.
26. How long can they remain active? Where does the maturation and storage occur?
27. What happens to sperm that are not ejaculated?
28. What are the contents of the seminal fluid? What contribution /function does each
component make to the fluid?
29. Understand what occurs during male puberty. What initiates puberty? What changes occur in
the male body due to these actions?
30. What are the actions of Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)? Where is it secreted and by
what?
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31. How are FSH and ABP involved in puberty?
32. How does aging affect the male reproductive system?
33. Where do inguinal hernias generally occur?
34. How does nitric oxide aid male erectile dysfunction?
35. How does a change in the size of the prostate affect a man’s urinary and sexual abilities?
Chapter 28 FEMALE Reproductive System Structures
Ovulation
Amenorrhea
Toxic shock syndrome
Menopause
Fibrocystic breast
Endometriosis
Premenstrual syndrome
Menstrual cramps
Peg cells
Transudation
Tubal ligation
PAP Smears
Hysterectomy
Androstenedione
Primary and secondary sex organs of male reproductive systems. Know the following structures and
their PRIMARY FUNCTION:
1. Ovaries -Structure
2. Support structures
□ Broad ligament
>> Mesovarium /Suspensory ligament
□ Ovarian ligament
□ Round ligament
□ Cardinal ligament
3. Ovarian follicles
4. Uterine tube/Fallopian Tube/ Oviduct – functions/histology
□ infundibulum
□ fimbriae
5. Uterus
6. Cervix –function
□ cervical glands
□ mucus plug
7. Wall of the uterus:
□ Perimetrium
□ Myometrium
□ Endometrium
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>> inner layer (stratum funtionalis)
>> Outer layer (stratum basalis)
8.
9.
10.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Vagina –structure/function
External genitalia = vulva structure/function
mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora
vestibule, hymen
clitoris, vestibular glands, vestibular bulbs
Breasts –structure/function
Nipple
mammary glands, areolar glands (type of glands)
hormones that regulate breasts Estrogen, Prolactin, Oxytocin
Oogensis
ovarian cycle
menstrual cycle
Know the process of Oogenesis.
What occurs in fetus? @ birth? Puberty?
Know the difference between primary and secondary ooycte? Process of development
Know the aspects of follicular development and menstruation.
Hormonal Regulation and influence (ex: Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG))
follicular/granulosa cells – primordial follicle
primary follicles
zona pellucida
theca folliculi
Tertiary follicles
Graafian (mature) follicle
Follicular Phase: Preovulatory phase
corpus luteum
Luteal Phase: Postovulatory phase
corpus albicans
corona radiate
How do contraceptive pills interfere with the sexual cycle?
Female Reproductive System – The Cycle
Understand the process of fertilization?
Cancers
Breast cancer, Cervical cancer
Sexually transmitted diseases
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20.
Puberty in the female – hormonal influences
adrenarche, changes in female characteristics, menarch
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