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.USGS
.USGS
GROUND WATER
GROUND
WATER ATLAS
ATLAS of
of the
the UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
Delaware, Maryland,
Delaware,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
West Virginia
Virginia
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
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Regional summary
Regional
summary
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
11 consists
consists of
of the
the States
States of
of Delaware,
Delaware, Maryland,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina, West
West
Segment 11
Segment
of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and Virginia.
Virginia. All
All but
but West
West Virginia
Virginia border
border on
on
Virginia, and
Virginia,
and the
the Commonwealths
Commonwealths of
of
the Atlantic
the
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean or
or tidewater.
tidewater. Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania also
also borders
borders on
on Lake
Lake Erie.
Erie. Small
Small parts
parts of
northwestern and
northwestern
and north-central
north-central Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania drain
drain to
to Lake
Lake Erie
Erie and
and Lake
Lake Ontario;
Ontario; the
the rest
rest of
of
the segment
the
segment drains
drains either
either to
to the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean or
or the
the Gulf
Gulf of
of Mexico.
Mexico. Major
Major rivers
rivers include
include the
the
Hudson, the
Hudson,
the Delaware,
Delaware, the
the Susquehanna,
Susquehanna, the
the Potomac,
Potomac, the
the Rappahannock,
Rappahannock, the
the James,
James, the
the
Cape Fear,
Fear, and
and the
the Yadkin-Peedee,
Yadkin-Peedee, all
all of
of which
which drain
drain into
into the
the
Chowan, the
Chowan,
the Neuse,
Neuse, the
the Tar,
Tar, the
the Cape
of Mexico.
Mexico.
Atlantic Ocean,
Atlantic
Ocean, and
and the
the Ohio
Ohio and
and its
its tributaries,
tributaries, which
which drain
drain to
to the
the Gulf
Gulf of
of water
water supply
supply for
for many
many cities,
cities, such
such as
as Trenton,
Trenton, NJ.;
NJ.;
Although rivers
Although
rivers are
are important
important sources
sources of
Philadelphia and
Philadelphia
and Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, Pa.;
Pa.; Baltimore,
Baltimore, Md.;
Md.; Washington,
Washington, D.C.;
D.C.; Richmond,
Richmond, Va.;
Va.; and
and
of the
the population,
population, particularly
particularly the
the people
people who
who live
live on
on the
the Coastal
Coastal
Raleigh, N.C.,
Raleigh,
N.C., one-fourth
one-fourth of
Plain, depends
Plain,
depends on
on ground
ground water
water for
for supply.
supply. Such
Such cities
cities as
as Camden,
Camden, N.J.;
N.J.; Dover,
Dover, Del.;
Del.; Salisbury
Salisbury
Bern and
and Kinston,
Kinston,
and Annapolis,
and
Annapolis, Md.;
Md.; Parkersburg
Parkersburg and
and Weirton,
Weirton, W.Va.;
W.Va.; Norfolk,
Norfolk, Va.;
Va.; and
and New
New Bern
use ground
ground water
water as
as a
a source
source of
of public
public supply.
supply.
N.C., use
N.C.,
in Segment
Segment 11
11 originates
originates as
as precipitation.
precipitation. Average
Average annual
annual precipitation
precipitation ranges
ranges
All the
All
the water
water in
from less
from
less than
than 36
36 inches
inches in
in parts
parts of
of Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Maryland, Virginia,
Virginia, and
and West
West Virginia
Virginia to
to
of southwestern
southwestern North
North Carolina
Carolina (fig.
(fig. 1).
1). In
In general,
general, precipitation
precipitation
more than
more
than 80
80 inches
inches in
in parts
parts of
is greatest
is
greatest in
in mountainous
mountainous areas
areas (because
(because water
water tends
tends to
to condense
condense from
from moisture-laden
moisture-laden air
air
masses as the air passes over the higher altitudes) and near the coast, where water vapor
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HA 730-L
HA
730-L Surficial
Surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system text
text
.USGS
.USGS
GROUND WATER
GROUND
WATER ATLAS
ATLAS of
of the
the UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
Delaware, Maryland,
Delaware,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
West Virginia
Virginia
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
HA 730-L
HA
730-L
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Surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system figures--(12
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Surficial aquifer
Surficial
aquifer system
system
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
is in
in the
the northern
northern and
and western
western parts
parts of
of Segment
Segment 11
11 (fig.
(fig. 12)
12) and
and
The surficial
The
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system is
consists of
consists
of aquifers
aquifers in
in unconsolidated
unconsolidated sand
sand and
and gravel
gravel deposits
deposits of
of Quaternary
Quaternary age.
age. The
The aquifer
aquifer
system is
system
is in
in parts
parts of
of all
all the
the physiographic
physiographic provinces
provinces in
in the
the segment
segment except
except the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain.
Most of
Most
of the
the individual
individual aquifers
aquifers that
that compose
compose the
the system
system are
are not
not hydraulically
hydraulically connected,
connected, but
but
be an
an
share common
share
common geologic
geologic and
and hydrologic
hydrologic characteristics
characteristics and
and are
are therefore
therefore considered
considered to
to be
aquifer system.
aquifer
system. Unconsolidated
Unconsolidated sand
sand and
and gravel
gravel deposits
deposits that
that are
are the
the uppermost
uppermost aquifers
aquifers in
in
parts of
parts
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 are
are not
not mapped
mapped as
as part
part of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system
as part
part of
of the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system.
system.
because they
because
they function
function as
of unconsolidated
unconsolidated sediments
sediments compose
compose the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system.
system. The
The
Two principal
Two
principal types
types of
of sediments
sediments deposited
deposited by
by Pleistocene
Pleistocene continental
continental
first, and
first,
and most
most widespread,
widespread, type
type consists
consists of
glaciers or
glaciers
or by
by meltwater
meltwater from
from the
the glaciers.
glaciers. The
The second
second type
type is
is Holocene
Holocene alluvium
alluvium in
in the
the valleys
valleys
of major
of
major streams.
streams. The
The glacial
glacial sediments
sediments are
are restricted
restricted to
to the
the northern
northern parts
parts of
of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
of West
West Virginia,
Virginia,
and New
and
New Jersey;
Jersey; the
the alluvial
alluvial deposits
deposits are
are scattered
scattered through
through parts
parts of
Pennsylvania, and
Pennsylvania,
and New
New Jersey
Jersey (fig.
(fig. 12).
12). Some
Some of
of the
the alluvial
alluvial deposits
deposits are
are reworked
reworked glacial
glacial
sediments.
sediments.
HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING
HYDROGEOLOGIC
SETTING
Glacial deposits
Glacial
deposits consist
consist mostly
mostly of
of clay,
clay, silt,
silt, sand,
sand, and
and gravel
gravel in
in various
various combinations,
combinations, but
but also
also
include cobbles and boulders. The general term "glacial drift" is used for all types of glacial
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aquifer system
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text
deposits, regardless
deposits,
regardless of
of the
the particle
particle size
size or
or the
the degree
degree of
of sorting
sorting of
of the
the deposits,
deposits, or
or how
how the
the
deposits were
deposits
were emplaced.
emplaced. The
The glacial
glacial drift
drift in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 was
was deposited
deposited during
during several
several
of continental
continental ice
ice sheets.
sheets. The
The most
most recent
recent and
and widespread
widespread glacial
glacial stage,
stage,
advances and
advances
and retreats
retreats of
termed "Wisconsinan,"
termed
"Wisconsinan," ended
ended only
only about
about 12,000
12,000 years
years ago;
ago; the
the last
last ice
ice sheet,
sheet, however,
however,
retreated out
retreated
out of
of the
the area
area of
of Segment
Segment 11
11 about
about 17,000
17,000 years
years ago.
ago.
of deposits.
deposits. Till,
Till, which
which
Glacial ice
Glacial
ice and
and meltwater
meltwater from
from the
the ice
ice laid
laid down
down several
several different
different types
types of
is an
is
an unstratified,
unstratified, unsorted
unsorted mixture
mixture of
of material
material that
that ranges
ranges in
in particle
particle size
size from
from clay
clay to
to
in front
front of
of the
the ice
ice sheet.
sheet. Deposits
Deposits of
of till
till are
are
boulders, was
boulders,
was deposited
deposited under
under the
the ice
ice or
or directly
directly in
the most
the
most extensive
extensive glacial
glacial deposits
deposits in
in Segment
Segment 11,
11, but
but the
the till
till is
is not
not an
an aquifer.
aquifer. Glacial-lake
Glacial-lake
of clay
clay and
and silt,
silt, which
which were
were laid
laid down
down in
in lakes
lakes that
that formed
formed between
between ice
ice lobes
lobes or
or
deposits of
deposits
where the
where
the ice
ice blocked
blocked pre-glacial
pre-glacial streams,
streams, likewise
likewise are
are not
not aquifers.
aquifers. Outwash
Outwash deposits,
deposits, by
by
contrast, generally
contrast,
generally consist
consist of
of stratified
stratified sand
sand and
and gravel
gravel (fig.
(fig. 13)
13) that
that form
form productive
productive aquifers.
aquifers.
Most of
Most
of the
the outwash
outwash deposits
deposits in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 are
are in
in valleys;
valleys; the
the intervening
intervening hills
hills are
are mantled
mantled
ice sheets
sheets greatly
greatly altered
altered topography
topography and
and
with till
with
till or
or underlain
underlain by
by consolidated
consolidated rock.
rock. The
The ice
drainage in
drainage
in the
the part
part of
of the
the segment
segment that
that has
has been
been glaCiated.
glaCiated. Before
Before or
or during
during the
the Pleistocene
Pleistocene
Epoch, some
Epoch,
some streams
streams in
in the
the glaCiated
glaCiated area
area cut
cut their
their channels
channels as
as much
much as
as 300
300 feet
feet deeper
deeper than
than
In some
some places,
places, erosion
erosion of
of bedrock
bedrock hills
hills by
by the
the thick
thick ice
ice sheets
sheets
their present
their
present streambeds.
streambeds. In
smoothed and
smoothed
and rounded
rounded the
the preglacial
preglacial topography
topography and
and deposition
deposition of
of glacial
glacial drift,
drift, primarily
primarily in
in
bedrock valleys,
bedrock
valleys, further
further subdued
subdued the
the original
original relief
relief of
of the
the bedrock
bedrock surface.
surface. In
In other
other places,
places, the
the
ice scoured
ice
scoured deep
deep troughs
troughs in
in the
the bedrock
bedrock and
and stripped
stripped weathered
weathered bedrock
bedrock away
away from
from hills,
hills, thus
thus
increasing the
increasing
the original
original relief.
relief.
Streams that
Streams
that flowed
flowed northward
northward or
or northwestward
northwestward typically
typically were
were blocked
blocked by
by the
the ice
ice sheets
sheets that
that
advanced from
advanced
from the
the north
north and
and northeast.
northeast. Flow
Flow direction
direction was
was reversed
reversed in
in some
some of
of the
the northnorth­
flowing streams;
flowing
streams; others
others resumed
resumed their
their northward
northward flow
flow after
after the
the ice
ice retreated;
retreated; and
and a
a few
few were
were
overridden by
overridden
by thick
thick ice
ice and
and permanently
permanently obliterated.
obliterated. New
New channels
channels were
were cut
cut by
by meltwater
meltwater
streams in
streams
in some
some places,
places, and
and some
some of
of these
these new
new channels
channels connected
connected parts
parts of
of separate
separate
of the
the Ohio
Ohio River
River was
was formed
formed during
during the
the Pleistocene
Pleistocene
preglacial streams.
preglacial
streams. The
The present
present course
course of
Epoch as
Epoch
as a
a composite
composite of
of newly
newly cut
cut channel
channel segments
segments and
and connected,
connected, old
old channel
channel segments.
segments.
Some of
Some
of the
the deeply
deeply cut
cut meltwater
meltwater stream
stream valleys
valleys were
were later
later filled
filled to
to their
their present
present levels
levels with
with
glacial deposits
glacial
deposits and
and alluvium.
alluvium.
In areas
In
areas where
where streams
streams drained
drained away
away from
from the
the glacial
glacial ice,
ice, stratified
stratified glacial
glacial drift
drift was
was deposited
deposited
in the
in
the stream
stream valleys,
valleys, mostly
mostly when
when the
the ice
ice was
was stagnant
stagnant or
or when
when the
the ice
ice sheet
sheet was
was melting.
melting.
Sand and
Sand
and gravel
gravel were
were deposited
deposited (fig.
(fig. 14)
14) as
as deltas
deltas or
or fluvial
fluvial deposits
deposits at
at the
the ice
ice margins
margins or
or in
in
glacial lakes
glacial
lakes or
or as
as fluvial
fluvial valley-train
valley-train deposits
deposits downstream
downstream from
from the
the ice
ice margin.
margin. The
The coarse
coarse
sand and
sand
and gravel
gravel form
form productive
productive aquifers
aquifers that
that commonly
commonly are
are interspersed
interspersed with
with the
the clay
clay and
and silt
silt
confining beds
confining
beds deposited
deposited in
in small
small lakes
lakes in
in the
the valleys.
valleys. Some
Some of
of the
the valley-train
valley-train sand
sand deposits
deposits
extend for
extend
for many
many miles,
miles, as
as in
in parts
parts of
of the
the valleys
valleys of
of the
the Allegheny
Allegheny and
and the
the Susquehanna
Susquehanna Rivers.
Rivers.
Sand and gravel deposited as alluvium along the valleys of major streams also form productive
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aquifers. Some
aquifers.
Some of
of the
the alluvium
alluvium consists
consists of
of reworked
reworked glacial
glacial deposits
deposits that
that were
were eroded
eroded and
and
transported downstream
transported
downstream during
during and
and following
following the
the last
last retreat
retreat of
of the
the ice.
ice. Reworked
Reworked glacial
glacial
material is
material
is most
most common
common in
in southward-flowing
southward-flowing streams,
streams, such
such as
as the
the Allegheny
Allegheny and
and the
the Ohio
Ohio
in glaciated
glaciated areas.
areas. Although
Although some
some of
of the
the deposits
deposits of
of
Rivers, that
Rivers,
that have
have their
their headwaters
headwaters in
reworked glacial
reworked
glacial material
material are
are in
in dry
dry terraces
terraces above
above the
the water
water table,
table, most
most of
of them
them are
are
saturated, and
saturated,
and some,
some, such
such as
as the
the gravel
gravel deposits
deposits along
along the
the upper
upper reaches
reaches of
of the
the Ohio
Ohio River,
River,
form highly
form
highly productive
productive aquifers.
aquifers. Alluvium
Alluvium in
in the
the valleys
valleys of
of northward-flowing
northward-flowing streams
streams consists
consists
of material
of
material that
that has
has been
been weathered
weathered and
and eroded
eroded from
from exposed
exposed consolidated
consolidated sedimentary
sedimentary
rocks. The
rocks.
The alluvium
alluvium along
along the
the northward-flowing
northward-flowing rivers,
rivers, such
such as
as the
the Kanawha
Kanawha in
in West
West Virginia
Virginia
and the
and
the Monongahela
Monongahela in
in Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, generally
generally is
is finer
finer grained
grained than
than that
that along
along the
the
southward-flowing rivers
southward-flowing
rivers and
and thus
thus yields
yields less
less water
water to
to wells.
wells.
GROUND-WATER FLOW
GROUND-WATER
FLOW
Most of
Most
of the
the productive
productive aquifers
aquifers in
in the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system consist
consist of
of valley-fill
valley-fill deposits
deposits of
of
coarse-grained glacial
coarse-grained
glacial or
or alluvial
alluvial deposits,
deposits, or
or both,
both, and
and contain
contain water
water under
under mostly
mostly unconfined
unconfined
conditions. In
conditions.
In New
New Jersey,
Jersey, fine-grained
fine-grained glacial-lake
glacial-lake sediments
sediments overlie
overlie aquifers
aquifers in
in coarsecoarse­
grained glacial
grained
glacial sediments
sediments in
in many
many places
places and
and create
create confined
confined conditions
conditions in
in the
the aquifers.
aquifers. The
The
valley-fill aquifers
valley-fill
aquifers receive
receive most
most of
of their
their recharge
recharge from
from runoff
runoff of
of precipitation
precipitation that
that falls
falls on
on the
the
surrounding uplands
surrounding
uplands that
that are
are underlain
underlain by
by till
till or
or bedrock,
bedrock, both
both of
of which
which are
are less
less permeable
permeable
than the
than
the valley-fill
valley-fill deposits.
deposits. Some
Some recharge
recharge is
is by
by infiltration
infiltration of
of precipitation
precipitation that
that falls
falls directly
directly
on the
on
the valley-fill
valley-fill aquifers,
aquifers, and
and some
some is
is by
by inflow
inflow from
from adjacent
adjacent bedrock
bedrock (fig.
(fig. 15A).
15A). Studies
Studies
have concluded,
have
concluded, however,
however, that
that from
from 60
60 to
to 75
75 percent
percent of
of the
the recharge
recharge to
to the
the valley-fill
valley-fill aquifers
aquifers
is from
is
from upland
upland runoff,
runoff, some
some of
of which
which is
is unchanneled,
unchanneled, but
but most
most of
of which
which is
is in
in tributary
tributary streams
streams
and enters
and
enters the
the aquifers
aquifers as
as seepage
seepage through
through the
the streambeds.
streambeds. The
The higher
higher recharge
recharge percentages
percentages
are for
are
for aquifers
aquifers in
in valleys
valleys that
that are
are less
less than
than one-half
one-half mile
mile wide.
wide. The
The valley-fill
valley-fill aquifers
aquifers
discharge primarily
discharge
primarily to
to streams
streams that
that flow
flow in
in the
the valleys
valleys when
when the
the water
water level
level in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is
higher than
higher
than that
that in
in the
the stream
stream (fig.
(fig. 15A);
15A); during
during drought
drought conditions,
conditions, water
water levels
levels in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer
can decline
can
decline until
until the
the direction
direction of
of flow
flow is
is reversed
reversed and
and water
water moves
moves from
from the
the stream
stream to
to the
the
aquifer (fig.
aquifer
(fig. 15B).
15B). The
The thickness
thickness and
and permeability
permeability of
of the
the bottom
bottom sediment
sediment in
in the
the stream
stream
determine the
determine
the rate
rate at
at which
which water
water can
can move
move between
between the
the stream
stream and
and the
the aquifer.
aquifer. Some
Some
discharge from
discharge
from the
the valley-fill
valley-fill aquifers
aquifers also
also is
is by
by outflow
outflow to
to adjacent
adjacent bedrock,
bedrock,
evapotranspiration, and
evapotranspiration,
and withdrawals
withdrawals from
from wells
wells (fig.
(fig. 15B).
15B).
Base flow
Base
flow of
of a
a stream
stream is
is maintained
maintained by
by ground-water
ground-water discharge
discharge and
and is
is a
a good
good indication
indication of
of the
the
water-yielding capacity
water-yielding
capacity of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer that
that provides
provides the
the base
base flow.
flow. Base-flow
Base-flow characteristics
characteristics in
in
Segment 11
Segment
11 vary
vary with
with the
the type
type of
of rocks
rocks or
or deposits
deposits through
through which
which the
the stream
stream flows.
flows. Streams
Streams
that flow
that
flow on
on bedrock
bedrock have
have minimal
minimal base
base flow
flow and
and often
often become
become dry
dry because
because the
the limited
limited
amount of
amount
of fracture
fracture and
and pore
pore space
space in
in the
the bedrock
bedrock permits
permits little
little water
water to
to be
be stored
stored and
and
subsequently released
subsequently
released to
to the
the stream.
stream. In
In contrast,
contrast, streams
streams in
in valleys
valleys partly
partly filled
filled with
with glacial
glacial
is covered
covered with
with till
till have
have large,
large, sustained
sustained base
base flow
flow
outwash and
outwash
and bordered
bordered by
by bedrock
bedrock that
that is
because thick glacial deposits can store and slowly release large quantities of water even
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where they
where
they consist
consist of
of low-permeability
low-permeability till.
till. Base
Base flow
flow has
has been
been estimated
estimated by
by some
some studies
studies to
to
account for
account
for more
more than
than 70
70 percent
percent of
of the
the total
total runoff
runoff in
in the
the glaciated
glaciated parts
parts of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian
50 percent
percent of
of the
the total
total runoff
runoff in
in the
the unglaciated
unglaciated
Plateaus Province
Plateaus
Province but
but accounts
accounts for
for only
only about
about 50
parts of
parts
of the
the province.
province.
POTENTIAL WELL
POTENTIAL
WELL YIELDS
YIELDS
in potential
potential yields
yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in the
the aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the surficial
surficial
The considerable
The
considerable variation
variation in
of the
the unconsolidated
unconsolidated
aquifer system
aquifer
system from
from place
place to
to place
place depends
depends on
on the
the saturated
saturated thickness
thickness of
sediment, its
sediment,
its coarseness,
coarseness, degree
degree of
of sorting,
sorting, and
and extent.
extent. Sustained
Sustained well
well yields
yields are
are dependent
dependent
on recharge
on
recharge rates.
rates. Adequate
Adequate recharge
recharge usually
usually is
is not
not a
a problem
problem because
because most
most of
of the
the aquifers
aquifers
in the
the valleys
valleys of
of perennial
perennial streams
streams from
from which
which flow
flow to
to wells
wells can
can be
be induced,
induced, especially
especially if
if
are in
are
the wells
the
wells are
are located
located near
near the
the streams.
streams.
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey consist
consist of
of glacial
glacial deposits
deposits
The principal
The
principal aquifers
aquifers of
of sand
of
sand and
and gravel
gravel that
that partly
partly fill
fill bedrock
bedrock valleys.
valleys. Overlying
Overlying till
till or
or glacial-lake
glacial-lake deposits
deposits of
of silt
silt
in places.
places. The
The combined
combined
commonly confine
commonly
confine the
the aquifers,
aquifers, although
although they
they are
are unconfined
unconfined in
of coarsecoarse- and
and fine-grained
fine-grained valley-fill
valley-fill material
material is
is as
as much
much as
as 350
350 feet
feet in
in some
some
thickness of
thickness
valleys. Yields
valleys.
Yields of
of most
most large-diameter
large-diameter wells
wells range
range from
from 130
130 to
to 800
800 gallons
gallons per
per minute,
minute, but
but
as much
much as
as 2,200
2,200 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute.
some wells
some
wells yield
yield as
In northeastern
In
northeastern Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, yields
yields from
from wells
wells completed
completed in
in glacial-deposit
glacial-deposit aquifers
aquifers are
are about
about
of the
the Lehigh
Lehigh and
and the
the Delaware
Delaware Rivers.
Rivers.
400 to
400
to 750
750 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute near
near the
the confluence
confluence of
Elsewhere in
Elsewhere
in the
the area,
area, wells
wells completed
completed in
in the
the same
same type
type of
of material
material yield
yield as
as much
much as
as 1,300
1,300
gallons per
gallons
per minute.
minute.
In western
In
western Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, reported
reported yields
yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in glacial
glacial gravels
gravels and
and alluvium
alluvium
drift along
along other
other streams,
streams, and
and abandoned,
abandoned,
along the
along
the Allegheny
Allegheny and
and the
the Ohio
Ohio Rivers,
Rivers, stratified
stratified drift
filled channels
filled
channels within
within the
the glaciated
glaciated area
area generally
generally range
range from
from 200
200 to
to 1,200
1,200 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute.
of as
as much
much as
as 2,000
2,000 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute have
have been
been reported,
reported, and
and
Locally, however,
Locally,
however, yields
yields of
of the
the Susquehanna
Susquehanna River
River in
in west-central
west-central Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, a
a few
few wells
wells
along the
along
the West
West Branch
Branch of
yield 1,000
yield
1,000 to
to 3,000
3,000 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Wells
Wells located
located on
on alluvial
alluvial terraces
terraces along
along north-flowing
north-flowing
streams south
streams
south of
of the
the limits
limits of
of glaciation
glaciation yield
yield only
only 5
5 to
to 10
10 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute.
In West
In
West Virginia,
Virginia, the
the valleys
valleys of
of north-flowing
north-flowing tributaries
tributaries of
of the
the Ohio
Ohio River
River contain
contain as
as much
much as
as
75 feet
75
feet of
of alluvium;
alluvium; however,
however, only
only the
the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the alluvium
alluvium is
is saturated.
saturated. Yields
Yields
of wells
of
wells completed
completed in
in the
the alluvium
alluvium are
are as
as much
much as
as 105
105 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute along
along the
the Little
Little
Kanawha River
Kanawha
River and
and 150
150 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute along
along the
the Kanawha
Kanawha River.
River. Along
Along the
the Ohio
Ohio River,
River,
yields of
yields
of 100
100 to
to 1,000
1,000 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute are
are reported
reported from
from standard
standard vertical
vertical wells
wells completed
completed
in the
in
the alluvium.
alluvium. Yields
Yields from
from collector
collector wells,
wells, which
which are
are bored
bored or
or excavated
excavated horizontally,
horizontally, can
can be
be
even higher.
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GROUND-WATER QUALITY
GROUND-WATER
QUALITY
of water
water in
in the
the aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system is
is somewhat
somewhat
The chemical
The
chemical quality
quality of
variable but
variable
but generally
generally is
is suitable
suitable for
for municipal
municipal supplies
supplies and
and most
most other
other purposes.
purposes. Most
Most of
of the
the
in the
the upper
upper parts
parts of
of the
the aquifers
aquifers is
is not
not highly
highly mineralized.
mineralized.
water in
water
With the
With
the exception
exception of
of local
local limestone
limestone and
and dolomite
dolomite gravel
gravel in
in glacial
glacial deposits,
deposits, the
the
unconsolidated sand
unconsolidated
sand and
and gravel
gravel aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system consist
consist primarily
primarily of
of
siliceous material,
siliceous
material, which
which is
is not
not very
very soluble.
soluble. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the
the aquifers
aquifers are
are at
at or
or near
near the
the land
land
Much of
of the
the recharge
recharge water
water enters
enters the
the aquifers
aquifers as
as runoff
runoff from
from
surface and
surface
and commonly
commonly are
are thin.
thin. Much
adjacent highlands
adjacent
highlands or
or directly
directly from
from precipitation
precipitation on
on the
the aquifers
aquifers and
and the
the residence
residence time
time of
of the
the
in the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is generally
generally short.
short. The
The net
net effect
effect of
of these
these factors
factors is
is that
that the
the water
water
water in
water
has an
an average
average dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentration
concentration of
of
contains little
contains
little dissolved
dissolved mineral
mineral material
material and
and has
about 250
about
250 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter.
liter. Because
Because hardness
hardness (caused
(caused principally
principally by
by calcium
calcium and
and
is classified
classified as
as hard.
hard. The
The
magnesium ions)
magnesium
ions) averages
averages about
about 140
140 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, the
the water
water is
median hydrogen
median
hydrogen ion
ion concentration,
concentration, which
which is
is measured
measured in
in pH
pH units,
units, is
is 7.2.
7.2. Thus,
Thus, the
the water
water is
is
slightly basic,
slightly
basic, because
because of
of the
the dissolution
dissolution of
of calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium carbonate,
carbonate, which
which raises
raises
pH. The
The water
water is
is a
a calcium
calcium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type (fig.
(fig. 16).
16).
the pH.
the
Chloride concentrations
Chloride
concentrations average
average about
about 29
29 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter but
but locally
locally are
are as
as much
much as
as 1,200
1,200
29 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter but
but are
are
milligrams per
milligrams
per liter.
liter. Sulfate
Sulfate concentrations
concentrations also
also average
average about
about 29
as much
as
much as
as 670
670 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter.
liter. Large
Large concentrations
concentrations of
of chloride
chloride and
and sulfate
sulfate in
in the
the
unconsolidated sand
unconsolidated
sand and
and gravel
gravel aquifers
aquifers might
might be
be due
due to
to discharge
discharge from
from underlying
underlying bedrock
bedrock
aquifers that
aquifers
that contain
contain highly
highly mineralized
mineralized water.
water.
is 100
100 micrograms
micrograms per
per liter,
liter, but
but concentrations
concentrations of
of as
as much
much as
as
The median
The
median iron
iron concentration
concentration is
552,000 micrograms
552,000
micrograms per
per liter
liter have
have been
been measured.
measured. Locally,
Locally, large
large concentrations
concentrations of
of nitrate
nitrate are
are
probably the
probably
the result
result of
of surface
surface contamination
contamination by
by fertilizers,
fertilizers, animal
animal wastes,
wastes, or
or sewage.
sewage. Shallow
Shallow
as those
those of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system,
system, are
are particularly
particularly vulnerable
vulnerable to
to
aquifers, such
aquifers,
such as
contamination.
contamination.
FRESH GROUND-WATER
FRESH
GROUND-WATER WITHDRAWALS
WITHDRAWALS
of the
the surficial
surficial
Total freshwater
Total
freshwater withdrawals
withdrawals from
from unconsolidated
unconsolidated sand
sand and
and gravel
gravel aquifers
aquifers of
aquifer system
aquifer
system in
in the
the Piedmont,
Piedmont, the
the Blue
Blue Ridge,
Ridge, the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge,
Ridge, the
the Appalachian
Appalachian
of Segment
Segment 11
11 were
were estimated
estimated to
to be
be 320
320 million
million
Plateaus, and
Plateaus,
and the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Provinces
Provinces of
gallons per
gallons
per day
day during
during 1985.
1985. About
About 140
140 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day was
was used
used for
for domestic
domestic and
and
commercial purposes,
commercial
purposes, and
and about
about 102
102 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day was
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for public
public supply
supply
(fig. 17).
(fig.
17). Industrial,
Industrial, mining,
mining, and
and thermoelectric
thermoelectric power
power uses
uses accounted
accounted for
for withdrawals
withdrawals of
of
about 62
about
62 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day.
day. About
About 16
16 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day was
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for
agricultural use.
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next section
section North
North Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system
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that has
that
has been
been evaporated
evaporated from
from the
the ocean
ocean is
is picked
picked up
up by
by onshore
onshore winds
winds and
and falls
falls as
as
precipitation when
precipitation
when it
it reaches
reaches the
the shoreline.
shoreline.
of the
the precipitation
precipitation returns
returns to
to the
the atmosphere
atmosphere by
by evapotranspiration
evapotranspiration (evaporation
(evaporation plus
plus
Some of
Some
of it
it either
either flows
flows overland
overland into
into streams
streams as
as direct
direct runoff
runoff or
or
transpiration by
transpiration
by plants),
plants), but
but much
much of
as base
base flow
flow (discharge
(discharge from
from one
one or
or more
more aquifers).
aquifers). The
The distribution
distribution of
of
enters streams
enters
streams as
average annual
average
annual runoff
runoff (fig.
(fig. 2)
2) is
is similar
similar to
to the
the distribution
distribution of
of precipitation;
precipitation; that
that is,
is, runoff
runoff is
is
generally greatest
generally
greatest where
where precipitation
precipitation is
is greatest.
greatest. Runoff
Runoff rates
rates range
range from
from more
more than
than 50
50
inches per
inches
per year
year in
in parts
parts of
of western
western North
North Carolina
Carolina to
to less
less than
than 12
12 inches
inches in
in parts
parts of
of North
North
Carolina, Virginia,
Carolina,
Virginia, and
and West
West Virginia.
Virginia.
Parts of
Parts
of the
the seven
seven following
following physiographic
physiographic provinces
provinces are
are in
in Segment
Segment 11:
11: the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain,
Plain, the
the
Piedmont, the
Piedmont,
the Blue
Blue Ridge,
Ridge, the
the New
New England,
England, the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge,
Ridge, the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus,
Plateaus,
and the
and
the Central
Central Lowland.
Lowland. The
The provinces
provinces generally
generally trend
trend northeastward
northeastward (fig.
(fig. 3).
3). The
The
northeastern terminus
northeastern
terminus of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
is in
in south-central
south-central Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, and
and the
the
southwestern part
southwestern
part of
of the
the New
New England
England Province,
Province, the
the Reading
Reading Prong,
Prong, ends
ends in
in east-central
east-central
of the
the rocks
rocks that
that
Pennsylvania. The
Pennsylvania.
The topography,
topography, lithology,
lithology, and
and water-bearing
water-bearing characteristics
characteristics of
underlie the
underlie
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province and
and the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong are
are similar.
similar. Accordingly,
Accordingly, for
for purposes
purposes
of this
of
this study,
study, the
the hydrology
hydrology of
of the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong is
is discussed
discussed with
with that
that of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge
Province.
Province.
Plain Province
Province is
is a
a lowland
lowland that
that borders
borders the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean.
Ocean. The
The Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain is
is as
as
The Coastal
The
Coastal Plain
much as
much
as 140
140 miles
miles wide
wide in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina but
but narrows
narrows northeastward
northeastward to
to New
New Jersey
Jersey where
where it
it
terminates in
terminates
in Segment
Segment 11
11 at
at the
the south
south shore
shore of
of Raritan
Raritan Bay.
Bay. Although
Although it
it is
is generally
generally a
a flat,
flat,
seaward-sloping lowland,
seaward-sloping
lowland, this
this province
province has
has areas
areas of
of moderately
moderately steep
steep local
local relief,
relief, and
and its
its
of 350
350 feet
feet in
in the
the southwestern
southwestern part
part of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina
surface locally
surface
locally reaches
reaches altitudes
altitudes of
Coastal Plain.
Coastal
Plain.
Plain mostly
mostly is
is underlain
underlain by
by semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated to
to unconsolidated
unconsolidated sediments
sediments that
that
The Coastal
The
Coastal Plain
of silt,
silt, clay,
clay, and
and sand,
sand, with
with some
some gravel
gravel and
and lignite.
lignite. Some
Some consolidated
consolidated beds
beds of
of
consist of
consist
limestone and
limestone
and sandstone
sandstone are
are present.
present. The
The Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain sediments
sediments range
range in
in age
age from
from Jurassic
Jurassic
to Holocene
to
Holocene and
and dip
dip gently
gently toward
toward the
the ocean.
ocean.
is called
called the
the Fall
Fall Line
Line
The boundary
The
boundary between
between the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain and
and the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Provinces
Provinces is
(fig. 3)
(fig.
3) because
because falls
falls and
and rapids
rapids commonly
commonly form
form where
where streams
streams cross
cross the
the contact
contact between
between the
the
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont (fig.
(fig. 4)
4) and
and the
the soft,
soft, semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated to
to unconsolidated
unconsolidated
consolidated rocks
consolidated
rocks of
sediments of
sediments
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain. The
The increase
increase in
in stream
stream gradient
gradient at
at the
the Fall
Fall Line
Line provided
provided
favorable locations
favorable
locations for
for mills
mills and
and other
other installations
installations that
that harnessed
harnessed water
water power
power during
during the
the
of the
the Industrial
Industrial Revolution,
Revolution, and
and on
on most
most major
major rivers,
rivers, the
the Fall
Fall Line
Line coincides
coincides with
with
early years
early
years of
the head
the
head of
of navigation.
navigation.
The Piedmont Province is an area of varied topography that ranges from lowlands to peaks
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and ridges
and
ridges of
of moderate
moderate altitude
altitude and
and relief.
relief. The
The metamorphic
metamorphic and
and igneous
igneous rocks
rocks of
of this
this
province range
province
range in
in age
age from
from Precambrian
Precambrian to
to Paleozoic
Paleozoic and
and have
have been
been sheared,
sheared, fractured,
fractured, and
and
in this
this province,
province, however,
however, are
are sedimentary
sedimentary basins
basins that
that formed
formed along
along rifts
rifts in
in
folded. Included
folded.
Included in
the Earth's
the
Earth's crust
crust and
and contain
contain shale,
shale, sandstone,
sandstone, and
and conglomerate
conglomerate of
of early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic age,
age,
interbedded locally
interbedded
locally with
with basaltic
basaltic lava
lava flows
flows and
and minor
minor coal
coal beds.
beds. The
The sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks and
and
in places
places by
by diabase
diabase dikes
dikes and
and sills.
sills.
basalt flows
basalt
flows are
are intruded
intruded in
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province forms
forms the
the northwestern
northwestern margin
margin of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont
The mountain
The
mountain belt
belt of
in most
in
most of
of Segment
Segment 11.
11. This
This belt
belt consists
consists mostly
mostly of
of igneous
igneous and
and high-rank
high-rank metamorphic
metamorphic rocks
rocks
of late
late Precambrian
Precambrian age
age and
and small
small areas
areas of
of
but also
but
also includes
includes low-rank
low-rank metamorphiC
metamorphiC rocks
rocks of
sedimentary rocks
sedimentary
rocks of
of Early
Early Cambrian
Cambrian age
age along
along its
its western
western margin.
margin. In
In this
this report,
report, the
the Reading
Reading
of the
the New
New England
England Province,
Province, which
which is
is an
an upland
upland that
that extends
extends from
from east
east of
of the
the
Prong of
Prong
Susquehanna River
Susquehanna
River in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania northeastward
northeastward into
into New
New Jersey
Jersey (fig.
(fig. 3),
3), is
is treated
treated as
as part
part
of the
of
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province.
Province. Part
Part of
of the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and a
a
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province in
in northeastern
northeastern New
New Jersey
Jersey have
have been
been glaCiated.
glaCiated. Glacial
Glacial
small part
small
part of
deposits completely
deposits
completely or
or partly
partly fill
fill some
some of
of the
the valleys,
valleys, and
and the
the eroding
eroding action
action of
of the
the glacial
glacial ice
ice
removed some
removed
some of
of the
the rock
rock from
from the
the ridges.
ridges. Thus,
Thus, the
the glaCiated
glaCiated parts
parts of
of the
the province
province have
have a
a
less relief
relief than
than other
other parts.
parts.
smoother topography
smoother
topography and
and less
is characterized
characterized by
by layered
layered sedimentary
sedimentary rock
rock that
that has
has been
been
The Valley
The
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
As the
the result
result of
of repeated
repeated cycles
cycles of
of uplift
uplift and
and
complexly folded
complexly
folded and
and locally
locally thrust
thrust faulted.
faulted. As
erOSion, resistant
erOSion,
resistant layers
layers of
of well-cemented
well-cemented sandstone
sandstone and
and conglomerate
conglomerate form
form elongate
elongate
mountain ridges
mountain
ridges and
and less
less reSistant,
reSistant, easily
easily eroded
eroded layers
layers of
of limestone,
limestone, dolomite,
dolomite, and
and shale
shale form
form
of the
the province
province range
range in
in age
age from
from Cambrian
Cambrian to
to Pennsylvanian.
Pennsylvanian. Parts
Parts of
of this
this
valleys. The
valleys.
The rocks
rocks of
province from
province
from central
central Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania into
into New
New Jersey
Jersey have
have been
been glaCiated,
glaCiated, and
and glacial
glacial deposits
deposits
of the
the valleys.
valleys.
fill or
fill
or partially
partially fill
fill some
some of
is underlain
underlain by
by rocks
rocks that
that are
are continuous
continuous with
with those
those of
of the
the
The Appalachian
The
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province is
Valley and
Valley
and Ridge
Ridge Province,
Province, but
but in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus the
the layered
layered rocks
rocks are
are nearly
nearly flatflat­
lying or
lying
or gently
gently tilted
tilted and
and warped,
warped, rather
rather than
than being
being intensively
intensively folded
folded and
and faulted.
faulted. The
The
boundary between
boundary
between the
the two
two provinces
provinces is
is a
a prominent
prominent southeast-facing
southeast-facing scarp
scarp called
called the
the
in most
most of
of the
the northern
northern part
part of
of Segment
Segment 11
11 (fig.
(fig. 5)
5) and
and the
the Cumberland
Cumberland
Allegheny Front
Allegheny
Front in
Escarpment in
Escarpment
in the
the southern
southern part.
part. The
The scarp
scarp faces
faces the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province,
Province, and
and
throughout most
throughout
most of
of the
the segment,
segment, the
the eastern
eastern edge
edge of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province is
is
higher than
higher
than the
the ridges
ridges in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge.
Ridge. Like
Like parts
parts of
of the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong and
and the
the Valley
Valley
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
and Ridge
and
Ridge Province,
Province, the
the northern
northern part
part of
has been
has
been glaCiated.
glaCiated. In
In the
the glaCiated
glaCiated section,
section, the
the surface
surface is
is mantled
mantled by
by glacial
glacial drift,
drift, and
and the
the
valleys are
valleys
are partly
partly filled
filled with
with glacial
glacial deposits.
deposits.
of Segment
Segment 11
11 contains
contains a
a small
small part
part of
of the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Province.
Province.
The northwestern
The
northwestern corner
corner of
is underlain
underlain by
by gently
gently dipping
dipping sedimentary
sedimentary rocks,
rocks, some
some of
of which
which are
are the
the
This flat
This
flat lowland
lowland is
same geologic formations as those of the Appalachian Plateaus Province. The two provinces
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are separated
are
separated by
by a
a northwest-facing
northwest-facing scarp.
scarp. Because
Because of
of the
the small
small area
area of
of the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland
Province within
Province
within the
the segment
segment and
and the
the similarity
similarity of
of aquifer
aquifer properties
properties with
with those
those of
of the
the glaciated
glaciated
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province,
Province, the
the two
two provinces
provinces are
are discussed
discussed together
together in
in this
this
part of
part
report.
report.
PRINCIPAL AQUIFERS
PRINCIPAL
AQUIFERS
The rocks
The
rocks and
and unconsolidated
unconsolidated deposits
deposits that
that underlie
underlie Segment
Segment 11
11 are
are divided
divided into
into numerous
numerous
An aquifer
aquifer system
system consists
consists of
of two
two or
or more
more
aquifer systems,
aquifer
systems, aquifers,
aquifers, and
and confining
confining units.
units. An
aquifers and
aquifers
and can
can be
be of
of two
two types,
types, both
both of
of which
which are
are in
in Segment
Segment 11.
11. The
The first
first type
type consists
consists of
of
aquifers that
aquifers
that are
are vertically
vertically stacked
stacked and
and hydraulically
hydraulically connected-that
connected-that is,
is, the
the ground-water
ground-water flow
flow
in the
the aquifers
aquifers function
function in
in the
the same
same fashion,
fashion, and
and a
a change
change in
in conditions
conditions in
in one
one of
of the
the
systems in
systems
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system is
is of
of this
this type.
type.
aquifers affects
aquifers
affects the
the others.
others. The
The Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
The second
The
second type
type consists
consists of
of several
several aquifers
aquifers that
that are
are not
not connected,
connected, but
but share
share common
common
geologic and
geologic
and hydrologic
hydrologic characteristics
characteristics and,
and, accordingly,
accordingly, can
can best
best be
be studied
studied and
and described
described
is of
of this
this type.
type. The
The areas
areas where
where each
each principal
principal aquifer
aquifer or
or
together. The
together.
The surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system is
aquifer system
aquifer
system is
is exposed
exposed at
at the
the land
land surface
surface or
or is
is the
the shallowest
shallowest major
major aquifer
aquifer are
are shown
shown in
in
Z. For
For purposes
purposes of
of this
this Atlas,
Atlas, the
the principal
principal aquifers
aquifers in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 (some
(some of
of
figures 6
figures
6 and
and Z.
which include
which
include many
many local
local aquifers)
aquifers) have
have been
been grouped
grouped by
by physiographic
physiographic province.
province. The
The Coastal
Coastal
Plain Province
Plain
Province has
has six
six aquifers
aquifers that
that consist
consist mostly
mostly of
of semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated rocks.
rocks. The
The Piedmont
Piedmont
of aquifers
aquifers in
in consolidated
consolidated rocks,
rocks, locally
locally
and the
and
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces have
have three
three types
types of
overlain by
overlain
by unconsolidated
unconsolidated deposits
deposits of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system.
system. The
The surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system
also locally
also
locally overlies
overlies aquifers
aquifers in
in two
two types
types of
of consolidated
consolidated rocks
rocks in
in each
each of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge
of the
the consolidatedconsolidated­
and the
and
the combined
combined Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus-Central
Plateaus-Central Lowland
Lowland Provinces.
Provinces. Some
Some of
rock aquifers
rock
aquifers are
are in
in more
more than
than one
one province;
province; for
for example,
example, limestone
limestone and
and dolomite
dolomite aquifers
aquifers are
are
recognized in
recognized
in the
the Piedmont,
Piedmont, the
the Blue
Blue Ridge,
Ridge, the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge,
Ridge, and
and the
the Appalachian
Appalachian
Plateaus Provinces
Plateaus
Provinces (fig.
(fig. 7).
7).
of Segment
Segment 11
11 can
can be
be grouped
grouped into
into three
three categories,
categories,
The aquifers
The
aquifers and
and aquifer
aquifer systems
systems of
of consolidation
consolidation of
of the
the rocks
rocks and
and deposits
deposits that
that compose
compose the
the aquifers.
aquifers.
depending on
depending
on the
the degree
degree of
Rocks of
Rocks
of Precambrian,
Precambrian, Paleozoic,
Paleozoic, and
and early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic ages
ages generally
generally are
are consolidated;
consolidated; rocks
rocks of
of
Cretaceous and
Cretaceous
and Tertiary
Tertiary ages
ages generally
generally are
are semiconsolidated;
semiconsolidated; and
and deposits
deposits of
of Quaternary
Quaternary age
age
of the
the consolidated
consolidated rocks,
rocks, particularly
particularly those
those that
that underlie
underlie
generally are
generally
are unconsolidated.
unconsolidated. Some
Some of
the Piedmont
the
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Physiographic
Physiographic Provinces,
Provinces, are
are covered
covered with
with unconsolidated
unconsolidated
material called
material
called regolith
regolith that
that is
is largely
largely derived
derived from
from weathering
weathering of
of the
the consolidated
consolidated rocks.
rocks.
as long,
long, narrow
narrow bands
bands in
in the
the
Unconsolidated sand
Unconsolidated
sand and
and gravel
gravel deposits
deposits that
that mostly
mostly occur
occur as
northern and
northern
and western
western parts
parts of
of Segment
Segment 11
11 (fig.
(fig. 6)
6) compose
compose the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system.
system. Many
Many
of the
of
the sand
sand and
and gravel
gravel deposits
deposits north
north of
of the
the limit
limit of
of continental
continental glaciation
glaciation formed
formed as
as glacial
glacial
outwash that was deposited by meltwater from the ice sheets. Elsewhere, the sand and gravel
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are stream-valley
are
stream-valley alluvium
alluvium that
that was
was deposited
deposited adjacent
adjacent to
to the
the principal
principal streams
streams in
in the
the
segment. Some
segment.
Some of
of the
the stream-valley
stream-valley alluvium
alluvium consists
consists of
of reworked
reworked glacial
glacial outwash.
outwash. Unsorted,
Unsorted,
unstratified deposits
unstratified
deposits called
called till,
till, emplaced
emplaced by
by the
the continental
continental ice
ice sheets,
sheets, are
are not
not aquifers.
aquifers.
in semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated to
to consolidated
consolidated rocks
rocks underlie
underlie most
most of
of Segment
Segment 11
11 (fig.
(fig. 7).
7). These
These
Aquifers in
Aquifers
aquifers, along
aquifers,
along with
with confining
confining units
units that
that separate
separate them
them in
in some
some places,
places, are
are described
described
according to
according
to physiographic
physiographic province.
province. Aquifers
Aquifers in
in some
some of
of the
the provinces
provinces extend
extend underground
underground
far beyond
far
beyond the
the areas
areas where
where they
they are
are mapped
mapped at
at or
or near
near the
the land
land surface;
surface; for
for example,
example, the
the
is exposed
exposed as
as only
only a
a narrow
narrow band
band along
along the
the northwestern
northwestern boundary
boundary of
of the
the
Potomac aquifer
Potomac
aquifer is
Coastal Plain,
Coastal
Plain, but
but underlies
underlies most
most of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain.
of semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated sand
sand
The Northern
The
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system consists
consists mostly
mostly of
aquifers separated
aquifers
separated by
by clay
clay confining
confining units.
units. Unconsolidated
Unconsolidated sands
sands compose
compose the
the surficial
surficial aquifer,
aquifer,
is the
the uppermost
uppermost water-yielding
water-yielding part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer system;
system; the
the system
system also
also includes
includes a
a
which is
which
productive limestone
productive
limestone aquifer.
aquifer. The
The Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain sediments
sediments are
are thin
thin near
near their
their contact
contact with
with the
the
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province and,
and, in
in places,
places, might
might not
not yield
yield as
as much
much water
water as
as the
the
rocks of
rocks
of Piedmont
Piedmont rocks.
rocks.
underlying igneous
underlying
igneous and
and metamorphic
metamorphic rocks
rocks that
that are
are an
an extension
extension of
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces and
and the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong are
are
Aquifers in
Aquifers
in metamorphic
metamorphic and
and igneous
igneous rocks.
rocks. In
In some
some topographically
topographically low
low areas
areas of
of the
the
predominately in
predominately
Piedmont, aquifers
Piedmont,
aquifers are
are in
in carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks (limestone,
(limestone, dolomite,
dolomite, and
and marble)
marble) and
and in
in sandstone
sandstone
of early
of
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic age
age that
that fills
fills large
large basins
basins that
that formed
formed as
as deep
deep rifts
rifts in
in the
the Earth's
Earth's crust.
crust. The
The
carbonate rocks
carbonate
rocks are
are the
the most
most productive
productive Piedmont
Piedmont and
and Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge aquifers.
aquifers.
of Paleozoic
Paleozoic age
age underlie
underlie the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Physiographic
Physiographic
Folded sedimentary
Folded
sedimentary rocks
rocks of
of sandstone,
sandstone, shale,
shale, and
and limestone;
limestone; coal
coal is
is present
present
Province. The
Province.
The strata
strata consist
consist mostly
mostly of
in these
in
these rocks
rocks in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and Virginia,
Virginia, and
and they
they locally
locally contain
contain minor
minor dolomite
dolomite and
and
conglomerate. Locally,
conglomerate.
Locally, the
the rocks
rocks have
have been
been metamorphosed
metamorphosed into
into quartzite,
quartzite, slate,
slate, and
and marble.
marble.
Carbonate rocks
Carbonate
rocks are
are the
the most
most productive
productive Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge aquifers.
aquifers.
in Paleozoic
Paleozoic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks that
that are
are flat-lying
flat-lying or
or
The Appalachian
The
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus aquifers
aquifers are
are in
gently folded.
gently
folded. The
The rocks
rocks consist
consist mostly
mostly of
of shale,
shale, sandstone,
sandstone, conglomerate,
conglomerate, and
and carbonate
carbonate
beds are
are in
in rocks
rocks of
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian age.
age. Most
Most of
of the
the water-yielding
water-yielding beds
beds are
are
rocks; coal
rocks;
coal beds
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian and
and Mississippian
Mississippian age;
age; Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian coals
coals and
and Permian
Permian
sandstones of
sandstones
sandstones yield
sandstones
yield water,
water, but
but the
the Permian
Permian strata
strata are
are mostly
mostly shale.
shale. Carbonate
Carbonate rocks
rocks of
of
Mississippian age
Mississippian
age are
are also
also productive
productive aquifers
aquifers in
in many
many places.
places. Small
Small volumes
volumes of
of water
water are
are
beds of
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian age.
age.
obtained locally
obtained
locally from
from conglomerate
conglomerate beds
GEOLOGY
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Segment 11
Segment
11 contains
contains two
two major
major rock
rock types-consolidated
types-consolidated crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks and
and consolidated
consolidated to
to
unconsolidated sedimentary
unconsolidated
sedimentary rocks.
rocks. The
The crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks consist
consist of
of numerous
numerous kinds
kinds of
of igneous
igneous
and metamorphic
and
metamorphic rocks
rocks and
and are
are mostly
mostly in
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces.
Provinces.
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge and
and the
the Appalachian
Appalachian
Consolidated sedimentary
Consolidated
sedimentary rocks
rocks are
are mostly
mostly in
Plateaus Provinces.
Plateaus
Provinces. Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain Province
Province are
are mostly
mostly
of the
the different
different rock
rock types
types is
is
semiconsolidated, but
semiconsolidated,
but some
some are
are unconsolidated.
unconsolidated. The
The extent
extent of
shown in
shown
in figure
figure 8.
8.
The
The igneous
igneous and
and metamorphic
metamorphic rocks
rocks in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 crop
crop out
out in
in a
a band
band that
that trends
trends
is widest
widest in
in North
North Carolina,
Carolina, and
and narrows
narrows northeastward
northeastward (fig.
(fig. 8).
8). The
The band
band
northeastward, is
northeastward,
includes much
includes
much of
of the
the rock
rock of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province and
and most
most of
of the
the rock
rock of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge
Province and
Province
and the
the Reading
Reading Prong.
Prong. The
The crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks generally
generally are
are resistant
resistant to
to weathering
weathering
and erosion.
and
erosion. According
According to
to radiometric
radiometric dating,
dating, the
the ages
ages of
of the
the crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks range
range from
from
more than
more
than 1,200
1,200 million
million to
to 196
196 million
million years
years before
before present
present (Precambrian
(Precambrian to
to Jurassic).
Jurassic). Even
Even
though these
though
these rocks
rocks vary
vary greatly
greatly in
in mineral
mineral composition
composition and
and texture,
texture, they
they have
have similar
similar
hydraulic characteristics
hydraulic
characteristics in
in that
that they
they generally
generally have
have almost
almost no
no pore
pore spaces
spaces between
between mineral
mineral
grains and
grains
and contain
contain ground
ground water
water in
in joints
joints and
and fractures.
fractures.
of the
the rocks
rocks that
that underlie
underlie Segment
Segment 11
11 are
are sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks that
that can
can be
be grouped
grouped into
into
Most of
Most
three categories-well-consolidated
three
categories-well-consolidated rocks
rocks of
of Paleozoic
Paleozoic age,
age, variably
variably consolidated
consolidated rocks
rocks of
of
Triassic and
Triassic
and Early
Early Jurassic
Jurassic age
age in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic rift
rift basins,
basins, and
and semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated to
to
unconsolidated rocks
unconsolidated
rocks of
of Cretaceous
Cretaceous and
and younger
younger age.
age. Unconsolidated
Unconsolidated Quaternary
Quaternary deposits
deposits
that overlie
that
overlie crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks or
or consolidated
consolidated sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in the
the northern
northern and
and western
western
of the
the segment
segment are
are shown
shown in
in figure
figure 6.
6.
parts of
parts
Paleozoic sedimentary
Paleozoic
sedimentary rocks
rocks extend
extend from
from western
western and
and central
central Virginia
Virginia through
through all
all of
of West
West
of northern
northern
Virginia, western
Virginia,
western Maryland,
Maryland, western
western and
and northern
northern Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, and
and a
a small
small part
part of
of these
these rocks
rocks are
are exposed
exposed in
in the
the folded
folded and
and thrust-faulted
thrust-faulted Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge
New Jersey.
New
Jersey. Most
Most of
Province and
Province
and in
in gently
gently warped
warped to
to flat-lying
flat-lying beds
beds of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province (fig.
(fig. 9),
9),
but some
but
some are
are in
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province of
of northern
northern Maryland,
Maryland, eastern
eastern Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, and
and
northern New
northern
New Jersey.
Jersey. ThePaleozoic
ThePaleozoic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks consist
consist of
of conglomerate,
conglomerate, sandstone,
sandstone,
siltstone, mudstone,
siltstone,
mudstone, shale,
shale, coal,
coal, limestone,
limestone, and
and dolomite.
dolomite. The
The sandstone
sandstone and
and limestone
limestone beds
beds
are the
are
the most
most productive
productive aquifers
aquifers in
in these
these rocks.
rocks.
in deep,
deep, elongate
elongate basins
basins
Lower Mesozoic
Lower
Mesozoic (Triassic
(Triassic and
and Lower
Lower Jurassic)
Jurassic) sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks are
are in
in the
in
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province (figs.
(figs. 8
8 and
and 2.).
2.). The
The basins
basins formed
formed in
in rifts
rifts in
in the
the Earth's
Earth's crust
crust and
and are
are
oriented roughly
oriented
roughly parallel
parallel to
to the
the modern
modern coast.
coast. Some
Some incompletely
incompletely mapped
mapped basins
basins are
are buried
buried
beneath Coastal
beneath
Coastal Plain
Plain sediments.
sediments. The
The Newark
Newark Basin
Basin in
in north-central
north-central New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and adjacent
adjacent
of New
New York
York and
and Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania is
is the
the largest
largest early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basin
basin in
in eastern
eastern North
North
parts of
parts
in the
the basins
basins have
have been
been tilted
tilted and
and faulted,
faulted, but
but are
are not
not
America. The
America.
The sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
metamorphosed and deformed to the same extent as the older rocks that surround the basins.
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The sedimentary
The
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in the
the basins
basins are
are primarily
primarily conglomerate,
conglomerate, sandstone,
sandstone, shale,
shale, and
and
siltstone, with
siltstone,
with minor
minor limestone
limestone and
and coal.
coal. These
These rocks
rocks are
are interlayered
interlayered with
with basalt
basalt flows
flows and
and
intruded by
intruded
by diabase
diabase dikes
dikes and
and sills.
sills. The
The conglomerate
conglomerate and
and sandstone
sandstone are
are the
the most
most productive
productive
aquifers.
aquifers.
Semiconsolidated to
Semiconsolidated
to unconsolidated
unconsolidated sediments
sediments of
of Cretaceous
Cretaceous and
and younger
younger age
age in
in the
the Coastal
Coastal
Plain Province
Plain
Province form
form a
a band
band that
that narrows
narrows toward
toward the
the northeast
northeast and
and is
is parallel
parallel to
to the
the coast
coast (~
8). The
8).
The sediments,
sediments, especially
especially those
those of
of Cretaceous
Cretaceous age,
age, thicken
thicken greatly
greatly toward
toward the
the coast
coast in
in
subsurface basins
subsurface
basins in
in Maryland,
Maryland, Delaware,
Delaware, and
and part
part of
of New
New Jersey
Jersey but
but are
are much
much thinner
thinner on
on
structurally high
structurally
high areas
areas to
to the
the north
north and
and south.
south. Most
Most of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain sediments
sediments are
are sand,
sand,
is locally
locally prominent,
prominent, particularly
particularly in
in North
North
clay, and
clay,
and silt,
silt, with
with minor
minor gravel
gravel and
and lignite;
lignite; limestone
limestone is
sea
Carolina. The
Carolina.
The sediments
sediments were
were deposited
deposited mostly
mostly in
in shallow
shallow marine
marine environments
environments when
when sea
level was
level
was higher
higher relative
relative to
to the
the land
land surface
surface than
than at
at present,
present, or
or in
in the
the floodplains
floodplains and
and deltas
deltas of
of
rivers that
rivers
that drained
drained the
the landmass
landmass to
to the
the north
north and
and west.
west. The
The sands
sands and
and limestones
limestones are
are the
the
most productive
most
productive aquifers.
aquifers.
of sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks have
have been
been divided
divided into
into numerous
numerous formations.
formations. The
The
All three
All
three categories
categories of
geologic and
geologic
and hydrogeologic
hydrogeologic nomenclature
nomenclature used
used in
in this
this report
report differs
differs from
from State
State to
to State
State
because of
because
of independent
independent geologic
geologic interpretations
interpretations and
and varied
varied distribution
distribution and
and lithology
lithology of
of rock
rock
of nomenclature,
nomenclature, however,
however, can
can be
be derived
derived from
from the
the most
most
units. A
units.
A fairly
fairly consistent
consistent set
set of
in this
this report
report is
is basically
basically a
a
commonly used
commonly
used rock
rock names.
names. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the nomenclature
nomenclature used
used in
synthesis of
synthesis
of that
that of
of the
the u.s.
u.s. Geological
Geological Survey,
Survey, the
the Delaware
Delaware Geological
Geological Survey,
Survey, the
the Maryland
Maryland
Geological Survey,
Geological
Survey, the
the New
New Jersey
Jersey Geological
Geological Survey,
Survey, the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Geological
Geological Survey,
Survey,
the Pennsylvania
the
Pennsylvania Bureau
Bureau of
of Topographic
Topographic and
and Geologic
Geologic Survey,
Survey, the
the Virginia
Virginia Division
Division of
of Mineral
Mineral
Resources, and
Resources,
and the
the West
West Virginia
Virginia Geological
Geological and
and Economic
Economic Survey.
Survey. Individual
Individual sources
sources for
for
nomenclature are
nomenclature
are listed
listed with
with each
each correlation
correlation chart
chart prepared
prepared for
for this
this report.
report.
in the
the extreme
extreme northern
northern parts
parts of
of all
all the
the physiographic
physiographic provinces
provinces
Quaternary deposits
Quaternary
deposits are
are in
Plain (fig.
(fig. 6).
6). These
These deposits
deposits are
are predominately
predominately unsorted
unsorted and
and unstratified
unstratified
except the
except
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
glacial material
glacial
material (till)
(till) that
that ranges
ranges in
in size
size from
from clay
clay to
to coarse
coarse gravel
gravel and
and boulders.
boulders. Sand
Sand and
and
gravel are
gravel
are present
present as
as outwash
outwash deposits
deposits that
that formed
formed along
along the
the glacial
glacial front
front (the
(the southern
southern limit
limit
of glaciation)
of
glaciation) and
and as
as Holocene
Holocene alluvium
alluvium in
in major
major river
river valleys.
valleys.
in figure
figure 8
8 contains
contains four
four broad
broad geologic
geologic categories
categories (fig.
(fig. 9).
9). From
From northwest
northwest
The area
The
area mapped
mapped in
to southeast,
to
southeast, these
these are:
are: flat
flat to
to gently
gently folded
folded Paleozoic
Paleozoic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks that
that underlie
underlie the
the
Appalachian Plateaus
Appalachian
Plateaus and
and the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Physiographic
Physiographic Provinces;
Provinces; the
the same
same types
types of
of
rocks folded
rocks
folded into
into a
a series
series of
of anticlines
anticlines and
and synclines
synclines in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Physiographic
Physiographic
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Physiographic
Physiographic
Province; metamorphiC
Province;
metamorphiC and
and igneous
igneous rocks
rocks of
of tilted
tilted sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks and
and lava
lava flows
flows in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic
Provinces that
Provinces
that contain
contain large
large areas
areas of
basins, and
basins,
and smaller
smaller areas
areas of
of faulted
faulted and
and folded
folded blocks
blocks of
of Paleozoic
Paleozoic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks that
that
of metamorphism;
metamorphism; and
and gently
gently dipping,
dipping, semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated to
to
have undergone
have
undergone various
various degrees
degrees of
unconsolidated sediments of the Coastal Plain Physiographic Province. The combination of rock
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type and
type
and geologic
geologic structure
structure largely
largely determines
determines the
the hydraulic
hydraulic properties
properties of
of the
the rocks.
rocks. These
These
factors, plus
factors,
plus topography
topography and
and climate,
climate, determine
determine the
the characteristics
characteristics of
of the
the ground-water
ground-water flow
flow
system throughout
system
throughout the
the mapped
mapped area.
area.
GROUND-WATER QUALITY
GROUND-WATER
QUALITY
of dissolved
dissolved solids
solids in
in ground
ground water
water provides
provides a
a basis
basis for
for categorizing
categorizing the
the
The concentration
The
concentration of
general chemical
general
chemical quality
quality of
of the
the water.
water. Dissolved
Dissolved solids
solids in
in ground
ground water
water primarily
primarily result
result from
from
chemical interaction
chemical
interaction between
between the
the water
water and
and the
the rocks
rocks or
or unconsolidated
unconsolidated deposits
deposits through
through
which the
which
the water
water moves.
moves. Rocks
Rocks or
or deposits
deposits composed
composed of
of minerals
minerals that
that are
are readily
readily dissolved
dissolved will
will
usually contain
usually
contain water
water that
that has
has large
large dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentrations.
concentrations. The
The rate
rate of
of movement
movement of
of
water through
water
through an
an aquifer
aquifer also
also affects
affects dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentrations;
concentrations; the
the longer
longer the
the water
water is
is
in contact
in
contact with
with the
the minerals
minerals that
that compose
compose an
an aquifer,
aquifer, the
the more
more mineralized
mineralized the
the water
water
becomes. Thus,
becomes.
Thus, larger
larger concentrations
concentrations of
of dissolved
dissolved solids
solids commonly
commonly are
are in
in water
water at
at or
or near
near the
the
ends of
ends
of long
long ground-water
ground-water flow
flow paths.
paths. Aquifers
Aquifers that
that are
are buried
buried to
to great
great depths
depths commonly
commonly
contain saline
contain
saline water
water or
or brine
brine in
in their
their deeper
deeper parts,
parts, and
and mixing
mixing of
of fresh
fresh ground
ground water
water with
with this
this
in a
a large
large increase
increase in
in the
the dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentration
concentration of
of the
the
saline water
saline
water can
can result
result in
as a
a result
result of
of human
human activities
activities can
can increase
increase the
the concentration
concentration of
of
freshwater. Contamination
freshwater.
Contamination as
dissolved solids
dissolved
solids in
in ground
ground water;
water; such
such contamination
contamination usually
usually is
is local
local but
but can
can render
render the
the water
water
or for
for many
many other
other uses.
uses.
unfit for
unfit
for human
human consumption
consumption or
in this
this report
report to
to describe
describe water
water with
with different
different concentrations
concentrations of
of dissolved
dissolved
The terms
The
terms used
used in
as follows:
follows:
solids are
solids
are as
Dissolved-solids concentration,
Dissolved-solids
concentration, in
in milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter
11Freshwater
Freshwater
Slightly saline
saline water
water
11Slightly
11Moderately
Moderately saline
saline water
water
11Very
Very saline
saline water
water
1Less
1
Less than
than 1,000
1,000
11,000 to
11,000
to 3,000
3,000
13,000 to
13,000
to 10,000
10,000
110,000 to
110,000
to 35,000
35,000
Ir--B
Ir-B-r-r-riiin-e
n-ene----------I
I Greater
Greater than
than 35,000
35,000
FRESH GROUND-WATER
FRESH
GROUND-WATER WITHDRAWALS
WITHDRAWALS
is the
the source
source of
of public
public supply
supply for
for almost
almost 7
7 million
million people
people in
in Segment
Segment 11,
11, or
or
Ground water
Ground
water is
19 percent
percent of
of the
the population
population in
in the
the seven-State
seven-State area.
area. About
About 2,600
2,600 million
million gallons
gallons per
per
about 19
about
33 percent
percent of
of this
this amount
amount was
was
day was
day
was withdrawn
withdrawn from
from all
all the
the principal
principal aquifers
aquifers during
during 1985;
1985; 33
withdrawn for
withdrawn
for public
public supply.
supply. Withdrawals
Withdrawals by
by self-supplied
self-supplied industries
industries and
and for
for mining
mining accounted
accounted
for 22
22 percent of the total water withdrawn.
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Counties with
Counties
with the
the largest
largest withdrawals
withdrawals in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 generally
generally are
are those
those that
that contain
contain large
large
population centers.
population
centers. Such
Such counties
counties include
include those
those around
around Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, Pa.,
Pa., the
the Philadelphia,
Philadelphia, Pa.Pa.­
N.J. area;
area; and
and the
the parts
parts of
of New
New Jersey
Jersey in
in the
the New
New York
York City
City metropolitan
metropolitan area
area (~
Camden, N.J.
Camden,
10). Large
10).
Large withdrawals
withdrawals are
are associated
associated with
with mining
mining activity
activity in
in eastern
eastern North
North Carolina
Carolina and
and with
with
paper manufacturing
paper
manufacturing in
in southeastern
southeastern Virginia.
Virginia. Fresh
Fresh ground-water
ground-water withdrawals
withdrawals for
for most
most waterwater­
use categories
use
categories increased
increased through
through 1985,
1985, according
according to
to a
a nationwide
nationwide compilation
compilation of
of water-use
water-use
data by
data
by the
the u.S.
u.S. Geological
Geological Survey.
Survey.
of ground
ground water,
water, 1,029
1,029 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, were
were from
from the
the
The largest
The
largest withdrawals
withdrawals of
Northern Atlantic
Northern
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system,
system, which
which accounted
accounted for
for about
about 40
40 percent
percent of
of all
all
in the
the segment
segment during
during 1985
1985 (fig.
(fig. 11).
11). Withdrawals
Withdrawals from
from aquifers
aquifers in
in
ground-water withdrawals
ground-water
withdrawals in
the Piedmont
the
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces during
during the
the same
same period
period were
were 634
634 million
million gallons
gallons
per day.
per
day. Withdrawals
Withdrawals from
from aquifers
aquifers in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province were
were 371
371 million
million gallons
gallons
per day,
per
day, primarily
primarily in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and Virginia.
Virginia. Withdrawals
Withdrawals from
from unconsolidated
unconsolidated sand
sand and
and
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system were
were 320
320 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day.
day. In
In the
the
gravel aquifers
gravel
aquifers of
of which
which
Appalachian Plateaus
Appalachian
Plateaus Province,
Province, withdrawals
withdrawals were
were 282
282 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, most
most of
was withdrawn
was
withdrawn in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and West
West Virginia.
Virginia.
Move to
Move
to next
next section
section Surficial
Surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system
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GROUND WATER
GROUND
WATER ATLAS
ATLAS of
of the
the UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
Delaware, Maryland,
Delaware,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
West Virginia
Virginia
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
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Northern Atlantic
Northern
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
of six
six regional
regional aquifers
aquifers in
in
The Northern
The
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system consists
consists of
sedimentary deposits
sedimentary
deposits that
that range
range in
in age
age from
from Early
Early Cretaceous
Cretaceous to
to Holocene.
Holocene. The
The aquifer
aquifer system
system
an area
area of
of about
about 50,000
50,000 square
square miles
miles in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 and
and extends
extends from
from the
the North
North
underlies an
underlies
Carolina-South Carolina
Carolina-South
Carolina State
State line
line northward
northward to
to Raritan
Raritan Bay,
Bay, N.J.
N.J. (fig.
(fig. 18).
18). The
The western
western limit
limit of
of
the aquifer
the
aquifer system
system is
is the
the landward
landward edge
edge of
of water-yielding
water-yielding Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain strata
strata where
where they
they
pinch out
pinch
out against
against crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Physiographic
Physiographic Province
Province at
at the
the Fall
Fall Line.
Line.
Although the
Although
the aquifers
aquifers included
included in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer system
system extend
extend beneath
beneath the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean and,
and,
in places,
in
places, contain
contain brackish
brackish water
water or
or freshwater
freshwater under
under nearshore
nearshore parts
parts of
of the
the Continental
Continental Shelf,
Shelf,
of the
the aquifer
aquifer system
system is,
is, for
for all
all practical
practical purposes,
purposes, the
the shoreline.
shoreline. The
The
the eastern
the
eastern limit
limit of
Northern Atlantic
Northern
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system grades
grades southward
southward into
into the
the Southeastern
Southeastern Coastal
Coastal
Plain aquifer
Plain
aquifer system,
system, which
which is
is described
described in
in Segments
Segments 5
5 and
and 6
6 of
of this
this Atlas;
Atlas; the
the part
part of
of the
the
is described
described in
in Segment
Segment 12.
12.
coastal plain
coastal
plain that
that underlies
underlies Long
Long Island
Island is
of the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain is
is underlain
underlain by
by a
a wedge-shaped
wedge-shaped mass
mass of
of semisemi­
The northern
The
northern part
part of
consolidated to
consolidated
to unconsolidated
unconsolidated sediments
sediments that
that thickens
thickens toward
toward the
the ocean
ocean and
and restson
restson a
a
of crystalline
crystalline rock
rock (fig.
(fig. 19).
19). The
The thickness
thickness of
of the
the sediments
sediments shown
shown in
in figure
figure 19
19 at
at the
the
surface of
surface
New Jersey
New
Jersey coastline
coastline is
is about
about 4,000
4,000 feet,
feet, but
but the
the sediments
sediments attain
attain thicknesses
thicknesses of
of as
as much
much as
as
8,000 feet
8,000
feet along
along the
the coast
coast of
of Maryland
Maryland and
and 10,000
10,000 feet
feet along
along the
the coast
coast of
of North
North Carolina.
Carolina. The
The
sediments consist
sediments
consist of
of lenses
lenses and
and layers
layers of
of clay,
clay, silt,
silt, and
and sand,
sand, with
with minor
minor amounts
amounts of
of lignite,
lignite,
gravel, and limestone. The sand, gravel, and limestone compose aquifers of varying extent;
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some are
some
are traceable
traceable over
over long
long distances,
distances, whereas
whereas others
others are
are local.
local. The
The aquifers
aquifers are
are separated
separated
by confining
by
confining units
units of
of clay,
clay, silt,
silt, and
and silty
silty or
or clayey
clayey sand.
sand. Although
Although water
water moves
moves more
more readily
readily
through the
through
the aquifers
aquifers than
than through
through the
the confining
confining units,
units, water
water can
can leak
leak through
through the
the confining
confining
units, especially
units,
especially where
where they
they are
are thin
thin or
or where
where they
they contain
contain sand;
sand; the
the aquifers,
aquifers, therefore,
therefore, are
are
hydraulically interconnected
hydraulically
interconnected to
to some
some degree.
degree.
The aquifers
The
aquifers and
and confining
confining units
units that
that underlie
underlie the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain vary
vary considerably
considerably in
in thickness
thickness
(fig. 20).
(fig.
20). Much
Much of
of this
this variation
variation is
is because
because the
the sediments
sediments that
that contain
contain these
these hydrologic
hydrologic units
units
were deposited
were
deposited on
on an
an irregular
irregular crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock surface
surface that
that was
was warped
warped by
by tectonic
tectonic forces
forces so
so
as to
as
to form
form arches
arches that
that alternate
alternate with
with troughs
troughs or
or embayments.
embayments. The
The three
three areas
areas where
where the
the
crystalline rock
crystalline
rock is
is arched
arched upward
upward in
in figure
figure 20
20 are,
are, from
from left
left to
to right,
right, the
the Cape
Cape Fear
Fear Arch
Arch and
and
the Norfolk
the
Norfolk and
and the
the South
South New
New Jersey
Jersey Highs.
Highs. The
The intervening
intervening downwarped
downwarped areas,
areas, from
from left
left to
to
right, are
right,
are the
the Albemarle
Albemarle and
and the
the Salisbury
Salisbury Embayments.
Embayments. The
The arches
arches were
were not
not always
always
upwarped, however,
upwarped,
however, nor
nor were
were the
the embayments
embayments always
always downwarped.
downwarped. For
For example,
example, the
the
Fear aquifer
aquifer are
are thicker
thicker atop
atop the
the Cape
Cape Fear
Fear
sediments that
sediments
that compose
compose the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Arch than
Arch
than in
in the
the Albemarle
Albemarle Embayment.
Embayment. This
This indicates
indicates that
that the
the Cape
Cape Fear
Fear Arch
Arch was
was
downwarped during
downwarped
during the
the time
time that
that the
the sediments
sediments that
that compose
compose this
this aquifer
aquifer were
were deposited.
deposited.
of the
the sediments
sediments of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer into
into the
the Salisbury
Salisbury
Likewise, thinning
Likewise,
thinning of
Embayment indicates
Embayment
indicates that
that the
the embayment
embayment was
was not
not downwarped
downwarped while
while these
these sediments
sediments were
were
accumulating. Potomac
accumulating.
Potomac aquifer
aquifer sediments
sediments thin
thin across
across all
all the
the arches
arches and
and thicken
thicken into
into all
all the
the
in figure
figure 20,
20, which
which indicates
indicates that
that the
the crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock surface
surface had
had the
the
embayments shown
embayments
shown in
same configuration
same
configuration when
when those
those sediments
sediments were
were deposited
deposited as
as it
it has
has now.
now.
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system were
were
The sediments
The
sediments that
that compose
compose the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coast-al
Coast-al Plain
deposited in
deposited
in nonmarine,
nonmarine, marginal
marginal marine,
marine, and
and marine
marine environments.
environments. Lower
Lower Cretaceous
Cretaceous
sediments were
sediments
were deposited
deposited mostly
mostly by
by streams
streams in
in alluvial
alluvial and
and deltaic
deltaic environments.
environments. From
From Late
Late
Cretaceous through
Cretaceous
through early
early Ter-tiary
Ter-tiary time,
time, a
a series
series of
of marine
marine transgressions
transgressions covered
covered most
most of
of the
the
Atlantic Coastal
Atlantic
Coastal Plain,
Plain, and
and shallow
shallow marine
marine to
to marine
marine environments
environments prevailed.
prevailed. A
A general
general
of the
the sea
sea began
began during
during late
late Tertiary
Tertiary time,
time, when
when nonmarine
nonmarine Miocene
Miocene sediments
sediments
regression of
regression
were deposited
were
deposited in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and parts
parts of
of Maryland.
Maryland. Post-Miocene
Post-Miocene sediments
sediments are
are mostly
mostly
Quaternary nonmarine
Quaternary
nonmarine clastic
clastic rocks.
rocks.
Interbedding of
Interbedding
of finefine- and
and coarse-grained
coarse-grained Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain sediments
sediments is
is complex
complex because
because of
of
shifting deltaic
shifting
deltaic and
and alluvial
alluvial deposition
deposition sites
sites and
and because
because of
of repeated
repeated transgressions
transgressions and
and
of the
the sea.
sea. Sediment
Sediment types
types and
and textures,
textures, accordingly,
accordingly, can
can change
change greatly
greatly within
within
regressions of
regressions
or vertical
vertical distances.
distances. Bodies
Bodies of
of sand,
sand, gravel,
gravel, or
or limestone
limestone can
can change
change facies
facies
short horizontal
short
horizontal or
laterally and
laterally
and become
become clayey
clayey or
or silty
silty and,
and, thus,
thus, less
less permeable.
permeable. Therefore,
Therefore, many
many local
local aquifers
aquifers
can be
can
be identified,
identified, but
but these
these local
local aquifers
aquifers can
can be
be grouped
grouped on
on the
the basis
basis of
of similar
similar hydrologic
hydrologic
characteristics and
characteristics
and treated
treated as
as regional
regional aquifers.
aquifers. Six
Six regional
regional aquifers
aquifers separated
separated by
by four
four
regional confining
regional
confining units
units make
make up
up the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ).
).
Except for the surficial aquifer, which is named for its location at the land surface, the name
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aquifer system
system text
text
applied to
applied
to each
each regional
regional aquifer
aquifer is
is taken
taken from
from one
one or
or more
more of
of the
the geologic
geologic formations
formations or
or
groups that
groups
that compose
compose the
the aquifer.
aquifer. The
The names
names chosen
chosen are
are taken
taken from
from the
the geologic
geologic units
units that
that
Use of
of an
an aquifer
aquifer
are the
are
the most
most widespread
widespread and
and (or)
(or) compose
compose the
the more
more productive
productive aquifers.
aquifers. Use
in a
a given
given State
State does
does not
not necessarily
necessarily mean
mean that
that the
the geologic
geologic formation
formation from
from which
which the
the
name in
name
name is
name
is derived
derived is
is recognized
recognized in
in that
that State.
State. For
For example,
example, the
the Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 21
21 )) is
is
named for
named
for permeable
permeable sediments
sediments that
that are
are part
part of
of the
the Potomac
Potomac Formation
Formation (or
(or Group),
Group), which
which is
is a
a
used in
in Virginia,
Virginia, Maryland,
Maryland, Delaware,
Delaware, and
and New
New Jersey.
Jersey. The
The Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer
geologic name
geologic
name used
also is
also
is mapped
mapped in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina even
even though
though equivalent
equivalent sediments
sediments there
there are
are called
called by
by
of the
the youngest,
youngest, most
most extensive
extensive
different names.
different
names. Combined
Combined aquifer
aquifer names
names couple
couple the
the name
name of
of the
the oldest,
oldest, most
most extensive
extensive water-yielding
water-yielding formation.
formation. An
An
water-yielding formation
water-yielding
formation with
with that
that of
example is
example
is the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer in
in sediments
sediments of
of Oligocene
Oligocene through
through Paleocene
Paleocene age
age
(fig. 21
(fig.
21 ).
). The
The Castle
Castle Hayne
Hayne Formation
Formation of
of North
North Carolina
Carolina and
and the
the Aquia
Aquia Formation
Formation of
of Virginia
Virginia
and Maryland
and
Maryland form
form the
the most
most productive,
productive, most
most extensive
extensive parts
parts of
of this
this regional
regional aquifer.
aquifer.
VERTICAL SEQU
VERTICAL
SEQU ENCE
ENCE OF
OF AQUIFERS
AQUIFERS
The Coastal
The
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifers
aquifers in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 are,
are, in
in descending
descending order,
order, the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer (~
22), the
22),
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 23
23 ),
), the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 24),
24), the
the SevernSevern­
Magothy aquifer
Magothy
aquifer in
in the
the northern
northern part
part of
of the
the segment
segment (fig.
(fig. 25),
25), the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear
aquifer in
aquifer
in the
the southern
southern part
part (fig.
(fig. 25),
25), and
and the
the Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 26).
26). The
The boundaries
boundaries of
of the
the
aquifers are
aquifers
are irregular,
irregular, as
as shown
shown in
in these
these figures,
figures, and
and none
none of
of the
the aquifers
aquifers extends
extends over
over the
the
of various
various geologic
geologic formations
formations and,
and, in
in most
most
whole Coastal
whole
Coastal Plain.
Plain. The
The regional
regional aquifers
aquifers consist
consist of
places, are
places,
are vertically
vertically separated
separated by
by clayey
clayey or
or silty
silty confining
confining units
units that
that retard
retard the
the vertical
vertical flow
flow of
of
ground water.
ground
water. The
The aquifers
aquifers contain
contain saline
saline water
water in
in places,
places, especially
especially near
near the
the modern
modern
coastline, but
coastline,
but they
they are
are mapped
mapped wherever
wherever the
the sediments
sediments that
that compose
compose them
them are
are permeable,
permeable,
of the
the chemical
chemical quality
quality of
of the
the water
water in
in the
the sediments.
sediments. The
The Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia
regardless of
regardless
aquifer is
aquifer
is absent
absent in
in part
part of
of the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula (fig.
(fig. 24)
24) because
because the
the sand
sand beds
beds of
of the
the
aquifer contain
aquifer
contain more
more clay
clay and
and are
are less
less permeable
permeable toward
toward the
the coast.
coast.
is the
the uppermost
uppermost aquifer
aquifer in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer system
system (fig.
(fig. 22).
22). This
This aquifer
aquifer
The surficial
The
surficial aquifer
aquifer is
consists of
consists
of unconsolidated,
unconsolidated, locally
locally gravelly
gravelly sand,
sand, mostly
mostly of
of Quaternary
Quaternary age.
age. Although
Although a
a thin
thin
blanket of
blanket
of unconsolidated
unconsolidated sediments
sediments makes
makes up
up the
the uppermost
uppermost Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain beds
beds over
over wide
wide
is
areas, these
areas,
these sediments
sediments mostly
mostly are
are unsaturated
unsaturated or
or else
else yield
yield little
little water
water to
to wells.
wells. The
The aquifer
aquifer is
mapped in
mapped
in figure
figure 22
22 only
only in
in those
those areas
areas where
where wells
wells completed
completed in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer can
can be
be expected
expected
to yield
to
yield at
at least
least 50
50 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute.
23) underlies
underlies the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer in
in most
most places,
places, but
but the
the two
two
The Chesapeake
The
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 23)
aquifers are
aquifers
are separated
separated by
by a
a clayey
clayey confining
confining unit.
unit. The
The Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer consists
consists mostly
mostly of
of
sand beds
sand
beds of
of Miocene
Miocene age.
age. Phosphate
Phosphate of
of mineable
mineable concentration
concentration is
is in
in sands
sands of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in
North Carolina.
North
Carolina.
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The Castle
The
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 24)
24) underlies
underlies the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer;
aquifer; a
a clayey
clayey confining
confining
unit separates
unit
separates the
the two
two aquifers
aquifers everywhere.
everywhere. In
In North
North Carolina,
Carolina, the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer
is mostly
is
mostly limestone
limestone of
of the
the Castle
Castle Hayne
Hayne Formation
Formation that
that produces
produces large
large volumes
volumes of
of water.
water.
is mostly
mostly glauconitic
glauconitic sand.
sand.
Further northward,
Further
northward, the
the aquifer
aquifer is
The Severn-Magothy
The
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer underlies
underlies the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer from
from New
New Jersey
Jersey
southward to
southward
to the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula (fig.
(fig. 25).
25). The
The Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer,
aquifer, which
which is
is
the southern
the
southern equivalent
equivalent of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer,
aquifer, is
is present
present from
from southeastern
southeastern Virginia
Virginia
of fine
fine to
to medium
medium sand,
sand, and
and
to the
to
the North
North Carolina-South
Carolina-South Carolina
Carolina border.
border. Both
Both aquifers
aquifers consist
consist of
by a
a silt
silt and
and clay
clay confining
confining unit.
unit. The
The Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear and
and the
the SevernSevern­
are overlain
are
overlain by
Magothy aquifers
Magothy
aquifers are
are absent
absent in
in most
most of
of Virginia.
Virginia.
26) is
is the
the lowermost
lowermost and
and most
most widespread
widespread aquifer
aquifer of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer
The Potomac
The
Potomac aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 26)
system. The
system.
The Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of fine
fine to
to coarse
coarse sand
sand beds
beds and
and is
is separated
separated from
from
of clay
clay and
and sandy
sandy clay.
clay.
overlying aquifers
overlying
aquifers everywhere
everywhere by
by a
a confining
confining unit
unit of
AQUIFER
SURFICIAL AQUIFER
SURFICIAL
The surficial
The
surficial aquifer
aquifer extends
extends over
over large
large parts
parts of
of the
the Del-marva
Del-marva Peninsula
Peninsula and
and the
the eastern
eastern
of North
North Carolina.
Carolina. Although
Although thin
thin surficial
surficial deposits
deposits yield
yield small
small volumes
volumes of
of water
water to
to
coastal plain
coastal
plain of
rural and
rural
and domestic
domestic wells
wells in
in a
a large
large part
part of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain,
Plain, the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer is
is defined
defined as
as a
a
in this
this report
report only
only where
where it
it is
is capable
capable of
of yielding
yielding at
at least
least 50
50
principal Coastal
principal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer in
gallons of
gallons
of water
water per
per minute
minute to
to wells
wells or
or where
where the
the use
use of
of underlying
underlying aquifers
aquifers is
is restricted
restricted
because the
because
the deeper
deeper aquifers
aquifers contain
contain saline
saline water.
water. The
The surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of
unconsolidated sand
unconsolidated
sand and
and gravel
gravel of
of marine
marine and
and nonmarine
nonmarine origin,
origin, depending
depending on
on the
the locality.
locality.
Many small-scale
Many
small-scale aquifers
aquifers constitute
constitute the
the surficial
surficial aquifer.
aquifer.
The surficial
The
surficial aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of sand
sand of
of Pleistocene
Pleistocene age
age and
and beach
beach and
and dune
dune deposits
deposits of
of
Holocene age
Holocene
age on
on the
the Cape
Cape May
May Peninsula
Peninsula at
at the
the southern
southern tip
tip of
of New
New Jersey
Jersey where
where the
the aquifer
aquifer
is underlain
is
underlain by
by a
a clay
clay confining
confining unit
unit that
that separates
separates it
it from
from the
the deeper
deeper Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer.
aquifer. The
The
surficial aquifer
surficial
aquifer attains
attains its
its greatest
greatest thicknesses
thicknesses in
in buried
buried channels
channels in
in the
the Del-marva
Del-marva Peninsula.
Peninsula.
Elsewhere in
Elsewhere
in Segment
Segment 11,
11, the
the average
average thickness
thickness of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is generally
generally 50
50 feet
feet or
or less.
less.
Near the
Near
the Delaware-Maryland
Delaware-Maryland State
State boundary,
boundary, the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer directly
directly overlies
overlies waterwater­
yielding beds
yielding
beds of
of the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer.
aquifer. In
In that
that area,
area, the
the combined
combined beds
beds act
act as
as a
a single
single
aquifer.
aquifer.
The surficial
The
surficial aquifer
aquifer contains
contains water
water predominately
predominately under
under unconfined
unconfined conditions,
conditions, but
but clay
clay beds
beds
locally create
locally
create confined
confined conditions.
conditions. Almost
Almost all
all the
the flow
flow within
within the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is local;
local; that
that is,
is, water
water
moves from
moves
from recharge
recharge areas
areas along
along short
short flow
flow paths
paths to
to discharge
discharge to
to the
the nearest
nearest stream
stream or
or other
other
surface-water body.
surface-water
body. Some
Some water,
water, however,
however, percolates
percolates downward
downward to
to recharge
recharge the
the underlying
underlying
aquifers.
aquifers.
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The transmissivity
The
transmissivity of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer (the
(the rate
rate at
at which
which water
water will
will move
move through
through the
the
aquifer) is
aquifer)
is variable.
variable. Transmissivity
Transmissivity values
values for
for the
the aquifer
aquifer are
are generally
generally less
less than
than 1,000
1,000 feet
feet
squared per
squared
per day
day except
except on
on the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula where
where they
they are
are commonly
commonly 8,000
8,000 feet
feet
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is as
as much
much as
as 20,000
20,000 feet
feet squared
squared
squared per
squared
per day.
day. Locally,
Locally, the
the transmissivity
transmissivity of
per day
per
day in
in buried
buried channels
channels in
in Delaware
Delaware and
and 53,000
53,000 feet
feet squared
squared per
per day
day in
in a
a paleochannel
paleochannel in
in
Maryland. The
Maryland.
The aquifer
aquifer is
is very
very thick
thick in
in the
the places
places where
where the
the transmissivity
transmissivity values
values are
are largest.
largest.
of water
water in
in the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer is
is variable
variable and
and partly
partly reflects
reflects the
the chemistry
chemistry of
of the
the
The quality
The
quality of
In precipitation,
precipitation, dissolved
dissolved sodium
sodium and
and chloride
chloride
precipitation that
precipitation
that recharges
recharges the
the aquifer.
aquifer. In
concentrations tend
concentrations
tend to
to be
be greater,
greater, and
and dissolved
dissolved sulfate
sulfate concentrations
concentrations tend
tend to
to be
be less,
less, nearer
nearer
of the
the precipitation
precipitation is
is modified
modified as
as the
the
the coastline
the
coastline than
than inland.
inland. The
The chemical
chemical composition
composition of
water percolates
water
percolates downward
downward through
through the
the soil
soil zone
zone and
and then
then moves
moves through
through the
the aquifer
aquifer where
where
it reacts
it
reacts chemically
chemically with
with aquifer
aquifer minerals.
minerals. Because
Because the
the water
water follows
follows short
short flow
flow paths,
paths, its
its
is short
short in
in the
the surficial
surficial aquifer,
aquifer, and
and the
the dissolution
dissolution of
of minerals
minerals is
is limited.
limited.
residence time
residence
time is
Where the
Where
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer adjoins
adjoins the
the coast
coast or
or saltwater
saltwater estuaries
estuaries and
and where
where it
it occurs
occurs on
on
offshore islands,
offshore
islands, it
it is
is usually
usually hydraulically
hydraulically connected
connected to
to saline
saline water.
water. Hydraulic
Hydraulic heads
heads (water
(water
in the
the aquifer
aquifer are
are only
only slightly
slightly above
above sea
sea level
level in
in these
these lOW-lying
lOW-lying land
land areas,
areas, and
and the
the
levels) in
levels)
depth to
depth
to saline
saline water
water may
may be
be shallow
shallow as
as a
a result.
result. The
The same
same lOW-lying
lOW-lying areas
areas tend
tend to
to be
be natural
natural
discharge areas
discharge
areas for
for the
the aquifers
aquifers that
that underlie
underlie the
the surficial
surficial aquifer.
aquifer. The
The water
water that
that is
is discharged
discharged
In these
these areas,
areas, only
only
upward from
upward
from the
the deeper
deeper aquifers
aquifers tends
tends to
to be
be hard
hard and
and highly
highly mineralized.
mineralized. In
water in
water
in the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer might
might be
be suitable
suitable for
for use.
use.
is especially
especially susceptible
susceptible to
to contamination
contamination by
by human
human activities
activities
Water in
Water
in the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer is
because the
because
the aquifer
aquifer is
is exposed
exposed at
at the
the land
land surface.
surface. For
For example,
example, nitrogen
nitrogen and
and lime
lime that
that are
are
added to
added
to the
the soil
soil during
during crop
crop production
production can
can enter
enter the
the water.
water. Livestock
Livestock wastes
wastes and
and septic-tank
septic-tank
fields also
fields
also produce
produce nitrogen,
nitrogen, the
the end
end product
product of
of which
which is
is nitrate
nitrate in
in the
the ground
ground water.
water. Local
Local
contamination also
contamination
also can
can result
result from
from seepage
seepage from
from landfills,
landfills, leakage
leakage from
from underground
underground storage
storage
of urban
urban contaminants.
contaminants.
tanks, chemical
tanks,
chemical spills,
spills, and
and infiltration
infiltration of
11 are
are greatest
greatest on
on the
the
Ground-water withdrawals
Ground-water
withdrawals from
from the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer in
in Segment
Segment 11
of Holocene
Holocene to
to Pliocene
Pliocene age
age and
and some
some gravel
gravel beds
beds of
of
Delmarva Peninsula
Delmarva
Peninsula where
where sands
sands of
Miocene age
Miocene
age constitute
constitute the
the aquifer.
aquifer. The
The distribution
distribution of
of major
major pumping
pumping centers
centers during
during 1979
1979
is shown
shown in
in figure
figure 27.
27. The
The aquifer
aquifer is
is used
used locally
locally in
in Virginia
Virginia for
for
and 1980,
and
1980, excluding
excluding irrigation,
irrigation, is
in North
North Carolina
Carolina are
are
domestic and
domestic
and agricultural
agricultural supplies,
supplies, and
and withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the aquifer
aquifer in
principally for
principally
for the
the same
same uses.
uses. South
South of
of Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay,
Bay, the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer is
is typically
typically thinner
thinner
in the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula.
Peninsula. In
In North
North Carolina,
Carolina, the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer is
is
or contains
or
contains more
more clay
clay than
than in
near the
near
the coast
coast and
and in
in several
several counties
counties near
near the
the South
South Carolina
Carolina border.
border. Throughout
Throughout much
much of
of
the coastal
the
coastal area,
area, the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer is
is recognized
recognized as
as a
a principal
principal aquifer
aquifer not
not because
because of
of its
its
of water,
water, but
but because
because the
the underlying
underlying aquifers
aquifers commonly
commonly
potential to
potential
to yield
yield large
large volumes
volumes of
contain saline
contain
saline water
water and
and their
their use
use is
is thus
thus restricted.
restricted.
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Total fresh
Total
fresh ground-water
ground-water withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer were
were about
about 120
120 million
million gallons
gallons
per day
per
day during
during 1985.
1985. The
The largest
largest withdrawals
withdrawals of
of water
water were
were concentrated
concentrated near
near Salisbury,
Salisbury, Md.,
Md.,
27). Water
Water from
from the
the aquifer
aquifer was
was used
used principally
principally for
for agricultural
agricultural supplies
supplies
and Dover,
and
Dover, Del.
Del. (fig.
(fig. 27).
and domestic
and
domestic and
and commercial
commercial purposes,
purposes, but
but substantial
substantial quantities
quantities also
also were
were used
used for
for public
public
supply and
supply
and for
for industrial,
industrial, mining,
mining, and
and thermoelectric
thermoelectric power
power supplies
supplies (fig.
(fig. 28).
28).
CHESAPEAKE AQUIFER
CHESAPEAKE
AQUIFER
The Chesapeake
The
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer is
is the
the uppermost
uppermost regional
regional aquifer
aquifer of
of the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal
Plain aquifer
Plain
aquifer system.
system. The
The aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of permeable
permeable beds
beds in
in the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake Group
Group of
of
Oligocene to
Oligocene
to Pliocene
Pliocene age
age and
and their
their approximate
approximate stratigraphic
stratigraphic equivalents.
equivalents. The
The top
top of
of the
the
Chesapeake aquifer
Chesapeake
aquifer is
is mostly
mostly above
above sea
sea level
level in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey but
but is
is nearly
nearly 300
300 feet
feet below
below sea
sea
level on
level
on the
the Outer
Outer Banks
Banks of
of North
North Carolina
Carolina (fig.
(fig. 29).
29).
Sand and
and most
most of
of the
the Kirkwood
Kirkwood
The Chesapeake
The
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey includes
includes the
the Cohansey
Cohansey Sand
Formation, along
Formation,
along with
with local
local terrace
terrace gravels.
gravels. The
The local
local name
name of
of the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer is
is the
the
Kirkwood-Cohansey aquifer
Kirkwood-Cohansey
aquifer system
system (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ).
). In
In its
its thicker
thicker parts,
parts, confining
confining units
units divide
divide the
the
Chesapeake aquifer
Chesapeake
aquifer into
into three
three local
local aquifers.
aquifers. The
The upper
upper part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is predominately
predominately
is
fine to
fine
to coarse
coarse sand
sand that
that contains
contains water
water mostly
mostly under
under unconfined
unconfined conditions.
conditions. The
The lower
lower part
part is
typically fine
typically
fine to
to medium
medium sand
sand that
that contains
contains two
two thick
thick clay
clay beds
beds near
near the
the coast.
coast. The
The maximum
maximum
of the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey is
is about
about 960
960 feet,
feet, but
but this
this includes
includes about
about
thickness of
thickness
of clay
clay that
that forms
forms local
local confining
confining units
units in
in the
the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the aquifer.
aquifer.
450 feet
450
feet of
On the
On
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula,
Peninsula, the
the regional
regional Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer comprises
comprises six
six local
local sand
sand aquifers,
aquifers,
which consist
which
consist of
of layers
layers of
of medium
medium to
to coarse,
coarse, silty
silty sand,
sand, and
and locally
locally contain
contain grav-el
grav-el or
or shell
shell
of silty
silty sand
sand and
and clay.
clay. On
On the
the
fragments. The
fragments.
The sands
sands are
are separated
separated by
by confining
confining units
units of
northwestern Delmarva
northwestern
Delmarva Peninsula,
Peninsula, the
the local
local aquifers
aquifers are
are successively
successively truncated
truncated and
and overlain
overlain
from southwest
from
southwest to
to northeast
northeast by
by the
the surficial
surficial aquifer.
aquifer. Where
Where the
the surficial
surficial and
and Chesapeake
Chesapeake
in direct
direct contact,
contact, they
they form
form a
a composite
composite aquifer
aquifer that
that contains
contains water
water under
under
aquifers are
aquifers
are in
unconfined, or
unconfined,
or water-table,
water-table, conditions.
conditions. The
The Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer generally
generally dips
dips gently
gently and
and
Its total
total thickness
thickness exceeds
exceeds 600
600 feet
feet along
along the
the coast,
coast, but
but much
much of
of the
the
thickens oceanward.
thickens
oceanward. Its
is due
due to
to clayey
clayey and
and silty
silty sediments.
sediments. The
The deeper
deeper and
and more
more southeasterly
southeasterly parts
parts of
of
thickening is
thickening
the aquifer
the
aquifer contain
contain slightly
slightly saline
saline to
to saline
saline water.
water. Only
Only the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is
important as
important
as a
a source
source of
of water
water in
in the
the Virginia
Virginia part
part of
of the
the peninsula.
peninsula.
is not
not mapped
mapped west
west of
of Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay;
Bay; sediments
sediments
The Chesapeake
The
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer in
in Maryland
Maryland is
equivalent to
equivalent
to the
the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer extend
extend west
west of
of the
the bay
bay but
but consist
consist mostly
mostly of
of clay
clay
of the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer west
west of
of the
the bay
bay in
in Virginia
Virginia is
is the
the local
local
and silt.
and
silt. The
The upper
upper part
part of
21 ).
).
Yorktown-Eastover aquifer
Yorktown-Eastover
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 21
The Chesapeake
The
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina is
is restricted
restricted to
to the
the northeastern
northeastern part
part of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal
Plain. It consists of two local aquifers (fig. 21 )-the upper (Yorktown) aquifer extends farther
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west than
west
than the
the lower
lower (Pungo
(Pungo River)
River) aquifer.
aquifer. The
The Yorktown
Yorktown aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of fine
fine shelly
shelly sand,
sand,
of fine
fine to
to medium
medium
silty sand,
silty
sand, and
and shell
shell beds,
beds, whereas
whereas the
the Pungo
Pungo River
River aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
phosphatic sand.
phosphatic
sand. Where
Where both
both local
local aquifers
aquifers are
are present,
present, the
the maximum
maximum thickness
thickness of
of the
the
is about
about 1,000
1,000 feet;
feet; the
the average
average thickness
thickness is
is about
about 330
330 feet.
feet.
Chesapeake aquifer
Chesapeake
aquifer is
Much of
Much
of the
the water
water in
in the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer is
is under
under unconfined
unconfined conditions.
conditions.
is closely
closely connected
connected to
to streams,
streams, and
and before
before pumping
pumping began,
began, most
most of
of the
the water
water
The aquifer
The
aquifer is
that entered
that
entered the
the aquifer
aquifer as
as recharge
recharge from
from precipitation
precipitation moved
moved only
only a
a few
few miles
miles or
or less
less along
along
flow paths
flow
paths to
to discharge
discharge to
to the
the streams
streams (fig.
(fig. 30).
30). Some
Some of
of the
the water,
water, however,
however, moved
moved along
along
longer flow
longer
flow paths
paths to
to discharge
discharge to
to estuaries
estuaries or
or the
the ocean.
ocean. Where
Where the
the water
water table
table was
was close
close to
to
the land
the
land surface,
surface, some
some ground
ground water
water discharged
discharged to
to the
the atmosphere
atmosphere through
through evaporation
evaporation and
and
in the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer were
were higher
higher
transpiration. Where
transpiration.
Where hydraulic
hydraulic heads
heads (water
(water levels)
levels) in
than those
than
those in
in the
the underlying
underlying Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer,
aquifer, a
a small
small part
part of
of the
the water
water in
in the
the
In
Chesapeake aquifer
Chesapeake
aquifer moved
moved downward
downward across
across a
a confining
confining unit
unit and
and into
into the
the lower
lower aquifer.
aquifer. In
some areas,
some
areas, mostly
mostly near
near the
the coast,
coast, the
the hydraulic
hydraulic head
head in
in the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer was
was
in the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer,
aquifer, and
and water
water moved
moved upward
upward from
from the
the deeper
deeper
greater than
greater
than that
that in
aquifer into
aquifer
into the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer.
aquifer.
The Chesapeake
The
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer is
is considered
considered to
to be
be a
a principal
principal aquifer
aquifer only
only where
where the
the transmissivity
transmissivity of
of
the aquifer
the
aquifer is
is greater
greater than
than 500
500 feet
feet squared
squared per
per day
day (fig.
(fig. 29).
29). In
In these
these areas,
areas, wells
wells completed
completed
in the
in
the aquifer
aquifer commonly
commonly yield
yield 50
50 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute or
or more.
more. Elsewhere,
Elsewhere, the
the aquifer
aquifer may
may yield
yield
it is
is considered
considered to
to be
be a
a minor
minor
water, but
water,
but not
not in
in quantities
quantities sufficient
sufficient for
for most
most uses;
uses; therefore,
therefore, it
aquifer. The
aquifer.
The transmissivity
transmissivity of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer generally
generally increases
increases toward
toward the
the coast
coast and
and reaches
reaches a
a
maximum near
maximum
near the
the southern
southern border
border of
of Delaware
Delaware and
and in
in a
a small
small area
area of
of coastal
coastal New
New Jersey.
Jersey.
an increase
increase in
in the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in
The coastward
The
coastward increase
increase in
in transmissivity
transmissivity reflects
reflects an
these areas.
these
areas.
in the
the same
same directions
directions as
as
After withdrawals
After
withdrawals began,
began, ground
ground water
water continued
continued to
to flow
flow regionally
regionally in
before development,
before
development, but
but some
some of
of the
the water
water that
that would
would have
have discharged
discharged to
to surface-water
surface-water
by wells.
wells. Flow
Flow paths
paths
bodies or
bodies
or to
to the
the atmosphere
atmosphere under
under natural
natural conditions
conditions was
was intercepted
intercepted by
as water
water moved
moved toward
toward cones
cones of
of depression
depression that
that formed
formed around
around pumping
pumping centers
centers (~
shifted as
shifted
31 ).
31
). By
By 1980,
1980, the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface had
had been
been lowered
lowered over
over wide
wide areas,
areas, which
which resulted
resulted in
in
reduced evaporation
reduced
evaporation and
and transpiration
transpiration and
and increased
increased recharge
recharge to
to the
the aquifer.
aquifer.
of the
the upper
upper and
and lower
lower parts
parts of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer to
to
Withdrawals caused
Withdrawals
caused the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surfaces
surfaces of
be different
be
different in
in parts
parts of
of New
New Jersey,
Jersey, Delaware,
Delaware, and
and North
North Carolina.
Carolina. This
This is
is because
because thick
thick
confining beds
confining
beds within
within the
the aquifer
aquifer impede
impede vertical
vertical ground-water
ground-water flow
flow in
in these
these areas
areas between
between
the upper
the
upper and
and lower
lower parts
parts of
of the
the aquifer.
aquifer. The
The lowering
lowering of
of the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface induced
induced
Cape May
May Peninsula
Peninsula and
and other
other coastal
coastal areas
areas in
in New
New Jersey.
Jersey.
saline water
saline
water intrusion
intrusion locally
locally on
on the
the Cape
of the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system can
can be
be classified
classified
Water in
Water
in the
the aquifers
aquifers of
according to dominant dissolved cations and anions into the following hydrochemical facies
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typical of
typical
of ground
ground water
water in
in the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain:
Plain: variable
variable composition,
composition, calcium
calcium
plus magnesium
plus
magnesium bicarbonate,
bicarbonate, sodium
sodium bicarbonate,
bicarbonate, and
and sodium
sodium chloride.
chloride. To
To demonstrate
demonstrate the
the
facies classification
facies
classification used,
used, a
a sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate water
water is
is one
one in
in which
which sodium
sodium ions
ions account
account for
for
more than
more
than 50
50 percent
percent of
of the
the total
total cations
cations in
in the
the water
water and
and bicarbonate
bicarbonate ions
ions account
account for
for more
more
than 50
than
50 percent
percent of
of the
the total
total anions.
anions. Waters
Waters classified
classified as
as variable
variable composition
composition have
have no
no ions
ions that
that
50 percent.
percent.
exceed 50
exceed
in water
water from
from the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer in
in Virginia
Virginia
The hydrochemical
The
hydrochemical facies
facies in
and North
and
North Carolina
Carolina follow
follow a
a general
general coastward,
coastward, or
or downdip,
downdip, sequence
sequence from
from a
a variablevariable­
in aquifer
aquifer outcrop
outcrop areas
areas to
to a
a calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate facies,
facies,
composition facies
composition
facies in
then to
then
to a
a sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate facies,
facies, and
and finally
finally to
to a
a sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies
facies (fig.
(fig. 32).
32). This
This
sequence is
sequence
is generally
generally characteristic
characteristic of
of waters
waters in
in the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifers.
aquifers. Also,
Also, the
the
concentration of
concentration
of dissolved
dissolved solids
solids in
in the
the ground
ground water
water increases
increases in
in a
a seaward
seaward direction.
direction. The
The
distribution of
distribution
of hydrochemical
hydrochemical facies
facies with
with respect
respect to
to areas
areas where
where the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer crops
crops
out and
out
and with
with respect
respect to
to the
the coast,
coast, and
and the
the seaward
seaward increase
increase in
in dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentration,
concentration,
are largely
are
largely the
the result
result of
of natural
natural (prepumping)
(prepumping) ground-water
ground-water flow
flow patterns.
patterns. The
The same
same sequence
sequence
of hydrochemical
of
hydrochemical facies
facies occurs
occurs with
with increasingdepth
increasingdepth in
in the
the aquifers
aquifers and
and is
is accompanied
accompanied by
by an
an
increase in
increase
in the
the dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentration
concentration in
in the
the water.
water.
of its
its extent
extent in
in New
New Jersey,
Jersey, the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer is
is exposed
exposed at
at the
the land
land surface
surface
Over most
Over
most of
of the
the variable-composition
variable-composition facies
facies (fig.
(fig. 32).
32). In
In a
a narrow
narrow band
band parallel
parallel to
to
and contains
and
contains water
water of
the coast,
the
coast, the
the mixing
mixing of
of that
that water
water with
with saline
saline water
water resulted
resulted in
in a
a sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies.
facies.
less than
than 250
250 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, except
except along
along
Dissolved-solids concentrations
Dissolved-solids
concentrations are
are generally
generally less
is present
present locally
locally in
in water
water from
from the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in central
central New
New Jersey,
Jersey, probably
probably
the coast.
the
coast. Sulfate
Sulfate is
as a
as
a result
result of
of the
the oxidation
oxidation of
of sulfide
sulfide minerals,
minerals, such
such as
as pyrite,
pyrite, in
in the
the aquifer.
aquifer.
32) is,
is, for
for the
the most
most part,
part, the
the
The hydrochemical
The
hydrochemical facies
facies pattern
pattern on
on the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula (fig.
(fig. 32)
result of
result
of ground
ground water
water movement
movement from
from aquifer
aquifer recharge
recharge areas
areas in
in the
the central
central part
part of
of the
the
peninsula toward
peninsula
toward the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean and
and the
the Delaware
Delaware Bay
Bay on
on the
the east
east and
and northeast
northeast and
and
Bay on
on the
the west.
west. The
The water
water changes
changes northwestward
northwestward and
and
toward the
toward
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay
southeastward from
southeastward
from a
a variable-composition
variable-composition facies
facies to
to a
a calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate
of the
the change
change in
in facies
facies also
also is
is due
due to
to northwestward
northwestward truncation
truncation of
of local
local aquifers
aquifers
facies. Some
facies.
Some of
of differing
differing character.
character.
that contain
that
contain water
water of
In the
In
the western
western parts
parts of
of the
the coastal
coastal plain
plain of
of North
North Carolina
Carolina and
and Virginia,
Virginia, the
the hydrochemical
hydrochemical
of water
water in
in the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer cannot
cannot be
be identified
identified conclusively
conclusively because
because data
data are
are
facies of
facies
too sparse.
too
sparse. Accordingly,
Accordingly, the
the water
water is
is designated
designated as
as "variable
"variable composition."
composition." Dissolved-solids
Dissolved-solids
in water
water from
from this
this area
area are
are generally
generally less
less than
than 250
250 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter.
liter.
concentrations in
concentrations
of this
this area
area in
in North
North Carolina,
Carolina, dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations increase
increase to
to more
more than
than
Seaward of
Seaward
2,000 milligrams
2,000
milligrams per
per liter
liter near
near the
the Albemarle
Albemarle Sound
Sound and
and the
the coast.
coast. Fossil
Fossil shell
shell material
material in
in the
the
aquifer is
aquifer
is a
a source
source of
of dissolved
dissolved calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium in
in the
the broad
broad area
area mapped
mapped as
as calcium
calcium
plus magnesium bicarbonate facies. Further eastward, clayey material in the aquifer acts as a
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natural softening
natural
softening agent,
agent, exchanging
exchanging sodium
sodium ions
ions for
for calcium
calcium to
to produce
produce the
the sodium
sodium
bicarbonate facies.
bicarbonate
facies. The
The mixing
mixing of
of fresh
fresh ground
ground water
water with
with saline
saline water
water in
in the
the low-lying
low-lying coastal
coastal
area causes
area
causes an
an increase
increase in
in the
the dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentration
concentration of
of the
the water
water and
and a
a change
change to
to
sodium chloride
sodium
chloride facies.
facies.
Total freshwater
Total
freshwater withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer during
during 1985
1985 were
were estimated
estimated to
to be
be
195 million
195
million gallons
gallons per
per day.
day. The
The distribution
distribution of
of major
major pumping
pumping centers,
centers, excluding
excluding irrigation,
irrigation,
during 1979
during
1979 and
and 1980
1980 is
is shown
shown in
in figure
figure 33
33 .. The
The largest
largest withdrawals
withdrawals of
of water
water were
were in
in New
New
Jersey, although
Jersey,
although pumping
pumping centers
centers on
on the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula also
also withdrew
withdrew large
large volumes
volumes of
of
water. Withdrawal
water.
Withdrawal centers
centers in
in eastern
eastern North
North Carolina
Carolina and
and southeastern
southeastern Virginia
Virginia pumped
pumped only
only
small to
small
to moderate
moderate volumes
volumes of
of water.
water.
of the
the freshwater
freshwater withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake aquifer
aquifer during
during 1985
1985 (about
(about
About one-half
About
one-half of
95 million
95
million gallons
gallons per
per day)
day) was
was used
used for
for public
public supply
supply (fig.
(fig. 34).
34). About
About 45
45 million
million gallons
gallons per
per
day was
day
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial use.
use. Agricultural
Agricultural withdrawals
withdrawals accounted
accounted for
for
about 39
about
39 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day during
during 1985,
1985, and
and only
only about
about 16
16 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day was
was
withdrawn for
withdrawn
for industrial,
industrial, mining,
mining, and
and thermoelectric
thermoelectric power
power uses.
uses.
CASTLE HAYNE-AQUIA
CASTLE
HAYNE-AQUIA AQUIFER
AQUIFER
The Castle
The
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer extends
extends from
from New
New Jersey
Jersey southward
southward to
to southeastern
southeastern North
North
Carolina (fig.
Carolina
(fig. 35).
35). The
The aquifer
aquifer consists
consists mostly
mostly of
of permeable
permeable strata
strata of
of Eocene
Eocene and
and Paleocene
Paleocene
age but
age
but locally
locally includes
includes rocks
rocks of
of Oligocene
Oligocene age.
age. The
The top
top of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is about
about at
at sea
sea level
level in
in
most places
most
places near
near its
its northwestern
northwestern limit
limit and
and slopes
slopes seaward
seaward to
to depths
depths of
of more
more than
than 750
750 feet
feet
sea level
level in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and more
more than
than 1,250
1,250 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level
level on
on the
the Outer
Outer Banks
Banks of
of
below sea
below
North Carolina.
North
Carolina. The
The aquifer
aquifer is
is absent
absent in
in the
the southwestern
southwestern one-third
one-third of
of the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula,
Peninsula,
where its
where
its permeable
permeable beds
beds grade
grade eastward
eastward into
into clay.
clay. A
A clayey
clayey confining
confining unit
unit overlies
overlies the
the aquifer
aquifer
is thickest
thickest on
on the
the western
western shore
shore of
of the
the Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay
Bay in
in Maryland
Maryland
almost everywhere
almost
everywhere and
and is
where it
where
it consists
consists of
of as
as much
much as
as 250
250 feet
feet of
of diatomaceous
diatomaceous clay.
clay.
In New
In
New Jersey,
Jersey, the
the regional
regional Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of the
the local
local Piney
Piney Point
Point and
and
Vincentown aquifers
Vincentown
aquifers (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ),
), which
which are
are thin
thin sand
sand aquifers
aquifers within
within a
a thick
thick confining
confining unit
unit of
of silt
silt
and clay.
and
clay. The
The name
name "Piney
"Piney Point
Point aquifer"
aquifer" is
is applied
applied in
in this
this chapter
chapter to
to permeable,
permeable, fine
fine to
to
coarse, glauconitic
coarse,
glauconitic sand
sand (fig.
(fig. 36)
36) that
that was
was formerly
formerly correlated
correlated in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey as
as the
the Eocene
Eocene
Piney Point
Piney
Point Formation
Formation but
but is
is now
now (1996)
(1996) considered
considered to
to be
be a
a separate,
separate, younger,
younger, unnamed
unnamed sand
sand
that is
that
is hydraulically
hydraulically connected
connected to
to permeable
permeable sands
sands of
of the
the Piney
Piney Point
Point Formation
Formation in
in Maryland.
Maryland.
The underlying
The
underlying Vincentown
Vincentown aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of sparsely
sparsely glauconitic
glauconitic quartz
quartz sand
sand and
and
fOSSiliferous, calcareous,
fOSSiliferous,
calcareous, quartz
quartz sand.
sand. In
In Burlington,
Burlington, Ocean,
Ocean, and
and Monmouth
Monmouth Counties,
Counties, N.J.,
N.J.,
moderately permeable
moderately
permeable sand
sand of
of the
the Vincentown
Vincentown aquifer
aquifer grades
grades southeastward
southeastward into
into silt
silt and
and clay
clay
within a
within
a few
few miles
miles of
of the
the outcrop
outcrop area
area of
of the
the aquifer.
aquifer. In
In this
this area,
area, the
the Vincentown
Vincentown aquifer
aquifer is
is
laterally separated
laterally
separated from
from the
the Piney
Piney Point
Point aquifer
aquifer by
by less
less permeable
permeable sediments
sediments (fig.
(fig. 35
35 ).
). The
The
maximum thickness of the Castle Hayne-Aquia aquifer in New Jersey is 220 feet, and the
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average thickness
average
thickness is
is about
about 90
90 feet.
feet.
in Delaware,
Delaware, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and Virginia
Virginia is
is subdivided
subdivided into
into
The regional
The
regional Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer in
two local
two
local aquifers
aquifers (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ).
). The
The upper
upper aquifer,
aquifer, which
which is
is called
called the
the Piney
Piney Point-Nanjemoy
Point-Nanjemoy
aquifer in
aquifer
in Delaware
Delaware and
and Maryland
Maryland and
and the
the Chickahominy-Piney
Chickahominy-Piney Point
Point aquifer
aquifer in
in Virginia,
Virginia,
of medium
medium to
to coarse
coarse glauconitic
glauconitic sand
sand mainly
mainly in
in the
the Piney
Piney Point
Point and
and the
the Nanjemoy
Nanjemoy
consists of
consists
Formations. The
Formations.
The lower
lower aquifer,
aquifer, which
which is
is called
called the
the Aquia-Rancocas
Aquia-Rancocas aquifer
aquifer in
in Delaware
Delaware and
and
Maryland and
Maryland
and the
the Aquia
Aquia aquifer
aquifer in
in Virginia,
Virginia, consists
consists of
of glauconitic
glauconitic sand
sand of
of the
the Aquia
Aquia Formation
Formation
of Eocene
Eocene sands,
sands, but
but
or the
or
the Rancocas
Rancocas Group.
Group. The
The upper
upper aquifer
aquifer consists
consists predominately
predominately of
contains some
contains
some sands
sands of
of Oligocene
Oligocene age;
age; the
the lower
lower aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of Paleocene
Paleocene sands.
sands. The
The
in thickness
thickness from
from a
a few
few feet
feet
aquifers are
aquifers
are separated
separated by
by a
a silt
silt and
and clay
clay confining
confining unit
unit that
that ranges
ranges in
in southern
in
southern Virginia
Virginia to
to as
as much
much as
as 210
210 feet
feet in
in northeastern
northeastern Maryland.
Maryland. The
The maximum
maximum thickness
thickness
of the
of
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer in
in Delaware,
Delaware, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and Virginia
Virginia exceeds
exceeds 460
460 feet,
feet, and
and
the average
the
average thickness
thickness is
is about
about 140
140 feet.
feet.
In North
In
North Carolina,
Carolina, the
the regional
regional Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of two
two local
local aquifers-the
aquifers-the
Castle Hayne
Castle
Hayne aquifer
aquifer (a
(a major
major aquifer)
aquifer) and
and the
the underlying,
underlying, less
less important
important Beaufort
Beaufort aquifer.
aquifer.
The Castle
The
Castle Hayne
Hayne aquifer
aquifer is
is limestone,
limestone, sandy
sandy marl,
marl, and
and fine
fine to
to coarse
coarse limey
limey sand.
sand. It
It includes
includes
most of
most
of the
the Eocene
Eocene Castle
Castle Hayne
Hayne Formation
Formation and
and the
the lithologically
lithologically similar
similar Oligocene
Oligocene River
River Bend
Bend
Formation. This
Formation.
This aquifer
aquifer is
is restricted
restricted to
to the
the eastern
eastern one-half
one-half of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal Plain,
Plain,
and its
and
its average
average thickness
thickness is
is about
about 185
185 feet.
feet. The
The Beaufort
Beaufort aquifer,
aquifer, which
which is
is fine
fine to
to medium
medium
glauconitic sand,
glauconitic
sand, contains
contains thin
thin beds
beds of
of shell
shell and
and limestone.
limestone. It
It extends
extends farther
farther north
north and
and south
south
is generally
generally less
less than
than 50
50 feet.
feet. The
The two
two aquifers
aquifers
than the
than
the Castle
Castle Hayne
Hayne aquifer,
aquifer, but
but its
its thickness
thickness is
of silt,
silt, clay,
clay, and
and sandy
sandy clay
clay that
that is
is generally
generally less
less than
than 50
50 feet
feet
are separated
are
separated by
by a
a confining
confining unit
unit of
thick but
thick
but is
is as
as much
much as
as 180
180 feet
feet thick
thick along
along the
the coast.
coast.
is considered
considered to
to be
be a
a major
major aquifer
aquifer except
except for
for areas
areas where
where the
the
The Castle
The
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer is
transmissivity of
transmissivity
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is less
less than
than 1,000
1,000 feet
feet squared
squared per
per day
day (fig.
(fig. 35).
35). In
In these
these areas
areas of
of
low transmissivity,
low
transmissivity, which
which are
are mostly
mostly in
in Virginia,
Virginia, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and Delaware,
Delaware, the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is thin.
thin. It
It
thins westward
thins
westward because
because it
it pinches
pinches out
out as
as a
a result
result of
of erosion,
erosion, but
but the
the eastward
eastward thinning
thinning is
is the
the
result of
result
of a
a change
change in
in facies
facies from
from sand
sand to
to clay.
clay. The
The transmissivity
transmissivity of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is highest
highest in
in
is mostly
mostly a
a thick
thick section
section of
of highly
highly permeable
permeable limestone.
limestone.
southeastern North
southeastern
North Carolina,
Carolina, where
where it
it is
of higher
higher altitude
altitude
Before ground-water
Before
ground-water withdrawals
withdrawals began,
began, water
water moved
moved from
from recharge
recharge areas
areas of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer toward
toward rivers,
rivers, estuaries,
estuaries, bays,
bays, and
and the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
Ocean
along the
along
the western
western limit
limit of
(fig. 37).
(fig.
37). In
In New
New Jersey,
Jersey, flow
flow was
was generally
generally toward
toward the
the ocean,
ocean, the
the Delaware
Delaware River,
River, and
and the
the
Delaware Bay.
Delaware
Bay. Flow
Flow in
in the
the western
western shore
shore of
of Maryland
Maryland was
was from
from the
the northwestern
northwestern limit
limit of
of the
the
aquifer toward
aquifer
toward both
both the
the Potomac
Potomac River
River and
and Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay.
Bay. A
A ground-water
ground-water divide
divide on
on the
the
Bay from
from flow
flow to
to Delaware
Delaware Bay.
Bay. In
In Virginia,
Virginia,
Delmarva Peninsula
Delmarva
Peninsula separated
separated flow
flow to
to Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay
flow was
flow
was generally
generally along
along shorter
shorter flow
flow paths
paths from
from recharge
recharge areas
areas toward
toward the
the major
major rivers.
rivers. The
The
of water
water in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina was
was eastward,
eastward, along
along long
long flow
flow paths
paths from
from
regional movement
regional
movement of
recharge areas that are less than 50 feet above sea level (except for local areas in Bertie,
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Lenoir, and
Lenoir,
and Duplin
Duplin Counties)
Counties) toward
toward sounds
sounds and
and the
the ocean.
ocean.
In addition
In
addition to
to lateral
lateral flow,
flow, water
water also
also entered
entered and
and left
left the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer from
from
overlying and
overlying
and underlying
underlying aquifers
aquifers by
by vertical
vertical leakage
leakage through
through confining
confining units.
units. Because
Because the
the
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Castle
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer is
is buried
buried throughout
throughout most
most of
of its
its extent,
extent, it
it does
does not
not receive
receive
by evapotranspiration.
evapotranspiration.
recharge directly
recharge
directly from
from precipitation
precipitation and
and does
does not
not discharge
discharge by
Nevertheless, where
Nevertheless,
where the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is near
near the
the surface,
surface, most
most of
of the
the ground
ground water
water moved
moved through
through
local flow
local
flow systems
systems in
in which
which water
water entered
entered the
the aquifer
aquifer by
by downward
downward leakage
leakage through
through a
a
confining unit
confining
unit and
and discharged
discharged a
a short
short distance
distance away
away by
by upward
upward leakage
leakage to
to another
another aquifer
aquifer or
or
to a
to
a stream.
stream.
in the
the aquifer
aquifer and
and formed
formed cones
cones of
of
Ground-water withdrawals
Ground-water
withdrawals lowered
lowered the
the hydraulic
hydraulic head
head in
depression in
depression
in its
its potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface (fig.
(fig. 38).
38). The
The direction
direction of
of ground-water
ground-water flow
flow was
was
changed in
changed
in and
and around
around the
the pumping
pumping centers,
centers, and
and was
was reversed
reversed from
from the
the prepumping
prepumping flow
flow
37 and
and 38).
38). Heads
Heads have
have declined
declined in
in small
small areas
areas in
in New
New
direction in
direction
in some
some places
places (compare
(compare figs.
figs. 37
Jersey and
Jersey
and the
the western
western shores
shores of
of Maryland
Maryland and
and Virginia
Virginia as
as a
a result
result of
of withdrawals
withdrawals at
at pumping
pumping
of decline
decline in
in hydraulic
hydraulic head
head are
are in
in the
the central
central Del-marva
Del-marva
centers. The
centers.
The most
most prominent
prominent areas
areas of
is withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the local
local Piney
Piney Point
Point and
and Aquia-Rancocas
Aquia-Rancocas aquifers
aquifers
Peninsula, where
Peninsula,
where water
water is
for public
for
public supply
supply and
and in
in the
the southern
southern part
part of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal Plain,
Plain, where
where large
large
of water
water have
have been
been withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the local,
local, highly
highly productive
productive Castle
Castle Hayne
Hayne aquifer
aquifer
volumes of
volumes
for mining
for
mining uses
uses and
and public
public supply.
supply.
in a
a seaward
seaward direction
direction from
from a
a calcium
calcium plus
plus
Water in
Water
in the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer changes
changes in
magnesium bicarbonate
magnesium
bicarbonate hydrochemical
hydrochemical facies
facies along
along most
most of
of the
the western
western margin
margin to
to a
a sodium
sodium
bicarbonate facies
bicarbonate
facies in
in the
the middle
middle parts
parts and
and then
then to
to a
a sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies
facies near
near the
the coast
coast (~
39). Dissolved-solids
39).
Dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations in
in the
the water
water increase
increase seaward
seaward from
from the
the landward
landward margins
margins
of the
of
the aquifer.
aquifer. These
These distributions
distributions are
are mostly
mostly the
the result
result of
of natural
natural ground-water
ground-water flow
flow patterns.
patterns.
Whole or
Whole
or broken
broken fossil
fossil shell
shell material
material characterizes
characterizes the
the aquifer
aquifer from
from New
New Jersey
Jersey southward
southward
in North
North Carolina,
Carolina, the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is mostly
mostly limestone.
limestone. Chemical
Chemical reactions
reactions
through Virginia;
through
Virginia; in
between ground
between
ground water
water and
and the
the shell
shell material
material or
or limestone
limestone minerals
minerals within
within the
the aquifer
aquifer near
near its
its
western limit
western
limit are
are predominately
predominately dissolution
dissolution and
and precipitation
precipitation of
of calcareous
calcareous material,
material, which
which
in a
a calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate hydrochemical
hydrochemical facies.
facies. This
This facies
facies is
is especially
especially
results in
results
widespread in
widespread
in North
North Carolina
Carolina because
because of
of the
the abundant
abundant calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium carbonate
carbonate in
in
the Castle
the
Castle Hayne
Hayne aquifer.
aquifer.
of sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate facies
facies in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is broader
broader from
from New
New Jersey
Jersey through
through
The band
The
band of
Virginia than
Virginia
than in
in North
North Caroina.
Caroina. In
In this
this band,
band, ion-exchange
ion-exchange reactions
reactions predominate.
predominate. Glauconite
Glauconite is
is
abundant in
abundant
in the
the aquifer
aquifer north
north of
of North
North Carolina
Carolina and
and is
is the
the principal
principal agent
agent in
in the
the exchange
exchange of
of
sodium for
sodium
for calcium
calcium ions,
ions, a
a process
process that
that produces
produces a
a sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type water.
water. The
The
sodium chloride
sodium
chloride facies
facies is
is in
in much
much of
of the
the lOW-lying
lOW-lying coastal
coastal area,
area, particularly
particularly in
in North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
of freshwater
freshwater with
with saline
saline water
water is
is the
the most
most important
important chemical
chemical process.
process.
where the
where
the mixing
mixing of
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A small
A
small area
area of
of variable-composition
variable-composition facies
facies is
is situated
situated along
along the
the outcrop
outcrop of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in Anne
Anne
Arundel County,
Arundel
County, Md.
Md. Because
Because the
the hydraulic
hydraulic gradient
gradient is
is steep,
steep, the
the ground
ground water
water moves
moves rapidly
rapidly
is in
in contact
contact with
with aquifer
aquifer minerals
minerals for
for only
only a
a brief
brief time.
time. Accordingly,
Accordingly, the
the water
water does
does not
not
and is
and
assume a
assume
a distinctive
distinctive chemical
chemical type.
type.
of major
major pumping
pumping centers
centers that
that withdrew
withdrew water
water from
from the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia
The distribution
The
distribution of
aquifer during
aquifer
during 1979
1979 and
and 1980
1980 for
for all
all purposes
purposes except
except irrigation
irrigation is
is shown
shown in
in figure
figure 40.
40. The
The
largest withdrawals
largest
withdrawals were
were in
in North
North Carolina.
Carolina. During
During 1980,
1980, 67
67 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day were
were
in Beaufort
Beaufort County,
County, N.C.,
N.C., to
to lower
lower the
the pressure
pressure in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer under
under
pumped from
pumped
from the
the aquifer
aquifer in
open-pit phosphate
open-pit
phosphate mines
mines and
and to
to wash
wash and
and process
process the
the phosphate
phosphate ore.
ore. Large
Large volumes
volumes of
of
water also
water
also were
were withdrawn
withdrawn in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina for
for public
public supplies
supplies for
for the
the cities
cities of
of New
New Bern,
Bern,
of the
the water
water withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in pumping
pumping
Jacksonville, and
Jacksonville,
and Wilmington.
Wilmington. Most
Most of
centers in
centers
in Virginia
Virginia and
and northward
northward was
was used
used for
for public
public supplies
supplies and
and domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial
uses.
uses.
Total fresh
Total
fresh ground-water
ground-water withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer were
were estimated
estimated to
to
be 164
be
164 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day during
during 1985.
1985. The
The amount
amount of
of water
water withdrawn
withdrawn was
was much
much greater
greater
in North
in
North Carolina
Carolina than
than in
in the
the other
other Segment
Segment 11
11 States
States combined,
combined, and
and the
the use
use of
of the
the water
water
also was
also
was much
much different
different (fig.
(fig. 41
41 ).
).
76 percent
percent of
of the
the total
total withdrawals,
withdrawals, or
or about
about 125
125 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, were
were in
in North
North
About 76
About
Carolina (fig.
Carolina
(fig. 41A).
41A). Most
Most of
of the
the water
water withdrawn
withdrawn in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina was
was used
used for
for mining,
mining,
industrial, and
industrial,
and thermoelectric
thermoelectric power
power purposes,
purposes, with
with about
about 88
88 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day being
being
of this
this water
water was
was used
used by
by the
the mining
mining industry.
industry. Withdrawals
Withdrawals in
in
pumped for
pumped
for this
this use;
use; most
most of
North Carolina
North
Carolina for
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial,
commercial, public
public supply,
supply, and
and agricultural
agricultural uses
uses were
were about
about
21, 13,
21,
13, and
and 4
4 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, respectively.
respectively.
About 24
About
24 percent
percent of
of the
the total
total withdrawals,
withdrawals, or
or about
about 39
39 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, were
were in
in
Virginia, Maryland,
Virginia,
Maryland, Delaware,
Delaware, and
and New
New Jersey
Jersey (fig.
(fig. 41B).
41B). About
About 46
46 percent
percent of
of the
the water
water
withdrawn, or
withdrawn,
or about
about 18
18 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, was
was pumped
pumped for
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial
uses. Withdrawals
uses.
Withdrawals for
for public
public supply
supply were
were about
about 14
14 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day.
day. About
About 5
5 million
million
gallons per
gallons
per day
day was
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for mining,
mining, industrial,
industrial, and
and thermoelectric
thermoelectric power
power use,
use, and
and about
about
2 million
2
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day was
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for agricultural
agricultural purposes.
purposes.
SEVERN-MAGOTHY AQUIFER
SEVERN-MAGOTHY
AQUIFER
The Severn-Magothy
The
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer underlies
underlies most
most of
of the
the New
New Jersey
Jersey Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain and
and the
the Delmarva
Delmarva
is on
on the
the Maryland
Maryland part
part of
of the
the western
western shore
shore of
of Chesapeake
Chesapeake Bay
Bay (fig.
(fig. 42
42 ).
). The
The
Peninsula and
Peninsula
and is
aquifer consists
aquifer
consists of
of permeable
permeable sand
sand beds
beds of
of Late
Late Cretaceous
Cretaceous age.
age. The
The top
top of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is
slightly above
slightly
above sea
sea level
level along
along its
its northwestern
northwestern limit
limit and
and slopes
slopes southeastward
southeastward to
to depths
depths of
of
more than
more
than 2,000
2,000 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level.
level. Except
Except where
where it
it crops
crops out
out near
near its
its western
western limit,
limit, the
the
aquifer is overlain by a confining unit of silt and clay.
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The Severn-Magothy
The
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey consists
consists of
of three
three local
local aquifers
aquifers (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ),
), which
which are
are
named for
named
for the
the geologic
geologic units
units that
that compose
compose the
the aquifers.
aquifers. From
From top
top to
to bottom,
bottom, these
these are
are the
the
of the
the
Wenonah-Mount Laurel
Wenonah-Mount
Laurel aquifer,
aquifer, the
the Englishtown
Englishtown aquifer,
aquifer, and
and the
the upper
upper (Magothy)
(Magothy) part
part of
Potomac-Raritan-Magothy aquifer.
Potomac-Raritan-Magothy
aquifer. The
The Wenonah-Mount
Wenonah-Mount Laurel
Laurel aquifer
aquifer is
is predominately
predominately fine
fine to
to
is fine
fine to
to medium
medium sand
sand and
and has
has some
some beds
beds
medium glauconitic
medium
glauconitic sand;
sand; the
the Englishtown
Englishtown aquifer
aquifer is
of clay
of
clay and
and silt;
silt; and
and the
the Magothy
Magothy aquifer
aquifer typically
typically consists
consists of
of well-stratified
well-stratified to
to crossbedded,
crossbedded,
fine to
fine
to medium
medium sand.
sand. Each
Each of
of the
the local
local aquifers
aquifers is
is separated
separated from
from the
the underlying
underlying aquifer
aquifer by
by a
a
confining unit
confining
unit of
of clay
clay and
and silt.
silt. The
The confining
confining unit
unit between
between the
the Wenonah-Mount
Wenonah-Mount Laurel
Laurel and
and the
the
is generally
generally from
from 25
25 to
to 70
70 feet
feet thick;
thick; the
the one
one that
that underlies
underlies the
the
Englishtown aquifers
Englishtown
aquifers is
Englishtown aquifer
Englishtown
aquifer is
is generally
generally from
from 100
100 to
to 400
400 feet
feet thick
thick and
and effectively
effectively isolates
isolates the
the deep
deep
Magothy aquifer
Magothy
aquifer from
from the
the overlying
overlying aquifers.
aquifers. The
The maximum
maximum thickness
thickness of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy
in New
New Jersey
Jersey exceeds
exceeds 720
720 feet,
feet, and
and the
the average
average thickness
thickness is
is about
about 340
340 feet.
feet.
aquifer in
aquifer
In Delaware,
In
Delaware, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and the
the Eastern
Eastern Shore
Shore of
of Virginia,
Virginia, the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer consists
consists
of sand
of
sand beds
beds in
in the
the Severn
Severn Formation,
Formation, the
the Mount
Mount Laurel
Laurel Sand,
Sand, the
the Matawan
Matawan Formation
Formation (or
(or
Group), and
Group),
and the
the Magothy
Magothy Formation.
Formation. The
The sands
sands are
are generally
generally similar
similar in
in lithology
lithology to
to their
their
of the
the Severn,
Severn, the
the Mount
Mount Laurel,
Laurel, and
and the
the
equivalents in
equivalents
in New
New Jersey,
Jersey, except
except that
that the
the sands
sands of
Matawan are
Matawan
are thinner,
thinner, finer
finer grained,
grained, and
and contain
contain more
more clay
clay than
than those
those in
in New
New Jersey;
Jersey; the
the
of
Magothy Formation,
Magothy
Formation, therefore,
therefore, contains
contains the
the principal
principal water-yielding
water-yielding sands.
sands. Confining
Confining units
units of
finer grained,
finer
grained, and
and contain
contain more
more clay
clay than
than those
those in
in New
New Jersey;
Jersey; the
the Magothy
Magothy Formation,
Formation,
of clay
clay and
and silt
silt separate
separate
therefore, contains
therefore,
contains the
the principal
principal water-yielding
water-yielding sands.
sands. Confining
Confining units
units of
the local
the
local Severn
Severn and
and Matawan
Matawan aquifers
aquifers and
and the
the local
local Matawan
Matawan and
and Magothy
Magothy aquifers.
aquifers. Each
Each of
of
the confining
the
confining units
units is
is generally
generally from
from 50
50 to
to 75
75 feet
feet thick
thick in
in Delaware
Delaware but
but is
is thinner
thinner in
in Maryland
Maryland
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer in
in Delaware,
Delaware, Maryland,
Maryland,
and Virginia.
and
Virginia. The
The maximum
maximum thickness
thickness of
and Virginia
and
Virginia is
is about
about 385
385 feet;
feet; the
the average
average thickness
thickness is
is about
about 185
185 feet.
feet.
In a
In
a few
few local
local areas,
areas, the
the transmissivity
transmissivity of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer is
is less
less than
than 1,000
1,000 feet
feet
squared per
squared
per day
day (fig.
(fig. 42
42 ).
). The
The aquifer
aquifer is
is thin
thin in
in these
these areas
areas and
and generally
generally yields
yields less
less than
than 50
50
gallons per
gallons
per minute
minute to
to wells.
wells. Throughout
Throughout most
most of
of its
its area,
area, the
the aquifer
aquifer has
has a
a transmissivity
transmissivity of
of
less than
less
than 5,000
5,000 feet
feet squared
squared per
per day,
day, but
but transmissivity
transmissivity values
values exceed
exceed 10,000
10,000 feet
feet squared
squared
per day
per
day in
in two
two local
local areas
areas in
in New
New Jersey.
Jersey.
of the
the aquifer
aquifer began,
began, water
water levels
levels in
in the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the regional
regional SevernSevern­
Before development
Before
development of
Magothy aquifer
Magothy
aquifer were
were more
more than
than 100
100 feet
feet above
above sea
sea level
level in
in places
places along
along a
a ground-water
ground-water
in the
the central
central part
part of
of the
the New
New Jersey
Jersey Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain and
and in
in aquifer
aquifer outcrop
outcrop areas
areas in
in Anne
Anne
divide in
divide
Arundel and
Arundel
and Prince
Prince Georges
Georges Counties,
Counties, Md.
Md. (fig.
(fig. 43).
43). Water
Water levels
levels were
were less
less than
than 50
50 feet
feet above
above
sea level
sea
level on
on the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula.
Peninsula. Regional
Regional ground-water
ground-water movement
movement was
was toward
toward the
the
Bays. Before
Before pumping
pumping began,
began, the
the
Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean and
and Chesapeake,
Chesapeake, Delaware,
Delaware, and
and Raritan
Raritan Bays.
configuration of
configuration
of the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface of
of the
the local
local Magothy
Magothy aquifer
aquifer (the
(the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the
43 .. However,
However,
regional Severn-Magothy
regional
Severn-Magothy aquifer)
aquifer) was
was generally
generally similar
similar to
to that
that shown
shown in
in figure
figure 43
because recharge to the local Magothy aquifer in New Jersey was impeded by the substantial
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aquifer system
system text
text
thickness of
thickness
of the
the overlying
overlying clay
clay and
and silt
silt confining
confining unit,
unit, water
water levels
levels in
in the
the local
local Magothy
Magothy aquifer
aquifer
were as
were
as much
much as
as 50
50 feet
feet lower
lower than
than those
those in
in the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the regional
regional Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy
aquifer. For
aquifer.
For the
the upper
upper and
and lower
lower parts
parts of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer,
aquifer, regional
regional flow
flow was
was along
along
intermediate to
intermediate
to long
long flow
flow paths,
paths, and
and the
the water
water moved
moved from
from outcrop
outcrop recharge
recharge areas
areas toward
toward
discharge areas
discharge
areas at
at lowlands,
lowlands, major
major bays,
bays, and
and the
the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean.
Ocean. In
In addition
addition to
to the
the lateral
lateral
flow, water
flow,
water also
also moved
moved vertically
vertically into
into and
and out
out of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer from
from overlying
overlying
and underlying
and
underlying aquifers
aquifers by
by leakage
leakage across
across confining
confining units.
units. Except
Except in
in aquifer
aquifer outcrop
outcrop areas
areas
along its
along
its northwest
northwest ern
ern boundary,
boundary, the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer is
is covered
covered by
by a
a confining
confining unit
unit
and thus
and
thus does
does not
not receive
receive direct
direct recharge
recharge by
by precipitation,
precipitation, nor
nor does
does it
it discharge
discharge water
water by
by
eva potra
eva
potra nspiration.
nspiration.
in the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface throughout
throughout
Ground-water withdrawals
Ground-water
withdrawals caused
caused a
a general
general decline
decline in
of depression
depression in
in the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface (fig.
(fig. 44),
44), and
and changed
changed
the aquifer,
the
aquifer, created
created cones
cones of
the directions
the
directions of
of ground-water
ground-water movement
movement near
near pumping
pumping centers.
centers. In
In the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the
regional Severn-Magothy
regional
Severn-Magothy aquifer,
aquifer, withdrawals
withdrawals lowered
lowered the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface to
to more
more
than 150
than
150 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level
level in
in northeastern
northeastern New
New Jersey.
Jersey. Hydraulic
Hydraulic heads
heads were
were lowered
lowered
sea level
level over
over much
much of
of the
the extent
extent of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in eastern
eastern New
New Jersey,
Jersey, most
most of
of the
the
below sea
below
Delmarva Peninsula,
Delmarva
Peninsula, and
and part
part of
of the
the western
western shore
shore of
of Maryland
Maryland as
as a
a result
result of
of pumping.
pumping. The
The
in intrusion
intrusion of
of saline
saline water
water into
into the
the aquifer
aquifer along
along Raritan
Raritan Bay.
Bay. The
The
lowered heads
lowered
heads resulted
resulted in
lowered hydraulic
lowered
hydraulic head
head in
in the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer in
in central
central Delaware
Delaware is
is attributed
attributed in
in part
part
to withdrawals
to
withdrawals from
from the
the overlying
overlying Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer
aquifer (local
(local Piney
Piney Point
Point aquifer),
aquifer), which
which
caused water
caused
water to
to move
move upward
upward into
into the
the shallower
shallower aquifer
aquifer through
through a
a leaky
leaky confining
confining unit.
unit.
By 1980,
By
1980, water-level
water-level declines
declines in
in response
response to
to withdrawals
withdrawals in
in southwestern
southwestern New
New Jersey
Jersey were
were
larger in
larger
in the
the lower
lower part
part (local
(local Magothy
Magothy aquifer)
aquifer) of
of the
the regional
regional Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer than
than in
in
the upper
the
upper part.
part. Much
Much more
more water
water was
was pumped
pumped from
from the
the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the regional
regional aquifer
aquifer than
than
from the
from
the upper
upper part,
part, and
and the
the thick
thick confining
confining unit
unit that
that overlies
overlies the
the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer
retarded recharge
retarded
recharge from
from above.
above. The
The potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface was
was more
more than
than 75
75 feet
feet below
below sea
sea
level in
level
in 1980
1980 (fig.
(fig. 44)
44) in
in an
an area
area of
of central
central Camden
Camden County,
County, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, where
where the
the
predevelopment potentiometric
predevelopment
potentiometric surface
surface of
of the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer was
was more
more than
than 100
100
feet above
feet
above sea
sea level
level (fig.
(fig. 43).
43). Withdrawals
Withdrawals loweredthe
loweredthe potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface below
below sea
sea level
level
throughout most
throughout
most of
of the
the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the regional
regional aquifer
aquifer in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and resulted
resulted in
in saline
saline
water encroachment
water
encroachment into
into the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in Salem
Salem County,
County, N.J.,
N.J., and
and along
along Raritan
Raritan Bay.
Bay.
Hydrochemical facies
Hydrochemical
facies in
in the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer show
show the
the same
same
coastward sequence
coastward
sequence that
that is
is typical
typical of
of water
water in
in aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the northern
northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal PlainPlain­
at the
the western
western margin,
margin, grading
grading eastward
eastward to
to calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium
variable composition
variable
composition at
bicarbon ate,
bicarbon
ate, grading,
grading, in
in turn,
turn, to
to sodium
sodium bicarbonate,
bicarbonate, and,
and, finally,
finally, to
to sodium
sodium chloride
chloride in
in
downdip parts
downdip
parts of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 45).
45). The
The facies
facies generally
generally appear
appear vertically
vertically in
in the
the same
same
sequence downward
sequence
downward in
in the
the aquifer.
aquifer. Predevelopment
Predevelopment ground-water
ground-water flow
flow patterns
patterns largely
largely
determine the
determine
the distribution
distribution of
of hydrochemical
hydrochemical facies
facies and
and the
the seaward
seaward increase
increase in
in dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids
concentrations in the water. Local intrusion of saline water as a result of withdrawals is not
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Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system
system text
text
shown at
shown
at this
this map
map scale.
scale.
of the
the regional
regional Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer contains
contains glauconite
glauconite in
in most
most places.
places.
The upper
The
upper part
part of
is active
active in
in base-exchange
base-exchange reactions-the
reactions-the mineral
mineral exchanges
exchanges sodium
sodium ions
ions for
for calcium
calcium
Glauconite is
Glauconite
ions, which
ions,
which naturally
naturally softens
softens the
the water.
water. This
This proc-ess
proc-ess is
is reflected
reflected by
by the
the broad
broad band
band of
of sodium
sodium
bicarbonate facies
bicarbonate
facies across
across the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula and
and New
New Jersey
Jersey (fig.
(fig. 45).
45). Because
Because the
the lower
lower
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer on
on the
the western
western shore
shore of
of Maryland
Maryland does
does not
not contain
contain
part of
part
glauconite, the
glauconite,
the base
base exchange
exchange process
process is
is less
less active,
active, and
and the
the band
band of
of sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate
is narrower.
narrower. The
The dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentration
concentration in
in water
water from
from the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the
facies is
facies
Severn-Magothy aquifer
Severn-Magothy
aquifer increases
increases downdip
downdip to
to more
more than
than 2,000
2,000 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter in
in southern
southern
New Jersey
New
Jersey and
and the
the eastern
eastern Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula (fig.
(fig. 45).
45). Mixing
Mixing of
of freshwater
freshwater with
with saline
saline
water in
water
in low-lying
low-lying coastal
coastal areas
areas is
is responsible
responsible for
for the
the large
large increase
increase in
in dissolved
dissolved solids
solids and
and the
the
change to
change
to a
a sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies.
facies.
Major pumping
Major
pumping centers
centers that
that withdrew
withdrew water
water from
from the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy aquifer
aquifer during
during 1979
1979 and
and
1980 were
1980
were located
located mostly
mostly near
near its
its western
western limit
limit (fig.
(fig. 46).
46). The
The greatest
greatest rate
rate of
of withdrawal,
withdrawal, by
by
far, was
far,
was in
in New
New Jersey;
Jersey; however,
however, numerous
numerous pumping
pumping centers
centers also
also withdrew
withdrew water
water in
in
Maryland. Total
Maryland.
Total fresh
fresh ground-water
ground-water withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the aquifer
aquifer were
were estimated
estimated to
to be
be 173
173
in New
New Jersey
Jersey were
were 151
151 million
million
million gallons
million
gallons per
per day
day during
during 1985
1985 (fig.
(fig. 47).
47). Withdrawals
Withdrawals in
gallons per
gallons
per day
day during
during this
this period.
period. Of
Of the
the water
water withdrawn,
withdrawn, 80
80 percent,
percent, or
or about
about 138
138 million
million
gallons per
gallons
per day,
day, was
was used
used for
for public
public supply.
supply. About
About 17
17 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day was
was withdrawn
withdrawn
for industrial,
for
industrial, mining,
mining, and
and thermoelectric
thermoelectric power
power purposes.
purposes. Withdrawals
Withdrawals for
for domestic
domestic and
and
uses were
were about
about 14
14 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, and
and only
only about
about 4
4 million
million gallons
gallons per
per
commercial uses
commercial
day was
day
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for agricultural
agricultural use.
use.
PEEDEE-UPPER CAPE
PEEDEE-UPPER
CAPE FEAR
FEAR AQUIFER
AQUIFER
The regional
The
regional Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer underlies
underlies most
most of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal
Plain and
Plain
and extends
extends into
into a
a small
small part
part of
of southeastern
southeastern Virginia
Virginia (fig.
(fig. 48).
48). The
The aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
of
permeable sands
permeable
sands of
of the
the Peedee
Peedee Formation,
Formation, the
the Black
Black Creek
Creek Formation,
Formation, and
and the
the upper
upper part
part of
of
the Cape
the
Cape Fear
Fear Formation,
Formation, all
all of
of Late
Late Cretaceous
Cretaceous age,
age, and
and their
their stratigraphic
stratigraphic equivalents
equivalents in
in
Virginia. The
Virginia.
The Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer is
is the
the lateral
lateral equivalent
equivalent of
of the
the Severn-Magothy
Severn-Magothy
be connected.
connected. A
A clayey
clayey confining
confining unit
unit overlies
overlies
aquifer, but
aquifer,
but the
the two
two aquifers
aquifers are
are not
not known
known to
to be
the Peedee-upper
the
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer in
in most
most places.
places. The
The top
top of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is above
above sea
sea level
level
of the
the western
western part
part of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain and
and slopes
slopes eastward
eastward to
to a
a
over much
over
much of
of more
more than
than 3,000
3,000 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level
level at
at Cape
Cape Hatteras.
Hatteras. The
The entire
entire aquifer
aquifer contains
contains
depth of
depth
saline water
saline
water in
in a
a large
large area
area in
in eastern
eastern North
North Carolina,
Carolina, approximately
approximately where
where the
the top
top of
of the
the
aquifer is
aquifer
is 1,000
1,000 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level
level or
or deeper.
deeper. No
No fresh
fresh ground
ground water
water circulates
circulates in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer
of the
the line
line that
that represents
represents water
water with
with 10,000
10,000 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter chloride
chloride concentration
concentration
east of
east
(fig. 48).
(fig.
48).
The regional Peedee-upper Cape Fear aquifer in North Carolina consists of the local Peedee,
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system text
text
Black Creek,
Black
Creek, and
and upper
upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifers
aquifers (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ),
), which
which are
are separated
separated by
by confining
confining units
units of
of
clay and
clay
and silt
silt that
that generally
generally range
range from
from 20
20 to
to 70
70 feet
feet in
in thickness.
thickness. The
The Peedee
Peedee aquifer
aquifer consists
consists
of fine
of
fine tomedium
tomedium glauconitic
glauconitic sand
sand of
of the
the Peedee
Peedee Formation,
Formation, and
and contains
contains shell
shell material
material and
and
of very
very fine
fine to
to fine
fine lignitic,
lignitic,
calcareous sandstone
calcareous
sandstone beds.
beds. The
The Black
Black Creek
Creek aquifer
aquifer consists
consists of
glauconitic, and
glauconitic,
and shelly
shelly sand
sand interbedded
interbedded with
with clay
clay of
of the
the Black
Black Creek
Creek Formation,
Formation, and
and fine
fine to
to
medium sand,
medium
sand, with
with lenses
lenses of
of coarse
coarse sand
sand and
and clay
clay of
of the
the underlying
underlying Middendorf
Middendorf Formation.
Formation.
is the
the thickest
thickest and
and most
most productive
productive of
of the
the three
three local
local aquifers.
aquifers. The
The
The Black
The
Black Creek
Creek aquifer
aquifer is
upper Cape
upper
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer consists
consists mostlyof
mostlyof alternating
alternating beds
beds of
of fine
fine to
to medium
medium sand
sand and
and clay
clay of
of
the upper
the
upper part
part of
of the
the Cape
Cape Fear
Fear Formation.
Formation. The
The maximum
maximum thickness
thickness of
of the
the regional
regional PeedeePeedee­
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer is
is about
about 1,200
1,200 feet;
feet; the
the average
average is
is about
about 570
570 feet.
feet. The
The greater
greater
upper Cape
upper
thicknesses are
thicknesses
are along
along the
the coast,
coast, but
but the
the aquifer
aquifer contains
contains saline
saline water
water there.
there.
In Virginia,
In
Virginia, sand
sand beds
beds equivalent
equivalent to
to the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the Cape
Cape Fear
Fear Formation
Formation have
have been
been
assigned to
assigned
to the
the local
local upper
upper Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ).
). Beds
Beds equivalent
equivalent to
to the
the local
local Peedee
Peedee and
and
Black Creek
Black
Creek aquifers
aquifers are
are mostly
mostly absent
absent in
in Virginia.
Virginia. The
The average
average thickness
thickness of
of the
the regional
regional
Peedee-upper Cape
Peedee-upper
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer in
in Virginia
Virginia is
is about
about 95
95 feet.
feet.
of the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer is
is less
less than
than 1,000
1,000 feet
feet
Where the
Where
the transmissivity
transmissivity of
squared per
squared
per day
day (fig.
(fig. 48
48 ),
), the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is considered
considered to
to be
be a
a minor
minor aquifer.
aquifer. Wells
Wells completed
completed in
in
the aquifer
the
aquifer in
in this
this low-transmissivity
low-transmissivity area
area yield
yield less
less than
than 50
50 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. By
By contrast,
contrast, in
in
some areas,
some
areas, the
the transmissivity
transmissivity of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is greater
greater than
than 10,000
10,000 feet
feet squared
squared per
per day;
day; in
in
such areas,
such
areas, yields
yields of
of 1,000
1,000 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute or
or more
more are
are obtained
obtained from
from properly
properly constructed
constructed
wells.
wells.
of the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer was
was more
more than
than 400
400 feet
feet
The potentiometric
The
potentiometric surface
surface of
above sea
above
sea level
level in
in the
the southwestern
southwestern corner
corner of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain before
before groundground­
49). The
The high
high areas
areas on
on the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface coincide
coincide with
with
water withdrawals
water
withdrawals began
began (fig.
(fig. 49).
the high
the
high altitude
altitude of
of the
the land
land surface.
surface. By
By contrast,
contrast, the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface in
in Virginia
Virginia was
was
less than
less
than 50
50 feet
feet above
above sea
sea level
level throughout
throughout the
the aquifer.
aquifer. Ground
Ground water
water moved
moved regionally
regionally from
from
of high
high hydraulic
hydraulic head,
head, generally
generally along
along the
the western
western limit
limit of
of the
the aquifer,
aquifer, toward
toward areas
areas of
of
areas of
areas
low head
low
head along
along the
the coast
coast and
and beneath
beneath sounds
sounds and
and estuaries.
estuaries. The
The direction
direction of
of regional
regional
movement was
movement
was eastward
eastward and
and southeastward
southeastward along
along long
long flow
flow paths.
paths. Locally,
Locally, some
some water
water
moved from
moved
from recharge
recharge areas
areas along
along short
short to
to intermediate
intermediate flow
flow paths
paths and
and discharged
discharged to
to streams.
streams.
In addition
In
addition to
to the
the lateral
lateral flow
flow indicated
indicated by
by the
the arrows
arrows in
in figure
figure 49,
49, water
water also
also leaked
leaked through
through
confining units
confining
units vertically
vertically into
into and
and out
out of
of the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer from
from overlying
overlying or
or
underlying aquifers
underlying
aquifers that
that had
had hydraulic
hydraulic heads
heads greater
greater than
than those
those in
in the
the aquifer.
aquifer. Where
Where the
the
heads in
heads
in the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer were
were higher
higher than
than those
those in
in adjacent
adjacent aquifers,
aquifers, the
the
leakage was
leakage
was reversed.
reversed. Direct
Direct recharge
recharge by
by precipitation
precipitation or
or discharge
discharge by
by evapotranspiration
evapotranspiration took
took
place where
place
where the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is exposed
exposed at
at the
the land
land surface.
surface.
of the
the aquifer
aquifer has
has been
been lowered
lowered in
in and
and around
around pumping
pumping centers
centers
The potentiometric
The
potentiometric surface
surface of
where large volumes of water are withdrawn. The direction of ground-water movement has
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been changed
been
changed or,
or, in
in places,
places, reversed
reversed so
so that
that flow
flow is
is toward
toward the
the pumping
pumping centers.
centers. Cones
Cones of
of
depression (fig.
depression
(fig. 50)
50) have
have formed
formed in
in the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface of
of the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer
around the
around
the areas
areas where
where withdrawals
withdrawals are
are greatest.
greatest. One
One large
large area
area of
of decline
decline in
in southeastern
southeastern
is the
the result
result of
of pumping
pumping for
for public
public supply.
supply. Another
Another area
area of
of decline
decline in
in Beaufort
Beaufort County,
County,
Virginia is
Virginia
N.C., is
N.C.,
is the
the result
result of
of large
large withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the Castle
Castle Hayne-Aquia
Hayne-Aquia aquifer.
aquifer. The
The withdrawals
withdrawals
from this
from
this shallower
shallower aquifer,
aquifer, which
which are
are primarily
primarily for
for mining
mining purposes,
purposes, have
have induced
induced upward
upward
of water
water from
from the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer through
through the
the confining
confining unit
unit that
that
leakage of
leakage
overlies it.
overlies
it. The
The hydraulic
hydraulic head
head in
in the
the middle
middle part
part of
of the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer (the
(the
has declined
declined in
in the
the area
area of
of Kinston
Kinston and
and Greenville,
Greenville, N.C.
N.C. (fig.
(fig. 50),
50), but
but
local Black
local
Black Creek
Creek aquifer)
aquifer) has
the decline
the
decline is
is not
not evident
evident in
in the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface of
of the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the aquifer.
aquifer. The
The
decline is
decline
is the
the result
result of
of withdrawals
withdrawals for
for public
public supply.
supply. Water
Water levels
levels in
in the
the local
local Black
Black Creek
Creek
in the
the overlying
overlying local
local Peedee
Peedee aquifer
aquifer because
because
aquifer have
aquifer
have been
been drawn
drawn down
down more
more than
than those
those in
of the
the pumping
pumping wells
wells are
are completed
completed in
in the
the Black
Black Creek
Creek aquifer
aquifer and
and the
the confining
confining unit
unit
most of
most
that overlies
that
overlies the
the Black
Black Creek
Creek aquifer
aquifer is
is thicker
thicker and
and retards
retards flow
flow more
more effectively
effectively than
than the
the one
one
Peedee aq
aq u
uifer.
ifer.
above
a
bove the
the Peedee
of the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer is
is of
of variable
variable composition
composition
The water
The
water in
in the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain (fig.
(fig. 51
51 ).
). The
The
over a
over
a large
large area
area in
in the
the western
western part
part of
processes of
processes
of dissolution
dissolution of
of shell
shell material
material and
and precipitation
precipitation of
of carbonate
carbonate minerals
minerals predominate
predominate
in the
in
the area
area where
where the
the water
water is
is a
a calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type.
type. In
In the
the
of the
the aquifer,
aquifer, the
the sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate facies
facies is
is adjacent
adjacent to
to the
the variablevariable­
southwestern part
southwestern
part of
no shell
shell
composition facies;
composition
facies; because
because the
the aquifer
aquifer contains
contains glauconitic
glauconitic sand
sand and
and little
little or
or no
material, the
material,
the calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate facies
facies is
is absent.
absent. A
A band
band of
of sodium
sodium
is west
west of
of the
the widespread
widespread area
area of
of sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies
facies that
that is
is the
the result
result of
of
bicarbonate facies
bicarbonate
facies is
mixing of
mixing
of saltwater
saltwater and
and freshwater.
freshwater. The
The coastward
coastward progression
progression of
of hydro-chemical
hydro-chemical facies
facies is
is
typical of
typical
of that
that in
in other
other aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain and
and is
is mostly
mostly the
the result
result
of predevelopment
of
predevelopment ground-water
ground-water flow
flow patterns.
patterns.
In the
In
the areas
areas of
of variable-composition
variable-composition and
and calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate facies,
facies, dissolveddissolved­
in water
water from
from the
the upper
upper part
part of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer are
are generally
generally less
less than
than 250
250
solids concentrations
solids
concentrations in
milligrams per
milligrams
per liter.
liter. Dissolved-solids
Dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations increase
increase coastward
coastward to
to more
more than
than 2,000
2,000
of sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies.
facies. In
In the
the easternmost
easternmost part
part of
of
milligrams per
milligrams
per liter,
liter, mostly
mostly in
in the
the area
area of
the North
the
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal Plain,
Plain, water
water in
in the
the aquifer
aquifer contains
contains more
more than
than 10,000
10,000 milligrams
milligrams
per liter
per
liter chloride
chloride (fig.
(fig. 48)
48) and
and probably
probably as
as much
much as
as 20,000
20,000 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter dissolved
dissolved solids
solids
in some
in
some places.
places.
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer during
during
Numerous pumping
Numerous
pumping centers
centers withdrew
withdrew water
water from
from the
the Peedee-upper
Peedee-upper Cape
1979 and
1979
and 1980
1980 (fig.
(fig. 52).
52). Use
Use of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer was
was widespread
widespread during
during this
this period,
period, especially
especially
toward its
toward
its western
western margin.
margin. The
The largest
largest withdrawals,
withdrawals, however,
however, were
were in
in the
the central
central parts
parts of
of the
the
aquifer, where
aquifer,
where several
several cities
cities withdrew
withdrew water
water for
for public
public supplies.
supplies.
Total fresh ground-water withdrawals from the Peedee-upper Cape Fear aquifer were
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estimated to
estimated
to be
be 126
126 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day during
during 1985
1985 (fig.
(fig. 53).
53). Most
Most of
of the
the water
water (about
(about 58
58
million gallons
million
gallons per
per day)
day) was
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for public
public supply.
supply. Domestic
Domestic and
and commercial
commercial
withdrawals were
withdrawals
were about
about 40
40 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, and
and about
about 28
28 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day were
were
uses.
withdrawn for
withdrawn
for industrial,
industrial, mining,
mining, and
and thermoelectric
thermoelectric power
power uses.
POTOMAC AQUIFER
POTOMAC
AQUIFER
The regional
The
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer underlies
underlies the
the entire
entire Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain except
except for
for
small areas
small
areas near
near the
the Fall
Fall Line
Line in
in Virginia,
Virginia, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and Delaware,
Delaware, and
and a
a multicounty
multicounty area
area in
in
the western
the
western part
part of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain (fig.
(fig. 54).
54). The
The aquifer
aquifer is
is the
the lowermost,
lowermost,
and most
and
most widespread,
widespread, aquifer
aquifer of
of the
the Northern
Northern Atlantic
Atlantic Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifer
aquifer system.
system. The
The
Potomac aquifer
Potomac
aquifer consists
consists mostly
mostly of
of permeable
permeable sands
sands in
in the
the Potomac
Potomac Formation
Formation (or
(or Group)
Group) and
and
their stratigraphic
their
stratigraphic equivalents
equivalents but
but includes
includes younger,
younger, hydraulically
hydraulically connected,
connected, permeable
permeable
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is above
above sea
sea level
level only
only in
in a
a narrow
narrow band
band near
near its
its western
western
sediments. The
sediments.
The top
top of
N.C. The
The aquifer
aquifer is
is more
more than
than 2,500
2,500
limit from
limit
from New
New Jersey
Jersey southward
southward to
to Northampton
Northampton County,
County, N.C.
feet below
feet
below sea
sea level
level in
in southern
southern New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and on
on the
the easternmost
easternmost part
part of
of the
the Delmarva
Delmarva
sea level
level in
in easternmost
easternmost North
North Carolina.
Carolina. A
A confining
confining
Peninsula and
Peninsula
and more
more than
than 4,500
4,500 feet
feet below
below sea
unit of
unit
of clay
clay and
and sandy
sandy clay
clay overlies
overlies the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in most
most places
places and
and is
is particularly
particularly effective
effective in
in
retarding vertical
retarding
vertical flow
flow near
near Cape
Cape May,
May, N.J.,
N.J., where
where its
its thickness
thickness is
is greater
greater than
than 700
700 feet.
feet.
of the
the
The regional
The
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey includes
includes the
the middle
middle and
and lower
lower aquifers
aquifers of
Potomac-Raritan-Magothy aquifer
Potomac-Raritan-Magothy
aquifer system
system (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ).
). The
The middle
middle aquifer
aquifer consists
consists mostly
mostly of
of
permeable beds
permeable
beds of
of the
the Raritan
Raritan Formation
Formation and
and the
the undifferentiated
undifferentiated Potomac
Potomac Formation
Formation and
and is
is
mostly lenticular
mostly
lenticular sand
sand bodies
bodies interbedded
interbedded with
with clay
clay and
and silt,
silt, predominately
predominately of
of fluvial
fluvial origin.
origin.
The lower
The
lower aquifer
aquifer of
of the
the Potomac-Raritan-Magothy
Potomac-Raritan-Magothy aquifer
aquifer system
system is
is similar
similar in
in lithology
lithology to
to the
the
middle aquifer
middle
aquifer but
but contains
contains more
more sand.
sand. The
The two
two local
local aquifers
aquifers are
are separated
separated by
by an
an indistinctly
indistinctly
of clay
clay and
and sandy
sandy clay
clay that
that is
is generally
generally from
from 50
50 to
to 150
150 feet
feet thick
thick where
where
defined confining
defined
confining unit
unit of
the regional
the
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer contains
contains freshwater
freshwater but
but is
is more
more than
than 1,000
1,000 feet
feet thick
thick at
at the
the
southeastern tip
southeastern
tip of
of New
New Jersey,
Jersey, where
where the
the aquifer
aquifer contains
contains saline
saline water.
water. The
The maximum
maximum
of the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey is
is about
about 3,400
3,400 feet,
feet, and
and the
the average
average
thickness of
thickness
thickness is
thickness
is about
about 630
630 feet.
feet. These
These thicknesses,
thicknesses, as
as well
well as
as the
the those
those described
described below
below for
for the
the
other States,
other
States, include
include clay
clay between
between the
the deepest
deepest permeable
permeable sand
sand and
and bedrock
bedrock and
and sands
sands that
that
contain saline
contain
saline water
water and
and effectively
effectively are
are not
not part
part of
of the
the aquifer.
aquifer.
of the
the local
local Patapsco
Patapsco aquifer
aquifer
The regional
The
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer in
in Delaware
Delaware and
and Maryland
Maryland consists
consists of
of the
the
and the
and
the underlying
underlying local
local Patuxent
Patuxent aquifer,
aquifer, both
both named
named for
for sand
sand and
and gravel
gravel formations
formations of
Potomac Group
Potomac
Group that
that crop
crop out
out in
in the
the northern
northern part
part of
of the
the Maryland
Maryland Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain. The
The Patapsco
Patapsco
aquifer typically
aquifer
typically is
is lenses
lenses of
of fine
fine to
to medium
medium sand
sand that
that range
range in
in length
length and
and width
width from
from a
a few
few
feet to
feet
to several
several miles,
miles, contain
contain some
some gravel,
gravel, and
and are
are separated
separated by
by clay
clay beds.
beds. The
The Patuxent
Patuxent
is medium
medium to
to coarse
coarse gravelly
gravelly sand,
sand, and
and also
also is
is lenticular.
lenticular. A
A clayey
clayey confining
confining
aquifer typically
aquifer
typically is
unit that
unit
that separates
separates the
the two
two local
local aquifers
aquifers generally
generally is
is from
from 50
50 to
to 300
300 feet
feet thick
thick in
in northern
northern
Delaware and the western shore of Maryland, where the regional Potomac aquifer contains
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freshwater, but
freshwater,
but is
is more
more than
than 900
900 feet
feet thick
thick at
at the
the mouth
mouth of
of Delaware
Delaware Bay
Bay where
where the
the water
water in
in
the aquifer
the
aquifer is
is saline.
saline. The
The regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer thickens
thickens and
and contains
contains more
more clay
clay to
to the
the
up the
the Poto-mac
Poto-mac aquifer
aquifer are
are predominately
predominately of
of fluvial
fluvial and
and
southeast. The
southeast.
The sediments
sediments that
that make
make up
deltaic origin.
deltaic
origin. The
The maximum
maximum thickness
thickness of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in Delaware
Delaware and
and Maryland
Maryland is
is about
about 5,000
5,000
feet, and
feet,
and the
the average
average thickness
thickness is
is about
about 1,600
1,600 feet.
feet.
of the
the local
local middle
middle and
and lower
lower Potomac
Potomac
The regional
The
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer in
in Virginia
Virginia consists
consists of
aquifers, which
aquifers,
which are
are approximately
approximately equivalent
equivalent to
to the
the Patapsco
Patapsco and
and the
the Patuxent
Patuxent aquifers,
aquifers,
of Maryland
Maryland and
and Delaware,
Delaware, and
and consist
consist of
of fine
fine to
to coarse
coarse gravelly
gravelly sand.
sand. The
The local
local
respectively, of
respectively,
middle and
middle
and lower
lower Potomac
Potomac aquifers
aquifers are
are separated
separated by
by a
a clayey
clayey confining
confining unit
unit that
that generally
generally is
is
from 15
from
15 to
to 100
100 feet
feet thick
thick in
in the
the western
western part
part of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain where
where the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac
as much
much as
as 175
175 feet
feet thick
thick on
on the
the Delmarva
Delmarva Peninsula
Peninsula where
where
aquifer contains
aquifer
contains freshwater
freshwater and
and as
the aquifer
the
aquifer contains
contains saline
saline water.
water. The
The maximum
maximum thickness
thickness of
of the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer in
in
is about
about 4,600
4,600 feet,
feet, and
and the
the average
average thickness
thickness is
is about
about 800
800 feet.
feet.
Virginia is
Virginia
of two
two local
local aquifers-the
aquifers-the lower
lower Cape
Cape
The regional
The
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina consists
consists of
Fear aquifer
Fear
aquifer and
and the
the Lower
Lower Cretaceous
Cretaceous aquifer
aquifer (fig.
(fig. 21
21 ).
). The
The lower
lower Cape
Cape Fear
Fear aquifer
aquifer consists
consists
of fine
of
fine to
to medium
medium sand
sand (interbedded
(interbedded with
with clay)
clay) of
of the
the lower
lower part
part of
of the
the Cape
Cape Fear
Fear Formation
Formation
and other
and
other hydraulically
hydraulically connected
connected permeable
permeable sediments.
sediments. The
The Lower
Lower Cretaceous
Cretaceous aquifer
aquifer is
is
predominately fine
predominately
fine to
to medium
medium sand
sand with
with a
a few
few beds
beds of
of coarse
coarse sand
sand and
and limestone,
limestone, all
all of
of which
which
are in
are
in Lower
Lower Cretaceous
Cretaceous strata.
strata. These
These Lower
Lower Cretaceous
Cretaceous beds
beds are
are not
not exposed
exposed at
at the
the surface,
surface,
are known
are
known only
only through
through data
data from
from a
a few
few wells,
wells, and
and have
have no
no formal
formal stratigraphic
stratigraphic names.
names. The
The
Lower Cretaceous
Lower
Cretaceous aquifer
aquifer has
has been
been defined
defined only
only in
in the
the northern
northern part
part of
of the
the North
North Carolina
Carolina
Coastal Plain;
Coastal
Plain; farther
farther south
south along
along the
the coast,
coast, equivalent
equivalent beds
beds contain
contain saline
saline water.
water. The
The
maximum thickness
maximum
thickness of
of the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina is
is about
about 4,900
4,900 feet,
feet, and
and
is about
about 500
500 feet.
feet.
the average
the
average thickness
thickness is
is considered
considered to
to be
be a
a major
major aquifer
aquifer except
except for
for local
local areas
areas in
in North
North
The Potomac
The
Potomac aquifer
aquifer is
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is less
less than
than 1,000
1,000 feet
feet squared
squared per
per day
day (~
Carolina where
Carolina
where the
the transmissivity
transmissivity of
54); in
54);
in these
these low-transmissivity
low-transmissivity areas,
areas, the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is thin.
thin. The
The aquifer
aquifer thins
thins westward
westward because
because
it has
it
has been
been partly
partly eroded
eroded away,
away, but
but the
the eastward
eastward thinning
thinning is
is due
due to
to a
a facies
facies change
change from
from sand
sand
to clay.
to
clay. The
The coastward
coastward increase
increase in
in clay
clay and
and decrease
decrease in
in sand
sand also
also is
is shown
shown by
by the
the distribution
distribution
of transmissivity
of
transmissivity in
in Virginia
Virginia and
and northward.
northward. Transmissivity
Transmissivity values
values increase
increase eastward
eastward from
from the
the
western limits
western
limits of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer to
to its
its central
central parts,
parts, mostly
mostly because
because the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer
steadily increases
steadily
increases seaward.
seaward. East
East of
of the
the high-transmissivity
high-transmissivity areas,
areas, the
the transmissivity
transmissivity of
of the
the
in facies
facies from
from sand
sand to
to clay,
clay, even
even though
though the
the
aquifer decreases
aquifer
decreases due
due to
to the
the eastward
eastward change
change in
total thickness
total
thickness of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer continues
continues to
to increase.
increase.
of the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer was
was highest
highest along
along its
its western
western limit
limit
The potentiometriC
The
potentiometriC surface
surface of
and in
and
in a
a small
small area
area along
along the
the South
South Carolina-North
Carolina-North Carolina
Carolina State
State line
line before
before withdrawals
withdrawals
55 ).
). The
The potentiometriC
potentiometriC surface
surface was
was higher
higher at
at or
or near
near the
the higher
higher land
land altitudes
altitudes and
and
began (fig.
began
(fig. 55
lowest where ground water discharged to major rivers, bays, and the Atlantic Ocean. Regional
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ground-water movement
ground-water
movement was
was eastward
eastward and
and southeastward
southeastward except
except in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina where
where
regional movement
regional
movement was
was toward
toward the
the central
central part
part of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain. Water
Water that
that contains
contains
of 10,000
10,000 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter or
or more
more chloride
chloride marks
marks the
the limit
limit of
of the
the fresh
fresh
concentrations of
concentrations
in North
North Carolina
Carolina was
was effectively
effectively diverted
diverted by
by this
this saltwater
saltwater
ground-water flow
ground-water
flow system.
system. Flow
Flow in
body so
body
so that
that the
the ground
ground water
water discharged
discharged to
to major
major streams
streams in
in the
the central
central Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain. Only
Only
is shown
shown by
by the
the arrows
arrows in
in figure
figure 55,
55, but
but water
water also
also leaked
leaked vertically
vertically into
into and
and out
out of
of
lateral flow
lateral
flow is
the Potomac
the
Potomac aquifer
aquifer from
from the
the overlying
overlying aquifers.
aquifers. The
The Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer mostly
mostly is
is covered
covered by
by
confining units
confining
units and
and thus
thus receives
receives little
little direct
direct recharge
recharge by
by precipitation
precipitation or
or discharges
discharges little
little water
water
by evapotranspiration.
by
evapotranspiration.
of the
the flow
flow was
was diverted
diverted
After withdrawals
After
withdrawals from
from the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer began,
began, much
much of
of depression
depression formed
formed in
in the
the potentiometric
potentiometric
toward major
toward
major pumping
pumping centers,
centers, and
and large
large cones
cones of
surface (fig.
surface
(fig. 56).
56). A
A composite
composite cone
cone has
has developed
developed over
over most
most of
of the
the New
New Jersey
Jersey Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain
and part
and
part of
of northern
northern Delaware.
Delaware. By
By 1980,
1980, hydraulic
hydraulic heads
heads in
in this
this area
area had
had declined
declined to
to more
more
25 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level
level throughout
throughout the
the area
area of
of the
the cone
cone and
and to
to more
more than
than 100
100 feet
feet below
below
than 25
than
sea level
sea
level in
in a
a small
small area
area in
in Delaware.
Delaware. Saline
Saline water
water has
has encroached
encroached into
into the
the aquifer
aquifer along
along
Bay, along
along the
the lower
lower Delaware
Delaware River
River in
in New
New Jersey,
Jersey, and
and around
around the
the harbor
harbor at
at
Raritan Bay,
Raritan
of the
the lowered
lowered hydraulic
hydraulic heads.
heads. A
A prominent
prominent composite
composite cone
cone more
more
Baltimore, Md.,
Baltimore,
Md., because
because of
than 100
than
100 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level
level around
around Franklin,
Franklin, Va.,
Va., and
and more
more than
than 50
50 feet
feet below
below sea
sea level
level in
in
much of
much
of southern
southern Virginia
Virginia also
also extends
extends into
into North
North Carolina.
Carolina. The
The cone
cone reflects
reflects large
large
Va.
withdrawals for
withdrawals
for industrial
industrial use,
use, primarily
primarily to
to supply
supply paper
paper mills
mills at
at Franklin
Franklin and
and West
West Point,
Point, Va.
Hydrochemical facies
Hydrochemical
facies of
of water
water in
in the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer show
show the
the same
same general
general seaward
seaward
progression from
progression
from variable
variable composition
composition to
to sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies
facies as
as other
other Coastal
Coastal Plain
Plain aquifers
aquifers
(fig. 57).
(fig.
57). The
The variable-composition
variable-composition facies,
facies, however,
however, is
is only
only in
in small
small areas
areas where
where the
the aquifer
aquifer
crops out
crops
out in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and Maryland.
Maryland. Along
Along much
much of
of the
the western
western boundary
boundary of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in
Delaware, southwestern
Delaware,
southwestern Maryland,
Maryland, and
and northern
northern Virginia,
Virginia, the
the calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium
bicarbonate facies
bicarbonate
facies prevails.
prevails. This
This facies
facies might
might be
be the
the result
result of
of recharge
recharge by
by downward
downward leakage
leakage
from overlying
from
overlying aquifers
aquifers that
that contain
contain carbonate
carbonate minerals
minerals in
in the
the form
form of
of shell
shell material.
material. The
The
of sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate water
water in
in large
large areas
areas of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer results
results partly
partly from
from ionion­
predominance of
predominance
in water
water that
that percolates
percolates downward
downward through
through overlying
overlying
exchange reactions
exchange
reactions that
that take
take place
place in
aquifers and
aquifers
and confining
confining units
units to
to the
the regional
regional Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer and
and partly
partly from
from ion-exchange
ion-exchange
in near-coastal
near-coastal areas
areas
reactions within
reactions
within the
the Potomac
Potomac aquifer.
aquifer. Freshwater
Freshwater mixes
mixes with
with saline
saline water
water in
of the
of
the aquifer
aquifer and
and produces
produces the
the sodium
sodium chloride
chloride facies.
facies.
of the
the major
major pumping
pumping centers
centers that
that withdrew
withdrew water
water from
from the
the Potomac
Potomac aquifer
aquifer during
during
Most of
Most
1979 and
1979
and 1980
1980 were
were near
near its
its western
western margin
margin (fig.
(fig. 58).
58). However,
However, large
large withdrawals
withdrawals were
were made
made
in Virginia
in
Virginia in
in the
the central
central parts
parts of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain. The
The pumping
pumping centers
centers in
in Virginia
Virginia mostly
mostly
supplied water
supplied
water for
for industrial,
industrial, mostly
mostly paper-manufacturing,
paper-manufacturing, uses;
uses; those
those farther
farther northward
northward
mostly provided
mostly
provided public
public supplies.
supplies.
Total fresh ground-water withdrawals from the Potomac aquifer were estimated to be 251
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million gallons
million
gallons per
per day
day during
during 1985
1985 (fig.
(fig. 59).
59). Of
Of this
this amount,
amount, about
about 54
54 percent,
percent, or
or about
about 135
135
million gallons
million
gallons per
per day,
day, was
was withdrawn
withdrawn for
for public
public supply.
supply. Withdrawals
Withdrawals for
for industrial,
industrial, mining,
mining,
and thermoelectric
and
thermoelectric power
power uses
uses were
were the
the second
second largest
largest withdrawal
withdrawal category;
category; about
about 90
90 million
million
gallons per
gallons
per day
day was
was pumped
pumped for
for those
those uses.
uses. Domestic
Domestic and
and commercial
commercial withdrawals
withdrawals were
were
about 23
about
23 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, and
and only
only about
about 3
3 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day was
was pumped
pumped for
for
agricultural use.
agricultural
use.
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to next
next section
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Piedmont and
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Blue Ridge
Ridge aquifers
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.USGS
-USGS
GROUND WATER
GROUND
WATER ATLAS
ATLAS of
of the
the UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
Delaware, Maryland,
Delaware,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
West Virginia
Virginia
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
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Piedmont and
Piedmont
and Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge aquifers
aquifers
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Physiographic
Physiographic Provinces
Provinces (fig.
(fig. 60)
60) is
is underlain
underlain by
by
Most of
Most
dense, almost
dense,
almost impermeable
impermeable bedrock
bedrock that
that yields
yields water
water primarily
primarily from
from secondary
secondary porosity
porosity and
and
by fractures.
fractures. The
The bedrock
bedrock in
in both
both provinces
provinces is
is partly
partly covered
covered by
by glacial
glacial
permeability provided
permeability
provided by
deposits, which
deposits,
which include
include productive
productive sand
sand and
and gravel
gravel aquifers
aquifers that
that are
are part
part of
of the
the surficial
surficial
aquifer system
aquifer
system in
in northeastern
northeastern Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and northern
northern New
New Jersey.
Jersey. The
The principal
principal
differences between
differences
between the
the two
two provinces
provinces are
are relief,
relief, altitude,
altitude, and
and geographic
geographic position.
position. The
The
is characterized
characterized by
by lower
lower altitudes
altitudes and
and more
more subdued
subdued topography
topography than
than the
the
Piedmont Province
Piedmont
Province is
adjacent Blue
adjacent
Blue Ridge,
Ridge, which
which is
is a
a province
province of
of mountain
mountain ridges
ridges to
to the
the northwest
northwest (fig.
(fig. 61).
61). In
In this
this
report, the
report,
the hydrology
hydrology of
of the
the Reading
Reading Prong,
Prong, a
a physiographic
physiographic feature
feature that
that is
is part
part of
of the
the New
New
England Physiographic
England
Physiographic Province,
Province, but
but whose
whose topography
topography and
and rock
rock types
types are
are similar
similar to
to those
those of
of
the Blue
the
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province,
Province, is
is discussed
discussed with
with the
the latter.
latter.
is bounded
bounded on
on the
the southeast
southeast by
by the
the Fall
Fall Line
Line (fig.
(fig. 60),
60), which
which is
is a
a zone
zone
The Piedmont
The
Piedmont Province
Province is
of rapids
of
rapids or
or waterfalls
waterfalls that
that marks
marks the
the position
position where
where streams
streams flow
flow from
from the
the consolidated
consolidated rocks
rocks
of the
of
the Piedmont
Piedmont onto
onto semiconsolidated
semiconsolidated to
to unconsolidated
unconsolidated rocks
rocks of
of the
the Coastal
Coastal Plain.
Plain. The
The
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province are,
are, for
for most
most of
of their
their length,
length,
western and
western
and northwestern
northwestern boundaries
boundaries of
the base
the
base of
of a
a mountain
mountain ridge.
ridge. This
This ridge
ridge is
is the
the highlands
highlands of
of the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong from
from northern
northern
New Jersey
New
Jersey to
to northeastern
northeastern Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Mountains
Mountains from
from southern
southern
Pennsylvania to
Pennsylvania
to North
North Carolina.
Carolina. In
In the
the gap
gap between
between the
the two
two mountain
mountain ridges,
ridges, the
the Piedmont
Piedmont
Province is adjacent to the Valley and Ridge Province, and the boundary between the
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provinces is
provinces
is the
the northwestern
northwestern edge
edge of
of the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic Gettysburg
Gettysburg and
and Newark
Newark Basins
Basins (~
60).
60).
The Piedmont
The
Piedmont Province
Province can
can be
be subdivided
subdivided topographically
topographically into
into lowland
lowland and
and upland
upland areas.
areas. The
The
lowlands are
lowlands
are underlain
underlain by
by carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks (limestone,
(limestone, dolomite,
dolomite, and
and marble)
marble) and
and by
by clastic
clastic
sedimentary rocks
sedimentary
rocks in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic rift
rift basins;
basins; these
these rocks
rocks are
are easily
easily eroded.
eroded. Extensive
Extensive areas
areas
of carbonate
of
carbonate rocks
rocks are
are concentrated
concentrated in
in Pennsylvania;
Pennsylvania; smaller
smaller areas
areas are
are in
in Maryland.
Maryland. Locally,
Locally,
of igneous
igneous rocks,
rocks, such
such as
as basalt
basalt flows
flows and
and diabase
diabase
the early
the
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins contain
contain bodies
bodies of
dikes and
dikes
and sills
sills collectively
collectively called
called traprock.
traprock. These
These igneous
igneous rocks
rocks are
are resistant
resistant to
to erosion
erosion and
and
62) in
in the
the lowlands.
lowlands. Most
Most of
of the
the province
province is
is uplands
uplands which
which are
are
form low
form
low knobs
knobs and
and ridges
ridges (fig.
(fig. 62)
typically low,
typically
low, rounded
rounded hills
hills and
and shallow
shallow valleys
valleys underlain
underlain by
by a
a complex
complex assortment
assortment of
of
metamorphiC and
metamorphiC
and igneous
igneous rocks
rocks of
of Paleozoic
Paleozoic and
and Precambrian
Precambrian age.
age. Locally,
Locally, in
in such
such places
places as
as
Washington, D.C.,
Washington,
D.C., and
and Philadelphia,
Philadelphia, Pa.,
Pa., these
these crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks are
are at
at low
low altitudes
altitudes and
and have
have
low relief.
low
relief. Major
Major structural
structural lineaments
lineaments and
and stratigraphic
stratigraphic units
units strike
strike predominately
predominately
northeastward, but
northeastward,
but these
these alignments
alignments are
are not
not necessarily
necessarily reflected
reflected by
by drainage
drainage patterns.
patterns.
The Piedmont
The
Piedmont surface
surface rises
rises gradually
gradually westward
westward to
to the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Mountain
Mountain front,
front, the
the
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge,
Ridge, or
or the
the Reading
Reading Prong.
Prong. The
The western
western boundary
boundary of
of the
the
highlands of
highlands
is at
at an
an average
average altitude
altitude of
of from
from 300
300 to
to 400
400 feet
feet in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and is
is from
from 350
350 to
to
Piedmont is
Piedmont
700 feet
700
feet above
above sea
sea level
level in
in Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania. The
The boundary
boundary rises
rises to
to 700
700 or
or 800
800 feet
feet above
above sea
sea
level in
level
in northern
northern Virginia
Virginia and
and farther
farther south
south rises
rises to
to about
about 1,500
1,500 feet
feet above
above sea
sea level
level near
near the
the
Virginia-North Carolina
Virginia-North
Carolina State
State line.
line.
The Blue
The
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province (including
(including the
the Reading
Reading Prong)
Prong) in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and northern
northern
Pennsylvania consists
Pennsylvania
consists of
of a
a narrow
narrow belt
belt of
of rounded,
rounded, gentle
gentle knobs
knobs of
of diverse
diverse altitude
altitude slightly
slightly
higher than
higher
than the
the adjacent
adjacent Piedmont
Piedmont Province.
Province. From
From southern
southern Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania to
to North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
the eastern
the
eastern boundary
boundary of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
is the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge front,
front, which
which is
is a
a single,
single,
abrupt slope
abrupt
slope and
and commonly
commonly is
is marked
marked by
by faulting.
faulting. The
The Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge front
front rises
rises more
more than
than 1,700
1,700
feet above
feet
above the
the Piedmont
Piedmont surface
surface near
near the
the North
North Carolina-Virginia
Carolina-Virginia State
State line
line and
and reaches
reaches a
a
maximum height
maximum
height of
of nearly
nearly 2,500
2,500 feet
feet in
in central
central North
North Carolina.
Carolina. The
The Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province
contains the
contains
the tallest
tallest mountains,
mountains, highest
highest altitudes
altitudes (greater
(greater than
than 6,000
6,000 feet),
feet), and
and the
the most
most
rugged topography
rugged
topography in
in eastern
eastern North
North America
America (fig.
(fig. 63).
63). The
The southern
southern part
part of
of the
the province
province is
is
characterized by
characterized
by steep,
steep, forest-covered
forest-covered slopes
slopes cut
cut by
by numerous
numerous stream
stream valleys.
valleys. The
The valleys
valleys of
of
the major
the
major rivers
rivers include
include broad,
broad, gently
gently rolling
rolling areas,
areas, as
as well
well as
as narrow
narrow gorges.
gorges. In
In Segment
Segment 11,
11,
of 70
70 miles
miles in
in North
North Carolina.
Carolina. Altitudes
Altitudes are
are much
much lower
lower
the province
the
province reaches
reaches a
a maximum
maximum width
width of
in the
in
the northern
northern portion
portion of
of the
the province.
province.
Rocks of
Rocks
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province and
and the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong are,
are, for
for the
the most
most part,
part, many
many types
types of
of
metamorphiC and
metamorphiC
and intrusive
intrusive igneous
igneous rocks.
rocks. In
In New
New Jersey,
Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, and
and North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
however, sedimentary
however,
sedimentary rocks
rocks (limestone,
(limestone, dolomite,
dolomite, conglomerate,
conglomerate, sandstone,
sandstone, and
and shale)
shale) also
also
are included
are
included in
in the
the province.
province. In
In all
all these
these rocks,
rocks, except
except limestone,
limestone, dolomite,
dolomite, and
and marble,
marble, which
which
contain solution openings, joints and fractures are the only openings that store and transmit
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water. The
water.
The main
main body
body of
of rock
rock between
between the
the joints
joints and
and fractures
fractures is
is almost
almost impermeable.
impermeable.
HYDROGEOLOGIC UNITS
HYDROGEOLOGIC
UNITS
of bedrock
bedrock
The Piedmont
The
Piedmont and
and Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces are
are underlain
underlain by
by three
three principal
principal types
types of
In order
order of
of decreasing
decreasing area,
area, these
these are
are crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock and
and undifferentiated
undifferentiated
aquifers. In
aquifers.
sedimentary-rock aquifers,
sedimentary-rock
aquifers, aquifers
aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins,
basins, and
and carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers
(table 1).
(table
1). Unconsolidated
Unconsolidated aquifers
aquifers that
that are
are part
part of
of the
the surficial
surficial aquifer
aquifer system
system overlie
overlie the
the
bedrock aquifers
bedrock
aquifers locally
locally in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and northern
northern New
New Jersey.
Jersey.
Crystalline-Rock and
Crystalline-Rock
and Undifferentiated
Undifferentiated Sedimentary-Rock
Sedimentary-Rock Aquifers
Aquifers
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces in
in Segment
Segment 11
11 are
are
The most
The
most widespread
widespread aquifers
aquifers in
the crystalline-rock
the
crystalline-rock and
and undifferentiated
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers.
aquifers. These
These aquifers
aquifers extend
extend
over about
over
about 49,000
49,000 square
square miles,
miles, or
or about
about 86
86 percent
percent of
of the
the area,
area, of
of these
these provinces
provinces (table
(table 1).
1).
Similar aquifers
Similar
aquifers ex-tend
ex-tend southward
southward into
into Segments
Segments 6
6 and
and 10
10 and
and northward
northward into
into Segment
Segment 12
12 of
of
this Atlas
this
Atlas and
and are
are briefly
briefly discussed
discussed in
in the
the chapters
chapters describing
describing these
these segments.
segments.
of the
the rocks
rocks that
that compose
compose the
the crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock and
and undifferentiated
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock
Most of
Most
of many
many types.
types. The
The main
main types
types of
of
aquifers are
aquifers
are crystalline
crystalline metamorphic
metamorphic and
and igneous
igneous rocks
rocks of
crystalline rocks
crystalline
rocks are
are coarse-grained
coarse-grained gneisses
gneisses and
and schists
schists of
of various
various mineral
mineral composition;
composition;
however, fine-grained
however,
fine-grained rocks,
rocks, such
such as
as phyllite
phyllite and
and metamorphosed
metamorphosed volcanic
volcanic rocks,
rocks, are
are common
common
in places.
in
places. Most
Most of
of the
the metamorphic
metamorphic rocks
rocks were
were originally
originally sediments;
sediments; some,
some, however,
however, were
were
igneous rocks
igneous
rocks or
or volcan-ic
volcan-ic tuff,
tuff, ash,
ash, and
and lava
lava flows.
flows. The
The degree
degree of
of heat
heat and
and pressure
pressure to
to which
which
the original
the
original rocks
rocks were
were subjected,
subjected, the
the nature
nature of
of the
the fluids
fluids that
that have
have been
been in
in contact
contact with
with the
the
of folding
folding and
and shearing
shearing that
that they
they have
have undergone
undergone have
have produced
produced their
their
rocks, and
rocks,
and the
the degree
degree of
present texture
present
texture and
and mineralogy.
mineralogy. Most
Most of
of the
the metamorphic
metamorphic rocks
rocks have
have undergone
undergone several
several
periods of
periods
of metamorphism.
metamorphism. Locally,
Locally, they
they contain
contain highly
highly mineralized
mineralized zones,
zones, some
some of
of which
which are
are
ore bearing.
ore
bearing. During
During and
and after
after metamorphism,
metamorphism, igneous
igneous rocks
rocks intruded
intruded the
the metamorphic
metamorphic rocks
rocks
as dikes,
dikes, sills,
sills, and
and large
large to
to small
small plutons.
plutons.
and are
and
are present
present as
of tightly
tightly cemented,
cemented, predominately
predominately
The undifferentiated
The
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers
aquifers consist
consist of
clastic rocks,
clastic
rocks, many
many of
of which
which grade
grade into
into metamorphic
metamorphic rocks.
rocks. Undifferentiated
Undifferentiated sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks
are a
are
a minor
minor component
component of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Physiographic
Physiographic Province
Province and
and are
are mainly
mainly along
along the
the
of the
the province
province in
in North
North Carolina.
Carolina. Some
Some of
of the
the sedimentary
sedimentary formations
formations are
are in
in
western border
western
border of
fault blocks.
fault
blocks. Most
Most of
of the
the undifferentiated
undifferentiated sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks are
are of
of late
late Precambrian
Precambrian or
or early
early
as young
young as
as middle
middle Paleozoic.
Paleozoic.
Paleozoic age,
Paleozoic
age, but
but in
in New
New Jersey,
Jersey, some
some are
are as
64) overlies
overlies the
the crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock and
and
Unconsolidated material
Unconsolidated
material called
called regolith
regolith (fig.
(fig. 64)
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
undifferentiated
sedimentary-rock aquifers
aquifers almost
almost everywhere.
everywhere. The
The regolith
regolith consists
consists of
of
saprolite, colluvium,
saprolite,
colluvium, alluvium,
alluvium, and
and soil.
soil. Saprolite
Saprolite is
is a
a blanket
blanket of
of decomposed
decomposed or
or partially
partially
decomposed rock that is usually thick and clayey, and whose texture varies depending on the
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type of
type
of parent
parent bedrock
bedrock from
from which
which the
the saprolite
saprolite is
is derived.
derived. Colluvium
Colluvium is
is weathered
weathered rock
rock
material that
material
that has
has slumped
slumped downward
downward from
from hillsides.
hillsides. Alluvium
Alluvium consists
consists mostly
mostly of
of waterwater­
transported sediment
transported
sediment in
in stream
stream valleys
valleys and
and channels.
channels. Because
Because the
the regolith
regolith material
material varies
varies
greatly in
greatly
in thickness,
thickness, composition,
composition, and
and grain
grain size,
size, its
its hydraulic
hydraulic properties
properties also
also vary
vary greatly.
greatly.
However, the
However,
the regolith
regolith is
is everywhere
everywhere more
more permeable
permeable than
than the
the underlying
underlying bedrock.
bedrock. Water
Water in
in
the bedrock
the
bedrock is
is stored
stored in
in and
and moves
moves through
through fractures,
fractures, which
which form
form the
the only
only effective
effective porosity
porosity in
in
the unweathered
the
unweathered rock.
rock.
Aquifers in
Aquifers
in Early
Early Mesozoic
Mesozoic Basins
Basins
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic rift
rift basins
basins are
are all
all within
within the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province and
and occupy
occupy about
about 9
9
Aquifers in
Aquifers
of the
the combined
combined area
area of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge and
and the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Provinces
Provinces (table
(table 1).
1). An
An
percent of
percent
additional 2
additional
2 percent
percent of
of the
the area
area of
of the
the combined
combined provinces
provinces is
is occupied
occupied by
by the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic
Basins in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina (fig.
(fig. 60),
60), but
but the
the
Durham, Sanford,
Durham,
Sanford, Wadesboro,
Wadesboro, and
and Davie
Davie County
County Basins
rocks in
rocks
in these
these basins
basins are
are not
not considered
considered to
to be
be significant
significant aquifers.
aquifers. Aquifers
Aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic
basins are
basins
are primarily
primarily in
in three
three major
major basins-the
basins-the Newark
Newark Basin
Basin in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
is the
the largest
largest basin
basin and
and the
the one
one from
from which
which the
the most
most ground
ground water
water is
is withdrawn;
withdrawn;
(fig. 60)
(fig.
60) is
second largest
second
largest is
is the
the Gettysburg
Gettysburg Basin
Basin of
of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and Maryland;
Maryland; and
and third
third is
is the
the Culpeper
Culpeper
Basin of
Basin
of Virginia.
Virginia. The
The Richmond
Richmond Basin
Basin in
in Virginia
Virginia and
and the
the Dan
Dan River-Danville
River-Danville Basin
Basin in
in Virginia
Virginia
and North
and
North Carolina
Carolina are
are of
of intermediate
intermediate size.
size. Nine
Nine smaller
smaller early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins are
are in
in Virginia.
Virginia.
of the
the Earth's
Earth's
The early
The
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins formed
formed by
by downfaulting
downfaulting that
that accompanied
accompanied rifting
rifting of
crust in
crust
in the
the Triassic
Triassic and
and Jurassic
Jurassic Periods
Periods during
during incipient
incipient stages
stages of
of continental
continental breakup
breakup and
and are
are
of sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks (fig.
(fig. 65).
65). For
For the
the most
most part,
part, major
major
filled mostly
filled
mostly with
with thick
thick sequences
sequences of
faults border
faults
border the
the basins
basins on
on the
the west
west and
and northwest,
northwest, and
and the
the predominant
predominant direction
direction of
of dip
dip of
of
the sedimentary
the
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in the
the basins
basins is
is toward
toward these
these major
major border
border faults.
faults. Exceptions
Exceptions are
are the
the
Basins in
in North
North Carolina,
Carolina, which
which are
are bounded
bounded on
on the
the east
east by
by major
major
Durham and
Durham
and the
the Sanford
Sanford Basins
faults; the
faults;
the dip
dip of
of the
the beds
beds in
in these
these basins
basins is
is to
to the
the east
east or
or the
the southeast.
southeast.
The lower
The
lower Mesozoic
Mesozoic rocks
rocks lie
lie unconformably
unconformably on
on Precambrian
Precambrian and
and Paleozoic
Paleozoic crystalline
crystalline rocks,
rocks,
and locally
and
locally on
on Paleozoic
Paleozoic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in New
New Jersey.
Jersey. Sedimentary
Sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in the
the basins
basins
of interbedded
interbedded shale,
shale, sandstone,
sandstone, and
and siltstone,
siltstone, all
all typically
typically red,
red, reddish
reddish
consist predominately
consist
predominately of
brown, or
brown,
or maroon
maroon but
but locally
locally gray
gray or
or black.
black. Conglomerate,
Conglomerate, dolomite,
dolomite, lacustrine
lacustrine black
black
mudstone, and
mudstone,
and coal
coal are
are present
present locally.
locally. In
In many
many places,
places, the
the sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks are
are
65 and
and 66)
66) or
or have
have been
been intruded
intruded by
by diabase
diabase dikes
dikes and
and
interbedded with
interbedded
with basalt
basalt flows
flows (figs.
(figs. 65
sills. Thicknesses
sills.
Thicknesses of
of Triassic
Triassic and
and Jurassic
Jurassic rocks
rocks in
in the
the larger
larger basins
basins have
have been
been calculated
calculated to
to be
be
more than
more
than 20,000
20,000 feet.
feet.
of sediments
sediments in
in the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins was
was controlled
controlled by
by a
a combination
combination of
of
Deposition of
Deposition
intermittent faulting
intermittent
faulting and
and subsidence
subsidence of
of the
the basins,
basins, altitude
altitude of
of the
the bordering
bordering highlands,
highlands, climate,
climate,
in the
the basins
basins during
during Triassic
Triassic and
and Jurassic
Jurassic
and drainage
and
drainage patterns.
patterns. A
A tropical
tropical climate
climate prevailed
prevailed in
time. Temperatures were high and rainfall varied, but tended to be low. Sediments deposited
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in lakes
in
lakes later
later became
became siltstone
siltstone and
and mudstone,
mudstone, those
those deposited
deposited in
in swamps
swamps became
became black
black
mudstone and
mudstone
and coal,
coal, and
and river
river deposits
deposits and
and alluvial
alluvial fans
fans became
became sandstone
sandstone and
and conglomerate.
conglomerate.
Lake levels
Lake
levels varied;
varied; some
some lakes
lakes dried
dried up
up seasonally,
seasonally, and
and the
the exposed
exposed sediment
sediment was
was oxidized
oxidized
and turned
and
turned red.
red. The
The sediments
sediments show
show evidence
evidence of
of cyclic
cyclic repetition,
repetition, which
which has
has been
been attributed
attributed
to periodic
to
periodic changes
changes in
in the
the Earth's
Earth's climate.
climate.
The Newark
The
Newark Basin
Basin (fig.
(fig. 60)
60) extends
extends from
from the
the Hudson
Hudson River
River Valley
Valley to
to the
the divide
divide between
between the
the
Schuylkill and
Schuylkill
and the
the Susquehanna
Susquehanna Rivers
Rivers in
in Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania. The
The Newark
Newark Basin
Basin contains
contains three
three
of
principal stratigraphic
principal
stratigraphic units.
units. From
From oldest
oldest to
to youngest,
youngest, these
these are
are the
the Stockton
Stockton Formation
Formation of
Triassic age,
Triassic
age, which
which is
is mainly
mainly soft
soft feldspathic
feldspathic sandstone,
sandstone, shale,
shale, and
and some
some conglomerate;
conglomerate; the
the
of Triassic
Triassic age,
age, which
which is
is predominately
predominately gray
gray and
and black
black siltstone
siltstone and
and
Lockatong Formation
Lockatong
Formation of
of Jurassic
Jurassic and
and Triassic
Triassic age,
age, which
which contains
contains argillite,
argillite, shale,
shale,
shale; and
shale;
and the
the Brunswick
Brunswick Group
Group of
siltstone, sandstone,
siltstone,
sandstone, conglomerate,
conglomerate, and
and three
three basalt
basalt units.
units. The
The igneous
igneous rocks
rocks that
that occur
occur as
as
sills and
sills
and flows
flows parallel
parallel to
to and
and interbedded
interbedded with
with the
the sedimentary
sedimentary beds
beds and
and as
as dikes
dikes and
and stocks
stocks
erOSion, and
and form
form hills.
hills. The
The Lockatong
Lockatong Formation,
Formation, which
which
that cut
that
cut across
across them
them are
are resistant
resistant to
to erOSion,
is the
is
the least
least productive
productive water-yielding
water-yielding sedimentary
sedimentary rock
rock in
in the
the basin,
basin, is
is more
more resistant
resistant to
to
erosion than
erosion
than the
the other
other sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks and
and also
also underlies
underlies low
low hills.
hills.
Basin stretches
stretches from
from the
the narrow
narrow neck
neck that
that connects
connects it
it to
to the
the Newark
Newark Basin
Basin
The Gettysburg
The
Gettysburg Basin
about 80
about
80 miles
miles westward
westward and
and southward
southward to
to near
near Frederick,
Frederick, Md.
Md. (fig.
(fig. 60).
60). The
The New
New Oxford
Oxford
Formation of
Formation
of Triassic
Triassic age,
age, which
which is
is composed
composed of
of feldspathic
feldspathic sandstone,
sandstone, Siltstone,
Siltstone, and
and shale,
shale, is
is
the lowermost
the
lowermost formation
formation in
in the
the Gettysburg
Gettysburg Basin
Basin and
and is
is overlain
overlain in
in most
most places
places by
by red
red shale,
shale,
of the
the Gettysburg
Gettysburg Formation
Formation of
of Triassic
Triassic and
and Jurassic
Jurassic age.
age. The
The
Siltstone, and
Siltstone,
and fine
fine sandstone
sandstone of
conglomeratic Hammer
conglomeratic
Hammer Creek
Creek Formation
Formation of
of Triassic
Triassic age
age overlies
overlies the
the New
New Oxford
Oxford Formation
Formation in
in
the narrow
the
narrow neck
neck between
between the
the Newark
Newark and
and the
the Gettysburg
Gettysburg Basins.
Basins. Basalt
Basalt flows
flows occur
occur in
in the
the
of the
the Gettysburg
Gettysburg Formation.
Formation.
upper part
upper
part of
Basin of
of northern
northern Virginia
Virginia and
and adjacent
adjacent Maryland
Maryland (fig.
(fig. 60)
60) is
is an
an elongate,
elongate, faultfault­
The Culpeper
The
Culpeper Basin
bounded trough
bounded
trough that
that trends
trends north-northeast
north-northeast from
from the
the southern
southern border
border of
of Madison
Madison County,
County, Va.,
Va.,
Md. All
All the
the formations
formations in
in the
the basin
basin are
are part
part of
of the
the
about 90
about
90 miles
miles to
to Frederick
Frederick County,
County, Md.
Culpeper Group.
Culpeper
Group. The
The lower
lower part
part of
of the
the group
group consists
consists of
of sandstone,
sandstone, Siltstone,
Siltstone, and
and
conglomerate of
conglomerate
of Late
Late Triassic
Triassic age;
age; the
the upper
upper part
part consists
consists of
of Lower
Lower Jurassic
Jurassic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks
and interbedded
and
interbedded basaltic
basaltic lava
lava flows.
flows.
Basin stretches
stretches from
from just
just north
north of
of Richmond,
Richmond, Va.,
Va., 35
35 miles
miles south
south to
to the
the
The Richmond
The
Richmond Basin
60). The
The lowest
lowest stratigraphic
stratigraphic unit
unit in
in the
the basin
basin is
is the
the
Dinwiddie-Amelia County
Dinwiddie-Amelia
County border
border (fig.
(fig. 60).
Middle Triassic
Middle
Triassic Tuckahoe
Tuckahoe Group,
Group, which
which contains
contains Siltstone,
Siltstone, shale,
shale, and
and coal
coal beds.
beds. It
It is
is overlain
overlain
by the
by
the Upper
Upper Triassic
Triassic Chesterfield
Chesterfield Group,
Group, which
which consists
consists of
of black
black shale
shale and
and sandstone
sandstone of
of the
the
Vinita beds
Vinita
beds and
and the
the Otterdale
Otterdale Sandstone.
Sandstone. The
The sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks are
are cut
cut by
by a
a few
few Late
Late Jurassic
Jurassic
diabase dikes.
diabase
dikes. Small
Small outliers
outliers near
near the
the Richmond
Richmond Basin
Basin may
may have
have been
been connected
connected to
to the
the
of similar
similar rocks.
rocks.
original basin
original
basin because
because they
they consist
consist of
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The Dan
The
Dan River-Danville
River-Danville Basin
Basin extends
extends from
from southern
southern Appomattox
Appomattox County,
County, Va.,
Va., about
about 100
100 miles
miles
southwest into
southwest
into Stokes
Stokes County,
County, N.C.
N.C. In
In Virginia,
Virginia, the
the basin
basin is
is named
named Danville,
Danville, and
and in
in North
North
Dan River.
River. The
The basin
basin contains
contains sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks of
of the
the Upper
Upper Triassic
Triassic Dan
Dan River
River
Carolina, Dan
Carolina,
Group; in
Group;
in Virginia,
Virginia, the
the Dry
Dry Fork
Fork Formation
Formation is
is also
also present.
present. The
The sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks consist
consist of
of
sandstone, Siltstone,
sandstone,
Siltstone, mudstone,
mudstone, shale,
shale, and
and local
local conglomerate
conglomerate and
and are
are locally
locally cut
cut by
by diabase
diabase
dikes.
dikes.
Rocks in
Rocks
in the
the four
four southernmost
southernmost early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina contain
contain water
water
in composition
composition
sufficient only
sufficient
only for
for domestic
domestic supplies
supplies in
in the
the upper
upper 300
300 feet.
feet. The
The rocks
rocks are
are similar
similar in
but are
but
are more
more compact
compact and
and tightly
tightly cemented
cemented than
than those
those in
in the
the basins
basins to
to the
the north
north and
and do
do not
not
yield sufficient
yield
sufficient quantities
quantities of
of water
water to
to be
be considered
considered a
a principal
principal aquifer.
aquifer.
Carbonate-Rock Aquifers
Carbonate-Rock
Aquifers
of Paleozoic
Paleozoic and
and Precambrian
Precambrian age
age form
form carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock
Limestone, dolomite,
Limestone,
dolomite, and
and marble
marble of
aquifers that
aquifers
that extend
extend over
over about
about 3
3 percent
percent of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces in
in
Segment 11.
Segment
11. Although
Although these
these carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks are
are of
of small
small extent,
extent, they
they are
are significant
significant local
local
of water.
water. Carbonate-rock
Carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers are
are in
in five
five areas
areas of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge
sources of
sources
Provinces of
Provinces
of Segment
Segment 11
11 (fig.
(fig. 60).
60). In
In addition
addition to
to these
these areas,
areas, small,
small, isolated
isolated elongate
elongate stringers
stringers
of limestone
of
limestone and
and marble
marble form
form minor
minor aquifers
aquifers locally,
locally, particularly
particularly in
in Virginia,
Virginia, and
and generally
generally
trend parallel
trend
parallel to
to the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge front.
front.
In northern
In
northern New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and eastern
eastern Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania (fig.
(fig. 60,
60, Area
Area 1),
1), Precambrian
Precambrian and
and lower
lower
Paleozoic carbonate
Paleozoic
carbonate rocks
rocks are
are interspersed
interspersed with
with granite
granite and
and gneiss
gneiss of
of the
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong and
and
locally have
locally
have been
been juxtaposed
juxtaposed by
by faults
faults with
with lower
lower Mesozoic
Mesozoic rocks
rocks of
of the
the Newark
Newark Basin
Basin in
in
Pennsylvania. These
Pennsylvania.
These carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks form
form a
a series
series of
of long,
long, narrow
narrow blocks
blocks in
in the
the noncarbonate
noncarbonate
rocks that
rocks
that surround
surround them.
them. The
The major
major faults
faults and
and other
other geologic
geologic structures
structures generally
generally trend
trend
northeast-southwest but
northeast-southwest
but have
have been
been tilted
tilted or
or rotated
rotated in
in some
some areas
areas so
so that
that they
they trend
trend
of
northwest-southeast. The
northwest-southeast.
The principal
principal water-yielding
water-yielding units
units are
are listed
listed in
in table
table 2.
2. A
A large
large area
area of
carbonate rocks
carbonate
rocks is
is centered
centered in
in the
the Hanover-York-Lancaster
Hanover-York-Lancaster Valley
Valley area
area of
of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania (~
60, Area
60,
Area 2).
2). The
The lithology
lithology and
and water-yielding
water-yielding characteristics
characteristics of
of the
the principal
principal carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock
formations are
formations
are listed
listed in
in table
table 3.
3. Three
Three carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock formations
formations (table
(table 4)
4) are
are present
present in
in Area
Area
3, which
3,
which encompasses
encompasses the
the Frederick
Frederick Valley
Valley in
in Frederick
Frederick County,
County, Md.,
Md., and
and extends
extends northward
northward
into Pennsylvania
into
Pennsylvania (fig.
(fig. 60).
60). Small
Small areas
areas of
of carbonate
carbonate rock
rock in
in Area
Area 4
4 ((fig.
fig. 60)
60) include
include those
those
underlain by
underlain
by the
the Cockeysville
Cockeysville Marble
Marble of
of Ordovician
Ordovician and
and Cambrian
Cambrian age
age in
in southern
southern Chester
Chester
Pa., in
in Baltimore
Baltimore and
and Howard
Howard Counties,
Counties, Md.,
Md., and
and New
New Castle
Castle County,
County, Del.
Del. Carbonate
Carbonate
County, Pa.,
County,
rocks of
rocks
of Cambrian
Cambrian age
age in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina are
are exposed
exposed mostly
mostly in
in two
two windows,
windows, or
or openings,
openings, that
that
in Area
Area 5
5 (fig.
(fig. 60).
60).
were eroded
were
eroded through
through major
major thrust
thrust sheets
sheets to
to expose
expose the
the underlying
underlying rock
rock in
The exposed
The
exposed rocks
rocks are
are the
the Shady
Shady Dolomite
Dolomite and
and the
the Rome
Rome Formation
Formation in
in the
the Hot
Hot Springs
Springs
in Madison
Madison County
County and
and the
the Shady
Shady Dolomite
Dolomite in
in the
the Grandfather
Grandfather Mountain
Mountain Window
Window in
in
Window in
Window
northern McDowell
northern
McDowell County.
County. An
An elongated
elongated outcrop
outcrop of
of the
the Cambrian
Cambrian or
or Precambrian
Precambrian Murphy
Murphy
Marble in Cherokee County, N.C., is in a structural fold.
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HA 730-L
HA
730-L Piedmont
Piedmont and
and Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge aquifers
aquifers text
text
GROUND-WATER FLOW
GROUND-WATER
FLOW AND
AND WELL
WELL YIELDS
YIELDS
Recharge is
Recharge
is highly
highly variable
variable in
in the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge and
and the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Provinces
Provinces because
because it
it is
is
determined by
determined
by local
local precipitation
precipitation and
and runoff,
runoff, which
which are
are highly
highly variable
variable and
and are
are influenced
influenced by
by
topographic relief
topographic
relief and
and the
the capacity
capacity of
of the
the land
land surface
surface to
to accept
accept infiltrating
infiltrating water.
water. The
The
in Segment
Segment 11
11 are
are in
in the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province,
Province, notably
notably
greatest annual
greatest
annual precipitation
precipitation and
and runoff
runoff in
in southwestern
in
southwestern North
North Carolina.
Carolina. Because
Because the
the western
western part
part of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province from
from
North Carolina
North
Carolina to
to central
central Virginia
Virginia is
is in
in the
the rain
rain shadow
shadow of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Mountains,
Mountains, it
it receives
receives
less precipitation
less
precipitation than
than areas
areas on
on either
either side.
side.
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces are
are covered
covered by
by regolith.
regolith. Compared
Compared to
to the
the
Most of
Most
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and less
less precipitation
precipitation make
make the
the
Blue Ridge,
Blue
Ridge, the
the gentler
gentler topographic
topographic relief
relief of
Piedmont less
Piedmont
less subject
subject to
to rapid
rapid denudation
denudation than
than the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge and
and thus
thus favor
favor the
the
accumulation of
accumulation
of a
a thicker
thicker regolith.
regolith. The
The combination
combination of
of large
large areas
areas of
of thin
thin regolith
regolith and
and dense
dense
in the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province do
do not
not favor
favor large
large amounts
amounts of
of
bedrock with
bedrock
with minimal
minimal permeability
permeability in
ground-water recharge.
ground-water
recharge.
of the
the recharge
recharge in
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces takes
takes place
place in
in interstream
interstream
Most of
Most
areas. Almost
areas.
Almost all
all recharge
recharge is
is from
from precipitation
precipitation that
that enters
enters the
the aquifers
aquifers through
through the
the porous
porous
regolith. Much
regolith.
Much of
of the
the recharge
recharge water
water moves
moves laterally
laterally through
through the
the regolith
regolith and
and discharges
discharges to
to a
a
or depression
depression during
during or
or shortly
shortly after
after a
a storm
storm or
or precipitation
precipitation event.
event. Some
Some of
of
nearby stream
nearby
stream or
the water,
the
water, however,
however, moves
moves downward
downward through
through the
the regolith
regolith until
until it
it reaches
reaches the
the bedrock
bedrock where
where
it enters
it
enters fractures
fractures in
in crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks and
and sandstones
sandstones or
or solution
solution openings
openings in
in carbonate
carbonate rocks.
rocks.
Crystalline-Rock Aquifers
Crystalline-Rock
Aquifers
In crystalline-rock
In
crystalline-rock areas,
areas, the
the regolith
regolith and
and fractures
fractures in
in the
the bedrock
bedrock serve
serve as
as the
the principal
principal places
places
of water,
water, and
and ground-water
ground-water movement
movement is
is generally
generally along
along short
short
for the
for
the storage
storage transmission
transmission of
flow paths
flow
paths from
from interstream
interstream recharge
recharge areas
areas to
to the
the nearest
nearest stream.
stream. This
This situation
situation applies
applies to
to
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces.
Provinces. Where
Where bedrock
bedrock fractures
fractures have
have one
one or
or
most of
most
of orientation,
orientation, as
as is
is often
often the
the case,
case, ground
ground water
water will
will tend
tend to
to flow
flow
more preferred
more
preferred directions
directions of
of the
the fractures;
fractures; this
this is
is a
a condition
condition called
called anisotropy.
anisotropy.
more readily
more
readily in
in the
the direction
direction of
An example
An
example of
of anisotropy
anisotropy is
is shown
shown by
by the
the results
results of
of an
an aquifer
aquifer test
test performed
performed on
on wells
wells
completed in
completed
in crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province near
near Greensboro,
Greensboro, N.C.
N.C. (fig.
(fig. 67).
67). The
The
contours in
contours
in the
the figure
figure are
are lines
lines of
of equal
equal water-level
water-level decline
decline measured
measured in
in numerous
numerous observation
observation
57 hours
hours at
at a
a rate
rate of
of
wells after
wells
after a
a production
production well
well with
with a
a 6-inch
6-inch diameter
diameter had
had been
been pumped
pumped for
for 57
about 39
about
39 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. This
This well
well was
was completed
completed in
in fractured
fractured gneiss;
gneiss; the
the joints
joints and
and
fractures in
fractures
in the
the rock
rock trend
trend northeast.
northeast. The
The contours
contours that
that show
show water-level
water-level decline
decline form
form an
an oval
oval
is elongated
elongated to
to the
the northeast,
northeast, which
which indicates
indicates that
that the
the bedrock
bedrock is
is more
more permeable
permeable
shape that
shape
that is
in that direction.
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HA 730-L
HA
730-L Piedmont
Piedmont and
and Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge aquifers
aquifers text
text
Aquifers in
Aquifers
in Early
Early Mesozoic
Mesozoic Basins
Basins
of the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins include
include beds
beds of
of sandstone,
sandstone, arkose,
arkose, and
and conglomerate
conglomerate
The rocks
The
rocks of
that originally
that
originally had
had considerable
considerable effective
effective porosity
porosity between
between the
the grains.
grains. However,
However, due
due to
to
in most
most of
of these
these strata
strata are
are now
now reduced
reduced in
in size
size and
and
compaction and
compaction
and cementation,
cementation, the
the pores
pores in
poorly interconnected,
poorly
interconnected, so
so that
that only
only a
a small
small part
part of
of the
the ground
ground water
water moves
moves between
between pores.
pores.
The diabase
The
diabase and
and basalt
basalt that
that intrude
intrude the
the sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks had
had very
very low
low primary
primary porosity.
porosity. The
The
in the
the lower
lower Mesozoic
Mesozoic rocks
rocks moves
moves primarily
primarily along
along jOints,
jOints, fractures,
fractures, and
and bedding
bedding
ground water
ground
water in
planes. The
planes.
The water-bearing
water-bearing fractures
fractures and
and bedding
bedding planes
planes in
in each
each tabular
tabular aquifer
aquifer are
are more
more or
or
less continuous,
less
continuous, but
but the
the hydraulic
hydraulic connection
connection across
across the
the confining
confining units
units between
between individual
individual
is poor
poor (fig.
(fig. 68).
68). Because
Because of
of preferential
preferential alignment
alignment of
of these
these openings,
openings, the
the aquifers
aquifers are
are
aquifers is
aquifers
anisotropic; most
anisotropic;
most of
of the
the water
water movement
movement is
is parallel
parallel to
to the
the strike
strike of
of the
the beds.
beds.
Because some
Because
some sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks contain
contain more
more interconnected
interconnected openings
openings than
than others,
others, the
the
of a
a series
series of
of aquifers
aquifers of
of tabular
tabular
ground-water system
ground-water
system in
in the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins consists
consists of
form that
form
that alternate
alternate with
with confining
confining units
units that
that are
are several
several tens
tens of
of feet
feet thick.
thick. The
The aquifers
aquifers and
and
confining units
confining
units dip
dip toward
toward the
the border
border faults
faults that
that bound
bound the
the basins
basins at
at angles
angles that
that range
range from
from
10 to
10
to 15
15 degrees.
degrees. The
The aquifers
aquifers generally
generally extend
extend downdip
downdip for
for a
a few
few hundred,
hundred, rarely
rarely for
for a
a few
few
thousand, feet
thousand,
feet but
but are
are continuous
continuous along
along strike
strike for
for thousands
thousands of
of feet.
feet. Wells
Wells drilled
drilled
perpendicular to
perpendicular
to the
the strike
strike of
of the
the beds
beds might
might penetrate
penetrate separate
separate aquifers
aquifers (fig.
(fig. 69
69 ),
), depending
depending
on the
on
the angle
angle of
of the
the dip
dip of
of the
the aquifers
aquifers and
and the
the spacing
spacing of
of the
the wells.
wells. Consequently,
Consequently, well
well fields
fields
designed with
designed
with wells
wells aligned
aligned perpendicular
perpendicular to
to the
the strike
strike would
would likely
likely have
have minimum
minimum interference
interference
between wells.
between
wells. Wells
Wells Band
Band C
C in
in figure
figure 69
69 are
are completed
completed in
in the
the same
same local
local aquifers,
aquifers, and
and each
each
By contrast,
contrast, wells
wells C
C and
and D
D are
are not
not completed
completed
well, when
well,
when pumped,
pumped, will
will interfere
interfere with
with the
the other.
other. By
in the
in
the same
same aquifer,
aquifer, and
and pumping
pumping either
either well
well will
will not
not affect
affect water
water levels
levels or
or well
well yields
yields in
in the
the
other well.
other
well.
of North
North Carolina
Carolina generally
generally yield
yield more
more water
water
The aquifers
The
aquifers in
in the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins north
north of
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces,
Provinces, possibly
possibly
than other
than
other noncarbonate
noncarbonate aquifers
aquifers in
because the
because
the original,
original, intergranular
intergranular pore
pore space
space in
in the
the Meso-zoic
Meso-zoic rocks
rocks may
may be
be sufficient
sufficient to
to store
store
of water.
water. The
The lower
lower Mesozoic
Mesozoic rocks
rocks make
make up
up some
some of
of the
the
and transmit
and
transmit appreciable
appreciable quantities
quantities of
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces in
in which
which the
the yield
yield per
per foot
foot appears
appears
few aquifers
few
aquifers in
to increase
to
increase with
with depth.
depth. In
In the
the Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania part
part of
of the
the Newark
Newark Basin,
Basin, wells
wells between
between 200
200 and
and
550 feet
550
feet deep
deep are
are most
most likely
likely to
to obtain
obtain maximum
maximum yields;
yields; the
the average
average yield
yield of
of wells
wells deeper
deeper
is distinctly
distinctly higher
higher than
than that
that of
of shallower
shallower wells.
wells. This
This may
may be
be the
the result
result of
of
than about
than
about 200
200 feet
feet is
a rather
a
rather abrupt
abrupt change
change in
in the
the nature
nature of
of rock
rock weathering
weathering at
at depth.
depth. In
In Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, the
the zone
zone of
of
greatest decomposition
greatest
decomposition of
of the
the rock-the
rock-the zone
zone where
where the
the original
original void
void spaces
spaces are
are believed
believed to
to be
be
partly plugged
partly
plugged with
with residual
residual clay-apparently
clay-apparently is
is above
above 200
200 feet.
feet. In
In Maryland,
Maryland, some
some waterwater­
yielding zones
yielding
zones are
are at
at depths
depths of
of between
between 600
600 and
and 900
900 feet
feet in
in aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic
basins.
basins.
The dikes in the early Mesozoic basins resemble walls of diabase that are nearly vertical
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Piedmont and
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Blue Ridge
Ridge aquifers
aquifers text
text
through the
through
the sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks into
into which
which they
they are
are intruded.
intruded. The
The dikes
dikes themselves
themselves generally
generally
in many
many places,
places, the
the strata
strata adjacent
adjacent to
to the
the dikes
dikes have
have been
been made
made brittle
brittle
yield little
yield
little water,
water, but
but in
by baking
by
baking from
from the
the heat
heat of
of the
the dike
dike and
and have
have been
been fractured
fractured by
by the
the intrusion.
intrusion. The
The dikes
dikes also
also
as dams
dams because
because they
they block
block ground-water
ground-water flow
flow and
and tend
tend to
to impound
impound water
water in
in the
the
function as
function
In many
many places,
places, wells
wells drilled
drilled near
near dikes
dikes produce
produce more
more
sediments on
sediments
on their
their upgradient
upgradient sides.
sides. In
water than
water
than wells
wells drilled
drilled elsewhere
elsewhere in
in lower
lower Mesozoic
Mesozoic strata.
strata.
of large-diameter
large-diameter wells
wells in
in the
the Newark
Newark and
and the
the Gettysburg
Gettysburg Basins
Basins of
of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Typical yields
Typical
yields of
in massive
massive
are generally
are
generally greatest
greatest (about
(about 80
80 gallons
gallons per
per minute)
minute) from
from wells
wells completed
completed in
sandstones and
sandstones
and 0
0 conglomerates
conglomerates and
and are
are least
least (about
(about 5
5 gallons
gallons per
per minute)
minute) from
from wells
wells
in diabase.
diabase. Yields
Yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in shale
shale or
or argillite
argillite are
are typically
typically about
about 12
12
completed in
completed
gallons per
gallons
per minute.
minute. Although
Although limestone
limestone and
and dolomite
dolomite conglomerate
conglomerate is
is the
the largest-yielding
largest-yielding
aquifer (median
aquifer
(median yield
yield 30
30 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute from
from wells
wells 250
250 to
to 500
500 feet
feet deep)
deep) in
in the
the Culpeper
Culpeper
Basin of
Basin
of Maryland
Maryland and
and Virginia,
Virginia, noncarbonate
noncarbonate conglomerates
conglomerates tend
tend to
to be
be mediocre
mediocre aquifers
aquifers
(median yield
(median
yield 8
8 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute for
for the
the same
same depth
depth range),
range), probably
probably because
because they
they are
are
tightly cemented.
tightly
cemented. Thin-bedded
Thin-bedded siltstone
siltstone tends
tends to
to yield
yield more
more water
water than
than sandstone
sandstone (75
(75 gallons
gallons
per minute
per
minute versus
versus 15
15 gallons
gallons per
per minute).
minute).
in aquifers
aquifers in
in the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins yield
yield large
large quantities
quantities of
of water
water
Many wells
Many
wells completed
completed in
during pumping
during
pumping tests
tests that
that range
range from
from 24
24 to
to 48
48 hours
hours but
but fail
fail to
to maintain
maintain large
large yields
yields over
over long
long
periods of
periods
of time.
time. The
The yields
yields of
of several
several wells
wells that
that were
were tested
tested at
at 75
75 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute soon
soon
in a
a few
few years
years to
to about
about 15
15 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. These
These wells
wells might
might
after completion
after
completion declined
declined in
have been
have
been completed
completed in
in aquifers
aquifers that
that did
did not
not contain
contain much
much water
water in
in storage
storage and
and had
had low
low rates
rates
of recharge.
of
recharge. Another
Another possibility
possibility is
is that
that after
after a
a period
period of
of pumping,
pumping, some
some of
of the
the fractures
fractures in
in the
the
by clay
clay and
and silt
silt that
that were
were disturbed
disturbed and
and transported
transported by
by
aquifers might
aquifers
might have
have been
been partly
partly closed
closed by
the pumping
the
pumping action
action or
or by
by the
the precipitation
precipitation of
of minerals
minerals from
from the
the water.
water.
Carbonate-Rock Aquifers
Carbonate-Rock
Aquifers
in weak
weak acid
acid solutions
solutions compared
compared to
to rocks
rocks of
of other
other composition.
composition.
Carbonate rocks
Carbonate
rocks are
are soluble
soluble in
Water that
Water
that percolates
percolates downward
downward through
through the
the soil
soil contains
contains small
small amounts
amounts of
of dissolved
dissolved carbon
carbon
of dissolving
dissolving
dioxide and
dioxide
and organic
organic acids,
acids, which
which make
make the
the water
water weakly
weakly acidic
acidic and
and thus
thus capable
capable of
carbonate minerals.
carbonate
minerals. Dissolution
Dissolution commonly
commonly begins
begins along
along pre-existing
pre-existing openings,
openings, such
such as
as
fractures or
fractures
or bedding
bedding planes,
planes, and
and enlarges
enlarges these
these openings
openings to
to form
form a
a network
network of
of interconnected
interconnected
of the
the rock.
rock. A
A well
well that
that
openings, which
openings,
which greatly
greatly increases
increases the
the porosity
porosity and
and permeability
permeability of
intersects a
intersects
a water-filled
water-filled solution
solution channel
channel or
or cavern
cavern will
will produce
produce an
an abundant
abundant supply
supply of
of water.
water.
However, where
However,
where the
the water
water table
table is
is deep,
deep, the
the cavities
cavities are
are mostly
mostly drained.
drained. Not
Not all
all carbonate
carbonate
of these
these rocks
rocks depends
depends on
on the
the
rocks form
rocks
form productive
productive aquifers.
aquifers. The
The water-yielding
water-yielding character
character of
of fracturing
fracturing and
and dissolution
dissolution of
of the
the rocks.
rocks.
degree of
degree
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces have
have virtually
virtually no
no primary
primary
The carbonate
The
carbonate rocks
rocks of
permeability or porosity, and water in these rocks moves through secondary openings, such as
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bedding planes,
bedding
planes, jOints,
jOints, faults,
faults, and
and other
other partings,
partings, within
within the
the rock
rock that
that have
have been
been enlarged
enlarged by
by
dissolution. In
dissolution.
In rocks
rocks that
that have
have a
a large
large content
content of
of sand,
sand, clay,
clay, or
or other
other noncarbonate
noncarbonate minerals,
minerals,
is inhibited
inhibited and
and enlargement
enlargement of
of openings
openings might
might not
not be
be extensive.
extensive. In
In such
such rocks,
rocks, all
all
dissolution is
dissolution
in fracture
fracture openings
openings similar
similar to
to those
those in
in unweathered
unweathered crystalline
crystalline rocks.
rocks.
the water
the
water might
might occur
occur in
in carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks is
is under
under unconfined
unconfined to
to confined
confined conditions.
conditions. The
The water
water is
is
Ground water
Ground
water in
confined or
confined
or semiconfined
semiconfined in
in the
the regolith
regolith and
and in
in the
the zone
zone of
of fractured
fractured rock
rock that
that immediately
immediately
in the
the unweathered
unweathered rock
rock contain
contain
underlies it.
underlies
it. Deep
Deep fractures
fractures and
and solution
solution channels
channels in
in some
some places,
places, transmit
transmit water
water several
several tens
tens of
of miles
miles from
from
semiconfined to
semiconfined
to confined
confined water
water and,
and, in
recharge areas
recharge
areas to
to discharge
discharge areas.
areas.
Data on
Data
on the
the regional
regional hydraulic
hydraulic properties
properties of
of the
the carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers are
are not
not available.
available.
From the
From
the observed
observed behavior
behavior of
of pumped
pumped wells
wells completed
completed in
in confined
confined carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers
of the
the pumping
pumping on
on adjacent
adjacent wells,
wells, however,
however, it
it appears
appears that
that a
a decline
decline of
of
and the
and
the effects
effects of
artesian pressure
artesian
pressure in
in response
response to
to pumping
pumping generally
generally is
is transmitted
transmitted rapidly
rapidly to
to distant
distant pOints,
pOints, but
but
the decline
the
decline is
is seldom
seldom equal
equal in
in all
all directions.
directions. In
In fact,
fact, closely
closely spaced
spaced wells
wells might
might encounter
encounter
different systems
different
systems of
of rock
rock openings,
openings, in
in which
which case
case pumping
pumping from
from one
one well
well will
will not
not affect
affect the
the
in an
an adjacent
adjacent well.
well.
water levels
water
levels in
Even though
Even
though cavities
cavities in
in carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks commonly
commonly contain
contain an
an abundant
abundant supply
supply of
of water,
water, they
they
of exceedingly
exceedingly fine
fine mud
mud that
that must
must be
be removed
removed or
or stabilized
stabilized
also might
also
might contain
contain large
large amounts
amounts of
before clear
before
clear water
water can
can be
be obtained
obtained from
from the
the cavities.
cavities. Solution
Solution cavities
cavities also
also can
can act
act as
as channels
channels
for the
for
the transmission
transmission of
of sewage,
sewage, surface
surface contaminants,
contaminants, or
or other
other types
types of
of pollution.
pollution.
RELATION OF
RELATION
OF HYDROGEOLOGIC
HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING
SETTING AND
AND WELL
WELL YIELD
YIELD
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in the
the rocks
rocks of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue
Several factors
Several
factors affect
affect the
the yields
yields of
in yield
yield depend
depend on
on the
the type
type of
of rock
rock in
in which
which a
a well
well is
is completed;
completed;
Ridge Provinces.
Ridge
Provinces. Variations
Variations in
the thickness
the
thickness of
of the
the regolith;
regolith; the
the number,
number, size,
size, and
and spacing
spacing of
of bedrock
bedrock fractures
fractures and
and the
the
degree to
degree
to which
which the
the fractures
fractures are
are connected;
connected; and
and the
the topographic
topographic setting
setting of
of the
the well.
well.
can be
be obtained
obtained from
from carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers,
aquifers, whereas
whereas the
the
The largest
The
largest sustained
sustained well
well yields
yields can
smallest sustained
smallest
sustained yields
yields generally
generally are
are from
from crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock and
and undifferentiated
undifferentiated sedimentarysedimentary­
rock aquifers.
rock
aquifers. Aquifers
Aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins yield
yield intermediate
intermediate volumes
volumes of
of water.
water. Well
Well
yields for
yields
for all
all types
types of
of crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks generally
generally are
are small;
small; a
a recent
recent study
study showed
showed an
an average
average
yield of
yield
of 18
18 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute for
for wells
wells completed
completed in
in these
these rocks
rocks in
in North
North Carolina.
Carolina. CoarseCoarse­
as gneiss
gneiss and
and schist,
schist, generally
generally yield
yield more
more water
water than
than finefine­
textured crystalline
textured
crystalline rocks,
rocks, such
such as
grained, metavolcanic
grained,
metavolcanic rocks.
rocks.
Crystalline bedrock
Crystalline
bedrock is
is covered
covered by
by a
a thick
thick to
to thin
thin layer
layer of
of regolith
regolith almost
almost everywhere
everywhere in
in the
the
Piedmont and
Piedmont
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces.
Provinces. Although
Although the
the porosity
porosity of
of the
the regolith
regolith varies,
varies,
depending mostly on the type of bedrock, it is everywhere more porous than the bedrock. The
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porosity of
porosity
of the
the regolith
regolith ranges
ranges from
from about
about 20
20 to
to 30
30 percent,
percent, but
but the
the porosity
porosity of
of the
the bedrock
bedrock
ranges from
ranges
from only
only about
about 0.01
0.01 to
to 2
2 percent.
percent. Accordingly,
Accordingly, the
the regolith
regolith has
has the
the capacity
capacity to
to store
store a
a
much larger
much
larger volume
volume of
of water
water than
than the
the bedrock,
bedrock, which
which contains
contains water
water only
only in
in fractures,
fractures, as
as
shown in
shown
in figure
figure 70.
70. The
The cylinder-and-rod
cylinder-and-rod sketch
sketch on
on the
the right
right of
of the
the figure
figure illustrates
illustrates this
this
of the
the water
water is
is stored
stored in
in the
the regolith
regolith reservoir,
reservoir, which
which is
is represented
represented by
by the
the
concept. Most
concept.
Most of
cylinder, from
cylinder,
from which
which a
a small
small part
part of
of the
the water
water moves
moves downward
downward and
and is
is stored
stored in
in bedrock
bedrock
fractures, which
fractures,
which are
are represented
represented by
by the
the interconnected
interconnected rods.
rods. The
The size,
size, number,
number, and
and
interconnection of
interconnection
of the
the fractures
fractures decrease
decrease with
with depth.
depth. The
The thicker
thicker the
the regolith,
regolith, the
the greater
greater the
the
of water
water in
in storage
storage and
and the
the more
more likely
likely well
well yield
yield can
can be
be sustained.
sustained. Where
Where the
the regolith
regolith
volume of
volume
is thin,
is
thin, crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock wells
wells are
are more
more likely
likely to
to go
go dry
dry during
during the
the summer
summer months
months or
or periods
periods of
of
drought.
drought.
Most of
Most
of the
the fractures
fractures in
in crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks or
or consolidated
consolidated sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks are
are steeply
steeply
of some
some
inclined, intersecting
inclined,
intersecting openings
openings that
that are
are more
more numerous
numerous at
at shallow
shallow depths.
depths. Examples
Examples of
of the
of
the possible
possible distributions
distributions of
of fractures
fractures with
with respect
respect to
to wells
wells that
that are
are completed
completed in
in crystalline
crystalline
rocks are
rocks
are shown
shown in
in figure
figure 71.
71. Only
Only about
about 3
3 percent
percent of
of wells
wells encounter
encounter no
no fractures
fractures (fig.
(fig. 71A)
71A)
is fractured
fractured only
only near
near the
the
and are
and
are either
either dry
dry or
or will
will not
not have
have a
a sustained
sustained yield.
yield. Where
Where the
the rock
rock is
surface (figs.
surface
(figs. 71B
71B and
and C),
C), wells
wells will
will yield
yield from
from 10
10 to
to 20
20 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute for
for a
a short
short time
time
until the
until
the fractures
fractures are
are drained,
drained, when
when well
well yield
yield suddenly
suddenly declines.
declines. Where
Where several
several fractures
fractures
connected to
connected
to the
the regolith
regolith are
are penetrated
penetrated by
by a
a well
well (fig.
(fig. 710),
710), moderate
moderate sustained
sustained yields
yields are
are
possible, whereas
possible,
whereas a
a well
well that
that encounters
encounters numerous
numerous closely
closely spaced
spaced fractures
fractures (fig.
(fig. 71E)
71E) is
is most
most
likely to
likely
to have
have a
a high
high sustained
sustained yield.
yield. Where
Where only
only a
a few
few fractures
fractures exist
exist (fig.
(fig. 71F),
71F), sustained
sustained
yields are
yields
are likely
likely to
to be
be low.
low. When
When the
the water
water level
level in
in a
a well
well that
that was
was completed
completed in
in rocks
rocks with
with
intergranular porosity
intergranular
porosity is
is lowered
lowered by
by pumping,
pumping, the
the hydraulic
hydraulic gradient
gradient toward
toward the
the well
well is
is
increased, and
increased,
and the
the flow
flow toward
toward the
the well
well also
also is
is increased.
increased. However,
However, if
if the
the water
water level
level is
is
lowered below
lowered
below the
the deepest
deepest fracture
fracture in
in the
the examples
examples shown,
shown, then
then there
there is
is no
no effect
effect on
on the
the
gradient, and
gradient,
and flow
flow toward
toward the
the well
well will
will not
not increase.
increase.
The Piedmont
The
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces contain
contain many
many faults,
faults, most
most of
of which
which show
show only
only
small displacement.
small
displacement. The
The fault
fault zones
zones themselves
themselves commonly
commonly have
have low
low permeability
permeability because
because they
they
can be
can
be filled
filled with
with clay
clay gouge,
gouge, recemented
recemented breccia,
breccia, or
or recrystallized
recrystallized rock,
rock, all
all of
of which
which impede
impede
the flow
the
flow of
of ground
ground water.
water. Most
Most of
of the
the water-bearing
water-bearing fractures
fractures in
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue
Ridge are
Ridge
are jOints,
jOints, stress-relief
stress-relief fractures,
fractures, or
or cleavage
cleavage planes
planes and
and are
are not
not directly
directly associated
associated with
with
a fault.
a
fault. Some
Some fracture
fracture zones
zones appear
appear as
as lineaments
lineaments that
that can
can be
be identified
identified on
on aerial
aerial photographs.
photographs.
Wells in
Wells
in valleys,
valleys, draws,
draws, and
and depressions
depressions tend
tend to
to have
have higher-than-average
higher-than-average yields
yields for
for the
the
following reasons:
following
reasons: (1)
(1) valleys
valleys and
and draws
draws commonly
commonly coincide
coincide with
with fracture
fracture zones
zones in
in the
the rocks,
rocks,
(2) the
(2)
the water
water table
table is
is nearer
nearer the
the surface
surface in
in topographically
topographically low
low areas
areas and
and thus
thus provides
provides
greater available
greater
available drawdown
drawdown for
for a
a given
given well
well depth
depth in
in a
a valley
valley than
than on
on a
a hill,
hill, (3)
(3) the
the water
water table
table
in valleys
valleys from
from at
at least
least two
two directions,
directions, whereas
whereas it
it slopes
slopes away
away
ordinarily slopes
ordinarily
slopes toward
toward wells
wells in
from wells
from
wells on
on hilltops
hilltops in
in at
at least
least two
two directions,
directions, and
and water
water levels
levels in
in wells
wells on
on hilltops,
hilltops, therefore,
therefore,
are more likely to decline rapidly than those in wells in valleys, and (4) seasonal fluctuations of
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the water
the
water table
table are
are greater
greater on
on hilltops
hilltops where
where well
well yields
yields are
are likely
likely to
to be
be reduced
reduced during
during dry
dry
seasons. Draws
seasons.
Draws on
on the
the sides
sides of
of the
the valleys
valleys of
of per-ennial
per-ennial streams
streams where
where a
a thick
thick blanket
blanket of
of
regolith underlies
regolith
underlies the
the adjacent
adjacent ridges
ridges are
are the
the best
best sites
sites for
for wells
wells with
with large
large yields.
yields. A
A statistical
statistical
analysis that
analysis
that related
related well
well yield
yield to
to topographic
topographic setting
setting in
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge
of North
North Carolina
Carolina indicated
indicated that
that wells
wells drilled
drilled in
in valleys
valleys or
or draws
draws have
have average
average yields
yields
Provinces of
Provinces
of wells
wells located
located on
on hills
hills or
or ridges.
ridges. Solution
Solution openings
openings in
in carbonate
carbonate
that are
that
are three
three times
times those
those of
rocks are
rocks
are usually
usually more
more abundant
abundant in
in valleys,
valleys, depressions,
depressions, and
and draws,
draws, which
which are,
are, therefore,
therefore,
favorable sites
favorable
sites for
for wells
wells in
in this
this type
type of
of rock.
rock.
is an
an indi-cation
indi-cation of
of the
the maximum
maximum sustained
sustained
Ground-water discharge
Ground-water
discharge to
to a
a stream
stream (base
(base flow)
flow) is
ground-water yield.
ground-water
yield. The
The per-centage
per-centage of
of streamflow
streamflow composed
composed of
of base
base flow
flow is
is determined
determined by
by
of the
the soil
soil and
and the
the capacity
capacity of
of the
the underlying
underlying aquifers
aquifers to
to store
store and
and
the infiltration
the
infiltration capacity
capacity of
transmit water.
transmit
water. In
In part
part of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont Province
Province in
in southeastern
southeastern Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, base
base flow
flow
ranges from
ranges
from 57
57 to
to 66
66 percent
percent of
of streamflow
streamflow in
in drainage
drainage basins
basins that
that are
are underlain
underlain
by crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks and
and 77
77 percent
percent in
in a
a typical
typical basin
basin that
that is
is underlain
underlain by
by
predominately by
predominately
carbonate rocks.
carbonate
rocks. Base
Base flow
flow ranges
ranges from
from 33
33 to
to 67
67 percent
percent of
of streamflow
streamflow in
in three
three drainage
drainage
basins that
basins
that are
are underlain
underlain by
by crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks in
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge of
of Maryland
Maryland
32 to
to 65
65 (average
(average 44)
44) percent
percent in
in 10
10 crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock drainage
drainage basins
basins in
in the
the Piedmont
Piedmont
and from
and
from 32
of North
of
North Carolina.
Carolina. The
The average
average base
base flow
flow in
in the
the early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic Culpeper
Culpeper Basin
Basin of
of Maryland
Maryland
and Virginia
and
Virginia is
is 68
68 percent
percent of
of streamflow.
streamflow.
GROUND-WATER QUALITY
GROUND-WATER
QUALITY
of water
water from
from aquifers
aquifers in
in the
the different
different rock
rock types
types of
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue
The quality
The
quality of
Ridge Provinces
Ridge
Provinces is
is similar
similar (fig.
(fig. 72).
72). The
The water
water generally
generally is
is suitable
suitable for
for drinking
drinking and
and other
other uses,
uses,
but iron,
but
iron, manganese,
manganese, and
and sulfate
sulfate locally
locally occur
occur in
in objectionable
objectionable concentrations.
concentrations. Large
Large iron
iron
be caused
caused by
by corrosion
corrosion or
or the
the action
action of
of iron-fixing
iron-fixing bacteria
bacteria on
on iron
iron and
and
concentrations can
concentrations
can be
steel casings
steel
casings and
and well
well fittings.
fittings. Some
Some crystalline
crystalline rocks
rocks and
and some
some sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in early
early
Mesozoic basins
Mesozoic
basins contain
contain minerals
minerals that,
that, when
when weathered,
weathered, can
can contribute
contribute iron
iron and
and manganese
manganese
if the
the water
water is
is slightly
slightly acidic.
acidic. Treatment
Treatment of
of the
the water
water usually
usually will
will
to ground
to
ground water,
water, particularly
particularly if
alleviate problems
alleviate
problems of
of excessive
excessive iron
iron and
and manganese
manganese concentrations.
concentrations.
of
The crystalline-rock
The
crystalline-rock and
and undifferentiated
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers
aquifers consist
consist primarily
primarily of
metamorphic and
metamorphic
and igneous
igneous rocks
rocks but
but include
include small
small areas
areas of
of sedimentary
sedimentary rocks,
rocks, principally
principally
of silica
silica and
and silicate
silicate minerals
minerals
conglomerate, sandstone,
conglomerate,
sandstone, and
and shale.
shale. These
These rocks
rocks consist
consist mostly
mostly of
that are
that
are not
not readily
readily dissolved.
dissolved. Dissolved-solids
Dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations in
in water
water from
from these
these aquifers
aquifers
is soft;
soft; hardness
hardness averages
averages about
about 63
63
average about
average
about 120
120 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter.
liter. The
The water
water is
milligrams per
milligrams
per liter.
liter. The
The median
median hydrogen
hydrogen ion
ion concentration,
concentration, which
which is
is measured
measured in
in pH
pH units,
units, is
is
6.7; consequently,
6.7;
consequently, the
the water
water is
is slightly
slightly acidic.
acidic. The
The median
median iron
iron concentration
concentration is
is 0.1
0.1 milligram
milligram
as large
large as
as 25
25 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter have
have been
been reported.
reported. The
The water
water
per liter,
per
liter, but
but concentrations
concentrations as
is mostly
is
mostly a
a calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type (fig.
(fig. 72A).
72A).
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The aquifers
The
aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins are
are mostly
mostly sandstone,
sandstone, siltstone,
siltstone, and
and shale,
shale, with
with some
some
limestone and
limestone
and conglomerate.
conglomerate. The
The minerals
minerals that
that compose
compose these
these rocks
rocks are
are slightly
slightly more
more soluble
soluble
than those
than
those of
of the
the rocks
rocks that
that compose
compose the
the crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock and
and undifferentiated
undifferentiated sedimentarysedimentary­
in water
water from
from the
the aquifers
aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic
rock aquifers.
rock
aquifers. Dissolved-solids
Dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations in
basins average
basins
average about
about 230
230 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, and
and hardness
hardness averages
averages about
about 160
160 milligrams
milligrams
is considered
considered to
to be
be hard.
hard. The
The median
median hydrogen
hydrogen ion
ion concentration,
concentration, which
which is
is
per liter,
per
liter, which
which is
measured in
measured
in pH
pH units,
units, is
is 7.6.
7.6. The
The dissolution
dissolution of
of calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium carbonate
carbonate raises
raises the
the
pH of
pH
of the
the water
water and
and renders
renders it
it less
less acidic.
acidic. Chloride
Chloride and
and sulfate
sulfate concentrations
concentrations average
average about
about
12 and
12
and 29
29 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, respectively,
respectively, but
but chloride
chloride concentrations
concentrations as
as large
large as
as 1,400
1,400
milligrams per
milligrams
per liter
liter and
and sulfate
sulfate concentrations
concentrations as
as large
large as
as 1,200
1,200 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter have
have been
been
reported in
reported
in water
water from
from deep
deep wells.
wells. The
The median
median iron
iron concentration
concentration is
is 0.1
0.1 milligram
milligram per
per liter,
liter, but
but
as large
large as
as 5.3
5.3 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter have
have been
been reported.
reported. The
The water
water from
from the
the
concentrations as
concentrations
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins is
is mostly
mostly a
a calcium
calcium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type (fig.
(fig. 72B).
72B).
aquifers in
aquifers
The dominance
The
dominance of
of soluble
soluble calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium carbonate
carbonate minerals
minerals in
in the
the carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock
aquifers is
aquifers
is reflected
reflected in
in the
the composition
composition of
of the
the water
water from
from the
the aquifers.
aquifers. Dissolved-solids
Dissolved-solids
concentrations in
concentrations
in the
the water
water average
average about
about 330
330 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, and
and hardness
hardness (caused
(caused
is
principally by
principally
by calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium ions)
ions) averages
averages about
about 280
280 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, which
which is
considered to
considered
to be
be very
very hard.
hard. The
The median
median hydrogen
hydrogen ion
ion concentration,
concentration, which
which is
is measured
measured in
in pH
pH
units, is
units,
is 7.5.
7.5. The
The median
median iron
iron concentration
concentration is
is 0.1
0.1 milligram
milligram per
per liter,
liter, but
but concentrations
concentrations as
as
large as
large
as 8
8 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter have
have been
been reported.
reported. The
The water
water is
is mostly
mostly a
a calcium
calcium bicarbonate
bicarbonate
type (fig.
type
(fig. 72C).
72C).
FRESH GROUND-WATER
FRESH
GROUND-WATER WITHDRAWALS
WITHDRAWALS
of the
the Piedmont
Piedmont and
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge
Total freshwater
Total
freshwater withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the bedrock
bedrock aquifers
aquifers of
52 percent
percent of
of the
the otal,
otal, or
or
Provinces were
Provinces
were about
about 634
634 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day during
during 1985.
1985. About
About 52
about 329
about
329 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, was
was withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock and
and
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
undifferentiated
sedimentary-rock aquifers.
aquifers. Withdrawals
Withdrawals from
from the
the aquifers
aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic
35 percent
percent of
of the
the total.
total. The
The remaining
remaining
basins were
basins
were about
about 223
223 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, or
or about
about 35
13 percent,
13
percent, or
or about
about 82
82 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, was
was withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock
aquifers.
aquifers.
of withdrawals
withdrawals from
from the
the three
three types
types of
of bedrock
bedrock aquifers
aquifers varies
varies greatly
greatly from
from
The distribution
The
distribution of
73 ).
). More
More than
than one-half
one-half of
of the
the water
water withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock
State to
State
to State
State (fig.
(fig. 73
and undifferentiated
and
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers
aquifers during
during 1985
1985 was
was pumped
pumped in
in North
North Carolina
Carolina
(fig. 73A).
(fig.
73A). The
The aquifers
aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins (fig.
(fig. 73B)
73B) were
were important
important sources
sources of
of supply
supply in
in
Pennsylvania and
Pennsylvania
and New
New Jersey
Jersey during
during the
the same
same period.
period. Withdrawals
Withdrawals from
from the
the carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania (fig.
(fig. 73C).
73C). The
The withdrawals
withdrawals are
are directly
directly
aquifers during
aquifers
during 1985
1985 were
were greatest
greatest in
proportional to
proportional
to the
the area
area underlain
underlain by
by each
each bedrock
bedrock aquifer
aquifer type
type in
in each
each State.
State.
Withdrawals for different uses during 1985 varied among the bedrock aquifer types (fig. 74).
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Most of
Most
of the
the water
water withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the crystalline-rock
crystalline-rock and
and undifferentiated
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock
aquifers was
aquifers
was used
used for
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial supplies.
supplies. By
By contrast,
contrast, most
most of
of the
the water
water
withdrawn from
withdrawn
from the
the aquifers
aquifers in
in early
early Mesozoic
Mesozoic basins
basins and
and the
the carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers was
was
used for
used
for public
public supply.
supply. The
The percentage
percentage of
of water
water withdrawn
withdrawn for
for industrial,
industrial, mining,
mining, and
and
thermoelectric power
thermoelectric
power uses
uses was
was nearly
nearly the
the same
same for
for all
all three
three aquifer
aquifer types.
types. Agricultural
Agricultural
withdrawals were
withdrawals
were the
the smallest
smallest use
use category
category for
for each
each of
of the
the three
three aquifer
aquifer types.
types.
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.USGS
.USGS
GROUND WATER
GROUND
WATER ATLAS
ATLAS of
of the
the UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
Delaware, Maryland,
Delaware,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
West Virginia
Virginia
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
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Valley and
Valley
and Ridge
Ridge aquifers
aquifers
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Physiographic
Physiographic Province
Province consist
consist of
of permeable
permeable rocks
rocks within
within a
a
Aquifers in
Aquifers
sequence of
sequence
of folded
folded and
and faulted
faulted sedimentary
sedimentary formations
formations of
of Paleozoic
Paleozoic age.
age. The
The upper
upper strata
strata
as they
they slid
slid over
over underlying
underlying beds
beds along
along large,
large, nearly
nearly
were folded
were
folded into
into anticlines
anticlines and
and synclines
synclines as
horizontal faults.
horizontal
faults. The
The folded
folded rocks
rocks form
form a
a series
series of
of parallel
parallel valleys
valleys separated
separated by
by steep
steep to
to wellwell­
rounded ridges
rounded
ridges that
that rise
rise from
from about
about 100
100 to
to 2,000
2,000 feet
feet above
above the
the valley
valley floors.
floors. The
The province
province is
is
named for
named
for these
these al-ternating
al-ternating valleys
valleys and
and ridges
ridges that
that trend
trend northeastward
northeastward from
from southwestern
southwestern
Virginia to
Virginia
to east-central
east-central Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and then
then eastward
eastward toward
toward northern
northern New
New Jersey
Jersey (fig.
(fig. 75)
75)
in Segment
in
Segment 11.
11. The
The province
province extends
extends southwestward
southwestward through
through Tennessee
Tennessee (Segment
(Segment 10
10 of
of this
this
Atlas) into
Atlas)
into northern
northern Georgia
Georgia and
and Alabama
Alabama (Segment
(Segment 6
6 of
of this
this Atlas)
Atlas) and
and is
is briefly
briefly discussed
discussed in
in
the chapters
the
chapters that
that describe
describe aquifers
aquifers in
in these
these segments.
segments. The
The province
province also
also is
is called
called the
the Folded
Folded
Appalachians because
Appalachians
because folded
folded strata
strata dominate
dominate the
the topography
topography (fig.
(fig. 76).
76). The
The same
same Paleozoic
Paleozoic
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province are
are present
present in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province
formations of
formations
to the
to
the west,
west, where
where they
they are
are much
much more
more gently
gently folded
folded and
and nearly
nearly flat-lying
flat-lying in
in places.
places. The
The rocks
rocks
of the
of
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province are
are chiefly
chiefly sandstone,
sandstone, shale,
shale, and
and carbonate
carbonate rocks;
rocks; locally,
locally,
beds are
are present.
present. A
A thick
thick cover
cover of
of regolith
regolith has
has developed
developed on
on the
the rocks,
rocks,
coal-bearing beds
coal-bearing
particularly in
particularly
in the
the valleys.
valleys.
of about
about 80
80 miles
miles in
in central
central
The Valley
The
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province reaches
reaches a
a maximum
maximum width
width of
Pennsylvania and
Pennsylvania
and is
is bounded
bounded by
by the
the higher
higher land
land surfaces
surfaces of
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge and
and the
the Piedmont
Piedmont
In most
most
Provinces on
Provinces
on the
the southeast
southeast and
and the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province on
on the
the northwest.
northwest. In
places, the Valley and Ridge is separated from the Appalachian Plateaus by an escarpment
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called the
called
the Allegheny
Allegheny Front
Front in
in Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and West
West Virginia
Virginia and
and the
the Cumberland
Cumberland
Escarpment in
Escarpment
in Virginia
Virginia (fig.
(fig. 75).
75).
is the
the most
most pronounced
pronounced and
and persistent
persistent valley
valley in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge
The Great
The
Great Valley
Valley is
Province. It
Province.
It is
is floored
floored with
with easily
easily eroded
eroded rock,
rock, such
such as
as shale,
shale, slate,
slate, or
or carbonate
carbonate rocks.
rocks. The
The
10 to
to 20
20 miles
miles wide
wide but
but is
is much
much narrower
narrower in
in and
and near
near Roanoke
Roanoke
valley generally
valley
generally ranges
ranges from
from 10
County, Va.
County,
Va. Part
Part of
of the
the eastern
eastern boundary
boundary of
of the
the Great
Great Valley
Valley is
is a
a zone
zone of
of thrust
thrust faulting;
faulting;
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province have
have been
been shoved
shoved northwestward
northwestward tens
tens of
of miles
miles
crystalline rocks
crystalline
rocks of
in places.
places. The
The western
western boundary
boundary of
of the
the valley
valley is
is the
the first
first
over Paleozoic
over
Paleozoic sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
persistent mountainous
persistent
mountainous ridge
ridge of
of resistant
resistant sedimentary
sedimentary rock.
rock. The
The part
part of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge
northwest of
northwest
of the
the Great
Great Valley
Valley consists
consists of
of persistent
persistent mountain
mountain ridges
ridges underlain
underlain by
by resistant
resistant
sandstone, conglomerate,
sandstone,
conglomerate, and
and quartzite,
quartzite, which
which alternate
alternate with
with valleys
valleys floored
floored with
with shale
shale or
or
slate and
slate
and carbonate
carbonate rocks.
rocks.
of
Drainage patterns
Drainage
patterns in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province directly
directly reflect
reflect the
the alternating
alternating bands
bands of
resistant and
resistant
and easily
easily eroded
eroded rocks
rocks in
in the
the folded
folded strata
strata of
of the
the province.
province. Major
Major streams
streams and
and their
their
at right
right angles
angles to
to form
form a
a rectangular
rectangular stream
stream network
network called
called a
a trellis
trellis
tributaries intersect
tributaries
intersect at
drainage pattern
drainage
pattern (fig.
(fig. 77).
77). For
For example,
example, in
in the
the Shenandoah
Shenandoah Valley,
Valley, which
which is
is part
part of
of the
the Great
Great
Valley in
Valley
in Virginia
Virginia and
and West
West Virginia,
Virginia, the
the Shenandoah
Shenandoah River
River flows
flows northward
northward to
to join
join the
the
of weak
weak and
and soluble
soluble rocks
rocks as
as the
the course
course
Potomac River.
Potomac
River. The
The Shenandoah
Shenandoah River
River follows
follows a
a band
band of
of least
of
least resistance,
resistance, as
as do
do most
most of
of the
the other
other rivers
rivers in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge.
Ridge. Such
Such streams
streams are
are
called subsequent
called
subsequent streams
streams and
and their
their courses
courses are
are determined
determined by
by regional
regional geologic
geologic structure
structure as
as
expressed by
expressed
by the
the patterns
patterns of
of resistant
resistant and
and weak
weak rocks.
rocks.
as the
the Lehigh
Lehigh and
and the
the Susquehanna
Susquehanna Rivers
Rivers in
in Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania,
A few
A
few major
major rivers,
rivers, however,
however, such
such as
of the
the Potomac
Potomac River
River in
in
the Delaware
the
Delaware River
River between
between Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and New
New Jersey,
Jersey, and
and part
part of
West Virginia,
West
Virginia, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and Virginia,
Virginia, cut
cut directly
directly across
across the
the ridges
ridges and
and valleys
valleys (fig.
(fig. 75).
75). Such
Such
streams are
streams
are called
called superimposed
superimposed streams.
streams. The
The Susquehanna
Susquehanna River,
River, for
for example,
example, crosses
crosses six
six
major ridges
major
ridges within
within 50
50 miles
miles upstream
upstream from
from Harrisburg,
Harrisburg, Pa
Pa ..
.. The
The notch
notch carved
carved through
through a
a
is called
called a
a water
water gap
gap (fig.
(fig. 78).
78). When
When a
a stream
stream no
no longer
longer flows
flows
resistant ridge
resistant
ridge by
by a
a river
river is
through a
through
a water
water gap,
gap, usually
usually because
because the
the stream
stream has
has been
been captured
captured by
by headward
headward erosion
erosion of
of a
a
larger stream,
larger
stream, the
the abandoned
abandoned water
water gap
gap is
is called
called a
a wind
wind gap
gap (fig.
(fig. 79).
79).
GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE
GEOLOGIC
STRUCTURE
The geologic
The
geologic structure
structure of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
is complex,
complex, but
but the
the process
process principally
principally
responsible for
responsible
for the
the present
present configuration
configuration of
of the
the rock
rock layers
layers was
was displacement
displacement to
to the
the northwest.
northwest.
of the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Province
Province
Some movement
Some
movement took
took place
place along
along low-angle
low-angle reverse
reverse faults;
faults; rocks
rocks of
and the
and
the Reading
Reading Prong
Prong were
were thrust
thrust northwestward
northwestward over
over layered
layered sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks of
of the
the
Valley and
Valley
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province for
for tens
tens of
of miles,
miles, and
and the
the layered
layered rocks,
rocks, in
in turn,
turn, were
were broken
broken into
into
slices that
slices
that slid
slid over
over each
each other.
other. At
At and
and near
near the
the land
land surface,
surface, the
the beds
beds were
were folded
folded into
into nearly
nearly
parallel, northeast-trending anticlines and synclines. In some areas, the folded beds are
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bounded below
bounded
below by
by nearly
nearly horizontal
horizontal thrust
thrust faults.
faults. At
At the
the time
time of
of deformation,
deformation, slippage
slippage
occurred along
occurred
along bedding
bedding planes;
planes; accordingly,
accordingly, the
the folded
folded beds
beds above
above were
were detached
detached from
from those
those
below.
below.
is most
most intense
intense in
in the
the parts
parts of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and central
central
Folding is
Folding
of the
the intense
intense deformation,
deformation, cleavage
cleavage in
in places
places is
is more
more
to northeastern
to
northeastern Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania. Because
Because of
prominent than
prominent
than bedding,
bedding, and
and some
some of
of the
the rocks
rocks have
have undergone
undergone low-grade
low-grade metamorphism.
metamorphism. In
In
the Valley
the
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province in
in southwestern
southwestern Virginia
Virginia and
and farther
farther to
to the
the southwest
southwest in
in
Tennessee, folding
Tennessee,
folding is
is less
less intense,
intense, but
but major
major faults
faults are
are common,
common, and
and vertical
vertical to
to overturned
overturned
beds appear
beds
appear in
in many
many places,
places, particularly
particularly on
on the
the northwestern
northwestern sides
sides of
of anticlines.
anticlines. The
The western
western
boundary of
boundary
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
is marked
marked by
by a
a rather
rather abrupt
abrupt reduction
reduction in
in the
the
of the
the beds.
beds. This
This corresponds
corresponds approximately
approximately with
with the
the Allegheny
Allegheny Front,
Front, which
which
deformation of
deformation
marks the
marks
the boundary
boundary between
between the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge and
and the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province.
Province.
at the
the boundary
boundary in
in some
some places,
places, but
but have
have not
not been
been identified
identified everywhere.
everywhere.
Faults occur
Faults
occur at
of ancient
ancient mountains.
mountains. Only
Only parts
parts of
of
The present
The
present Appalachian
Appalachian Mountains
Mountains are
are merely
merely the
the roots
roots of
the original
the
original folds
folds remain,
remain, and
and the
the mountain
mountain ridges
ridges are
are the
the eroded
eroded edges
edges of
of resistant
resistant rock
rock
Axes of
of anticlines
anticlines commonly
commonly are
are
layers, principally
layers,
principally hard
hard sandstone,
sandstone, conglomerate,
conglomerate, or
or quartzite.
quartzite. Axes
valleys, especially
valleys,
especially where
where the
the rock
rock that
that forms
forms the
the center
center of
of the
the upfold
upfold has
has little
little resistance
resistance to
to
erosion. Axes
erosion.
Axes of
of synclines
synclines commonly
commonly coincide
coincide with
with ridges
ridges or
or mountains
mountains where
where the
the rock
rock at
at the
the
of the
the downfold
downfold is
is resistant.
resistant. Formations
Formations that
that have
have been
been eroded
eroded away
away elsewhere
elsewhere might
might
center of
center
be preserved
be
preserved in
in synclines.
synclines. Broad
Broad folds,
folds, whether
whether syn-clines
syn-clines or
or anticlines,
anticlines, can
can appear
appear as
as a
a series
series
of narrow
of
narrow ridges
ridges and
and valleys
valleys produced
produced by
by the
the differences
differences in
in erodability
erodability of
of their
their rock
rock layers.
layers.
HYDROGEOLOGIC UNITS
HYDROGEOLOGIC
UNITS
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province from
from Virginia
Virginia through
through New
New Jersey
Jersey are
are
The principal
The
principal aquifers
aquifers in
carbonate rocks
carbonate
rocks and
and sandstones
sandstones that
that range
range in
in age
age from
from early
early to
to late
late Paleozoic
Paleozoic (fig.
(fig. 80).
80). Not
Not all
all
in each
each of
of the
the States
States are
are shown;
shown; some
some formations
formations that
that are
are
the geologic
the
geologic formations
formations recognized
recognized in
thin or
thin
or are
are of
of small
small extent
extent are
are omitted.
omitted. Most
Most of
of the
the more
more productive
productive aquifers
aquifers are
are in
in carbonate
carbonate
in valleys.
valleys. Although
Although the
the water-yielding
water-yielding character
character of
of
rocks, primarily
rocks,
primarily limestone,
limestone, and
and most
most are
are in
the carbonate
the
carbonate rocks
rocks depends
depends on
on the
the degree
degree of
of fracturing
fracturing and
and development
development of
of solution
solution cavities
cavities
in the
in
the rock,
rock, the
the limestone
limestone formations
formations generally
generally yield
yield moderate
moderate to
to large
large volumes
volumes of
of water.
water.
of water
water to
to wells
wells where
where the
the sandstone
sandstone is
is
Sandstone formations
Sandstone
formations also
also can
can yield
yield large
large quantities
quantities of
fractured. Locally,
fractured.
Locally, fractured
fractured shale
shale beds
beds form
form productive
productive aquifers.
aquifers. Because
Because the
the rocks
rocks change
change in
in
lithology, thickness,
lithology,
thickness, water-yielding
water-yielding character,
character, and
and formation
formation name
name from
from place
place to
to place,
place, it
it is
is
difficult to
difficult
to make
make statements
statements about
about the
the water-yielding
water-yielding character
character of
of any
any of
of the
the named
named
stratigraphic units
stratigraphic
units that
that apply
apply throughout
throughout Segment
Segment 11.
11. Generally,
Generally, however,
however, limestone
limestone aquifers
aquifers
of Cambrian,
Cambrian, early
early Ordovician,
Ordovician, late
late Silurian,
Silurian, and
and early
early Devonian
Devonian age
age (~
predominate in
predominate
in rocks
rocks of
80), whereas
80),
whereas sandstone
sandstone aquifers
aquifers are
are prominent
prominent in
in rocks
rocks of
of middle
middle and
and late
late Ordovician,
Ordovician, middle
middle
Devonian, and
Devonian,
and younger
younger age.
age.
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The sedimentary
The
sedimentary formations
formations of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province are
are commonly
commonly thick
thick and
and steeply
steeply
tilted; thus,
tilted;
thus, a
a water
water well
well usually
usually penetrates
penetrates only
only the
the consolidated
consolidated rock
rock formation
formation exposed
exposed at
at
the surface.
the
surface. Therefore
Therefore geologic
geologic maps
maps are
are good
good guides
guides to
to the
the type
type of
of rock
rock from
from which
which a
a well
well
can withdraw
can
withdraw water.
water.
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province in
in New
New Jersey
Jersey and
and is
is floored
floored
The Great
The
Great Valley
Valley makes
makes up
up most
most of
with shale
with
shale and
and carbonate
carbonate rock
rock of
of early
early Paleozoic
Paleozoic age.
age. A
A thick
thick sequence
sequence of
of carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks that
that
of the
the Leithsville
Leithsville Formation,
Formation, the
the Allentown
Allentown Dolomite,
Dolomite, and
and the
the Beekmantown
Beekmantown Group
Group
consist of
consist
of as
as much
much as
as 850
850 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute have
have been
been
contains the
contains
the most
most productive
productive aquifers.
aquifers. Yields
Yields of
reported for
reported
for wells
wells that
that obtain
obtain water
water from
from combinations
combinations of
of these
these geologic
geologic units.
units. West
West of
of the
the
Great Valley,
Great
Valley, predominately
predominately Silurian
Silurian and
and Devonian
Devonian rocks
rocks (mostly
(mostly shale,
shale, sandstone,
sandstone, and
and
in these
these clastic
clastic rocks
rocks and
and in
in thin
thin limestone
limestone units
units
conglomerate) are
conglomerate)
are exposed.
exposed. Wells
Wells completed
completed in
interbedded with
interbedded
with them
them yield
yield 15
15 to
to 100
100 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute.
is widest
widest in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and contains
contains more
more geologic
geologic units
units than
than
The Valley
The
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
elsewhere in
elsewhere
in Segment
Segment 11
11 (fig.
(fig. 80).
80). The
The Great
Great Valley
Valley in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania is
is floored
floored with
with ower
ower
Paleozoic carbonate
Paleozoic
carbonate rocks
rocks and
and shale.
shale. Principal
Principal water-yielding
water-yielding geologic
geologic units
units are
are limestone
limestone and
and
of the
the Waynesboro
Waynesboro Formation
Formation through
through the
the st.
st. Paul
Paul Group
Group (Cambrian
(Cambrian and
and
dolomitic limestone
dolomitic
limestone of
Ordovician ages),
Ordovician
ages), with
with well
well yields
yields reported
reported to
to range
range from
from 25
25 to
to 210
210 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Yields
Yields
of the
the Martinsburg
Martinsburg Formation,
Formation, by
by contrast,
contrast, only
only range
range from
from 10
10 to
to 30
30 gallons
gallons
from sandstone
from
sandstone of
per minute.
per
minute. Northwest
Northwest of
of the
the Great
Great Valley,
Valley, the
the uppermost
uppermost Paleozoic
Paleozoic rocks
rocks in
in central
central to
to
beds of
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian age
age mostly
mostly associated
associated with
with
northeastern Pennsylvania
northeastern
Pennsylvania are
are coal-bearing
coal-bearing beds
the anthracite
the
anthracite coal
coal fields
fields where
where deeply
deeply infolded
infolded beds
beds of
of coal
coal were
were preserved
preserved from
from erosion.
erosion. The
The
of folding
folding and
and deep
deep burial
burial drove
drove off
off most
most of
of the
the volatile
volatile content
content of
of the
the bituminous
bituminous
processes of
processes
coal in
coal
in the
the more
more intensely
intensely folded
folded areas
areas and
and converted
converted it
it to
to anthracite.
anthracite. This
This conversion
conversion did
did not
not
take place
take
place everywhere,
everywhere, however.
however. For
For example,
example, in
in south-central
south-central Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian
in a
a synclinal
synclinal mountain
mountain in
in parts
parts of
of Huntingdon,
Huntingdon,
rocks range
rocks
range from
from 1,000
1,000 to
to 1,500
1,500 feet
feet thick
thick in
Bedford, and
Bedford,
and Fulton
Fulton Counties
Counties (fig.
(fig. 75),
75), but
but the
the coals
coals they
they contain
contain are
are closer
closer in
in rank
rank to
to
bituminous than
bituminous
than anthracite.
anthracite. Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks
rocks consist
consist of
of sandstone,
sandstone, which
which is
is coarse
coarse or
or
in some
some places;
places; gray
gray and
and black
black shale
shale and
and claystone;
claystone; thin
thin beds
beds of
of limestone;
limestone; and
and
conglomeratic in
conglomeratic
coal. Sandstone
coal.
Sandstone is
is more
more abundant
abundant in
in the
the Pottsville
Pottsville Group
Group than
than other
other geologic
geologic units,
units, and
and yields
yields
of wells
of
wells completed
completed in
in the
the Pottsville
Pottsville commonly
commonly range
range from
from 50
50 to
to 100
100 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute.
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania have
have a
a distribution
distribution pattern
pattern similar
similar to
to that
that of
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian rocks
Mississippian
rocks in
of shale,
shale, sandstone,
sandstone, and
and
rocks but
rocks
but have
have a
a somewhat
somewhat wider
wider extent.
extent. They
They consist
consist primarily
primarily of
conglomerate; yields
conglomerate;
yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in sandstones
sandstones of
of the
the Mississippian
Mississippian parts
parts of
of the
the Mauch
Mauch
Chunk and
Chunk
and the
the Pocono
Pocono Formations
Formations range
range from
from 20
20 to
to 90
90 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Devonian
Devonian rocks
rocks are
are
of the
the Great
Great Valley
Valley in
in southern
southern Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and north
north and
and east
east of
of
extensively exposed
extensively
exposed west
west of
the Susquehanna
the
Susquehanna River.
River. The
The ridges
ridges of
of the
the province
province are
are typically
typically formed
formed on
on the
the upturned
upturned edges
edges
of layers
of
layers of
of hard
hard Silurian
Silurian sandstone
sandstone and
and quartzite,
quartzite, but
but the
the Silurian
Silurian section
section also
also includes
includes shale
shale
of Silurian
Silurian and
and Devonian
Devonian age
age (Mifflintown
(Mifflintown Formation
Formation
and limestone.
and
limestone. Yields
Yields from
from limestones
limestones of
through Onondaga Group, fig. 80) commonly range from 20 to 120 gallons per minute to
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wells; local
wells;
local yields
yields of
of as
as much
much as
as 1,400
1,400 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute have
have been
been reported.
reported. Wells
Wells
completed in
completed
in sandstones
sandstones of
of the
the Keefer
Keefer Formation
Formation and
and Oriskany
Oriskany Group
Group yield
yield as
as much
much as
as 120
120
gallons per
gallons
per minute.
minute.
of the
the Maryland
Maryland Panhandle,
Panhandle, but
but the
the
The Valley
The
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province extends
extends throughout
throughout most
most of
of the
the province
province is
is restricted
restricted to
to Washington
Washington County
County (fig.
(fig. 75).
75). The
The Great
Great Valley
Valley
Great Valley
Great
Valley part
part of
in Maryland
in
Maryland is
is floored
floored with
with predominately
predominately carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock and
and shale
shale formations
formations of
of Cambrian
Cambrian
and Ordovician
and
Ordovician age.
age. The
The principal
principal water-yielding
water-yielding units
units in
in the
the Great
Great Valley
Valley are
are the
the Tomstown
Tomstown
25 to
to
Formation through
Formation
through the
the Beekmantown
Beekmantown Group
Group (fig.
(fig. 80);
80); well
well yields
yields commonly
commonly range
range from
from 25
400 gallons
400
gallons per
per minute.
minute. West
West of
of the
the Great
Great Valley,
Valley, sandstones
sandstones of
of Ordovician
Ordovician to
to Devonian
Devonian age
age
less than
than 120
120 gallons
gallons per
per minute;
minute; locally,
locally, yields
yields
are the
are
the principal
principal aquifers
aquifers but
but commonly
commonly yield
yield less
of as
of
as much
much as
as 100
100 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute are
are reported
reported for
for wells
wells in
in limestone
limestone of
of late
late Silurian
Silurian and
and
early Devonian
early
Devonian age.
age.
In West
In
West Virginia,
Virginia, the
the Great
Great Valley
Valley part
part of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
is only
only in
in Jefferson
Jefferson and
and
Berkeley Counties
Berkeley
Counties (fig.
(fig. 75
75 )) and
and is
is underlain
underlain mostly
mostly by
by carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks of
of Cambrian
Cambrian and
and
Ordovician age
Ordovician
age (Tomstown
(Tomstown Dolomite
Dolomite through
through Black
Black River
River Limestone,
Limestone, fig.
fig. 80)
80) that
that typically
typically yield
yield
about 35
about
35 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute to
to wells.
wells. Locally,
Locally, wells
wells completed
completed in
in these
these rocks
rocks yield
yield as
as much
much as
as
600 gallons
600
gallons per
per minute,
minute, however,
however, and
and some
some springs
springs that
that issue
issue from
from the
the rocks
rocks discharge
discharge from
from
1,000 to
1,000
to 5,000
5,000 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Fractured
Fractured shale
shale of
of the
the Martinsburg
Martinsburg Formation
Formation in
in the
the Great
Great
20 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute to
to wells.
wells. Elsewhere
Elsewhere in
in the
the province,
province, yields
yields of
of wells
wells
Valley locally
Valley
locally yields
yields 20
com-pleted in
com-pleted
in Silurian
Silurian and
and lower
lower Devonian
Devonian limestones
limestones commonly
commonly only
only range
range from
from 10
10 to
to 20
20
gallons per
gallons
per minute;
minute; some
some springs
springs that
that issue
issue from
from these
these rocks
rocks discharge
discharge as
as much
much as
as 15,000
15,000
15 gallons
gallons per
per
gallons per
gallons
per minute.
minute. Devonian
Devonian and
and Mississippian
Mississippian sandstones
sandstones commonly
commonly yield
yield 15
less to
to wells.
wells.
minute or
minute
or less
in western
western Virginia
Virginia extends
extends from
from Clark
Clark and
and Frederick
Frederick Counties
Counties
The Valley
The
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province in
to the
to
the North
North Carolina
Carolina State
State line
line (fig.
(fig. 75).
75). The
The Great
Great Valley
Valley in
in Virginia
Virginia is
is floored
floored primarily
primarily by
by
carbonate rocks
carbonate
rocks and
and shale
shale of
of Cambrian
Cambrian and
and Ordovician
Ordovician age,
age, which
which commonly
commonly yield
yield from
from 150
150 to
to
1,000 gallons
1,000
gallons per
per minute
minute to
to wells.
wells. Locally,
Locally, wells
wells completed
completed in
in fractured
fractured shale
shale of
of the
the
beds of
of late
late Silurian
Silurian and
and
Martinsburg Formation
Martinsburg
Formation yield
yield up
up to
to 155
155 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Limestone
Limestone beds
early Devonian
early
Devonian age
age west
west of
of the
the Great
Great Valley
Valley typically
typically yield
yield only
only 20
20 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute or
or less
less
to wells.
to
wells.
GROUND-WATER FLOW
GROUND-WATER
FLOW
Water in
Water
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge aquifers
aquifers moves
moves mostly
mostly along
along fractures
fractures and
and bedding
bedding planes
planes in
in all
all
in solution
solution openings
openings in
in the
the carbonate
carbonate rocks.
rocks. These
These types
types of
of openings
openings are
are
rock types,
rock
types, and
and in
secondary porosity
secondary
porosity that
that formed
formed after
after the
the rocks
rocks were
were deposited
deposited and
and lithified;
lithified; almost
almost all
all the
the
original primary
original
primary pore
pore space
space between
between individual
individual mineral
mineral grains
grains or
or rock
rock particles
particles was
was filled
filled with
with
of lithification
lithification of
of the
the rocks.
rocks.
fine-grained material
fine-grained
material or
or mineral
mineral cement
cement during
during the
the process
process of
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Circulating, slightly
Circulating,
slightly acidic
acidic ground
ground water
water that
that moves
moves along
along fractures
fractures and
and bedding
bedding planes
planes in
in the
the
carbonate rocks
carbonate
rocks has
has partly
partly dissolved
dissolved these
these rocks
rocks in
in places
places and
and has
has created
created a
a network
network of
of large,
large,
interconnected openings
interconnected
openings that
that yield
yield substantial
substantial quantities
quantities of
of water
water to
to wells.
wells. The
The alternating
alternating
of upfolded
upfolded and
and downwarped
downwarped rocks
rocks in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province,
Province, coupled
coupled with
with
sequences of
sequences
the stream
the
stream network
network that
that has
has developed
developed in
in the
the folded
folded rocks,
rocks, create
create a
a series
series of
of shallow,
shallow, isolated,
isolated,
local ground-water
local
ground-water flow
flow systems.
systems. Most
Most of
of the
the ground
ground water
water under
under the
the ridges
ridges flows
flows across
across the
the
of the
the rocks,
rocks, but
but in
in the
the valleys,
valleys, it
it usually
usually moves
moves along
along the
the strike.
strike. The
The flow
flow within
within these
these
strike of
strike
local ground-water
local
ground-water systems
systems is
is predominately
predominately within
within a
a few
few hundred
hundred feet
feet of
of the
the land
land surface,
surface,
but circulation
but
circulation in
in some
some of
of the
the systems
systems is
is deep
deep enough
enough for
for the
the water
water to
to become
become geothermally
geothermally
heated. The
heated.
The regolith
regolith that
that covers
covers the
the consolidated
consolidated rocks
rocks in
in most
most places
places has
has some
some primary
primary
porosity. The
porosity.
The local
local flow
flow systems
systems receive
receive recharge
recharge mostly
mostly to
to the
the regolith
regolith on
on the
the tops
tops or
or flanks
flanks
of ridges.
of
ridges. The
The water
water then
then moves
moves into
into the
the underlying
underlying bedrock
bedrock or
or flows
flows within
within the
the regolith
regolith
downgradient toward
downgradient
toward the
the intervening
intervening valleys
valleys and
and discharges
discharges to
to streams
streams or
or springs.
springs. Although
Although
the hard
the
hard sandstone,
sandstone, conglomerate,
conglomerate, and
and quartzite
quartzite that
that typically
typically cap
cap the
the ridges
ridges have
have low
low
permeability, the
permeability,
the steep
steep gradient
gradient provided
provided by
by the
the dip
dip of
of the
the beds
beds and
and the
the relief
relief usually
usually is
is
sufficient to
sufficient
to move
move ground
ground water
water into
into the
the adjoining
adjoining valleys
valleys (fig.
(fig. 81
81 ).
). Thick
Thick wedges
wedges of
of colluvium
colluvium
of the
the ridges
ridges can
can temporarily
temporarily store
store large
large quantities
quantities of
of water
water
that locally
that
locally cover
cover the
the lower
lower flanks
flanks of
that later
that
later move
move into
into bedrock
bedrock aquifers
aquifers in
in the
the valleys.
valleys. Perched
Perched water
water tables
tables can
can over-lie
over-lie local
local
clayey zones
clayey
zones in
in the
the colluvium
colluvium and
and commonly
commonly are
are expressed
expressed by
by permanent
permanent to
to intermittent
intermittent
ponds. The
ponds.
The perched
perched water
water can
can be
be as
as much
much as
as 400
400 feet
feet above
above the
the regional
regional water
water table
table in
in the
the
underlying consolidated
underlying
consolidated rock.
rock.
The carbonate
The
carbonate rocks
rocks that
that are
are mostly
mostly in
in the
the valleys
valleys receive
receive recharge
recharge from
from precipitation
precipitation that
that falls
falls
directly on
directly
on the
the valley
valley floors
floors (fig.
(fig. 82),
82), as
as well
well as
as from
from runoff
runoff from
from the
the adjacent
adjacent ridges.
ridges. Highly
Highly
of joints
joints and
and other
other
permeable solution
permeable
solution zones
zones that
that have
have developed
developed by
by the
the enlargement
enlargement of
openings collect
openings
collect and
and channel
channel the
the water.
water. Sinkholes,
Sinkholes, which
which are
are closed
closed depressions
depressions in
in the
the land
land
surface that
surface
that form
form where
where part
part of
of the
the roof
roof of
of a
a solution
solution cavity
cavity has
has collapsed,
collapsed, form
form a
a direct
direct
connection from
connection
from the
the land
land surface
surface to
to a
a carbonate
carbonate aquifer.
aquifer. Surface
Surface runoff
runoff can
can move
move directly
directly into
into
a sinkhole,
a
sinkhole, as
as can
can ground
ground water
water in
in the
the regolith
regolith that
that overlies
overlies the
the carbonate
carbonate rocks.
rocks. Recharge
Recharge to
to
the aquifer
the
aquifer through
through sinkholes
sinkholes takes
takes place
place very
very quickly,
quickly, and
and any
any contaminants
contaminants at
at or
or near
near the
the
land surface
land
surface can
can move
move directly
directly into
into the
the aquifer.
aquifer. Surface
Surface water
water that
that is
is channeled
channeled into
into small
small
streams in
streams
in the
the valleys
valleys can
can leak
leak downward
downward through
through the
the streambed
streambed to
to recharge
recharge the
the aquifer
aquifer in
in
places where
places
where the
the water
water table
table of
of the
the aquifer
aquifer is
is lower
lower than
than the
the water
water level
level in
in the
the stream.
stream.
The flow
The
flow paths
paths of
of ground
ground water
water in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province are
are generally
generally short,
short, except
except
for those
for
those in
in carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers where
where networks
networks of
of solution
solution openings
openings prevail.
prevail. Water
Water can
can
flow through
flow
through connected
connected solution
solution conduits,
conduits, such
such as
as those
those mapped
mapped in
in figure
figure 83,
83, for
for distances
distances
that range
that
range from
from thousands
thousands of
of feet
feet to
to several
several miles.
miles. As
As it
it moves
moves downgradient
downgradient from
from recharge
recharge
areas, the
areas,
the water
water tends
tends to
to be
be concentrated
concentrated in
in ever-larger
ever-larger conduits
conduits until
until it
it typically
typically discharges
discharges
as flow
as
flow from
from a
a large
large spring.
spring. The
The larger
larger solution
solution channels,
channels, including
including caves,
caves, generally
generally form
form at
at or
or
near the
near
the water
water table,
table, but
but some
some dissolution
dissolution takes
takes place
place as
as deep
deep as
as 100
100 feet
feet below
below the
the top
top of
of
the zone of saturation. The orientation of the solution openings is parallel to that of the joints
and fractures in the carbonate rocks. Secondary openings, such as joints in noncarbonate
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rocks, also
rocks,
also have
have preferred
preferred orientations.
orientations. As
As a
a result,
result, wells
wells completed
completed in
in fractures
fractures or
or solution
solution
openings and
openings
and wells
wells completed
completed in
in the
the intervening
intervening bedrock
bedrock can
can have
have dissimilar
dissimilar heads
heads and
and
of one
one well
well will
will have
have little
little effect
effect on
on water
water levels
levels in
in the
the
specific capacities,
specific
capacities, and
and the
the pumping
pumping of
other.
other.
of the
the aquifers
aquifers in
in all
all the
the physiographic
physiographic provinces
provinces in
in
Although springs
Although
springs issue
issue from
from some
some of
Segment 11,
Segment
11, large
large springs
springs are
are most
most characteristic
characteristic of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province.
Province. SpringSpring­
is particularly
particularly large
large for
for springs
springs that
that issue
issue from
from the
the carbonate
carbonate rocks.
rocks. Three
Three types
types of
of springs
springs
flow is
flow
are common,
are
common, and
and all
all result
result from
from ground-water
ground-water movement
movement driven
driven by
by the
the force
force of
of gravity.
gravity.
Contact springs
Contact
springs (fig.
(fig. 84,
84, center)
center) form
form where
where water-saturated
water-saturated permeable
permeable material
material overlies
overlies lesslesspermeable material.
permeable
material. The
The water
water comes
comes to
to the
the land
land surface
surface at
at the
the contact
contact of
of the
the two
two types
types of
of
material, and
material,
and the
the springs
springs might
might issue
issue where
where the
the contact
contact intersects
intersects a
a sloping
sloping land
land surface.
surface.
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province but
but generally
generally discharge
discharge only
only
Contact springs
Contact
springs are
are common
common in
of water.
water. Impermeable-rock
Impermeable-rock springs
springs (fig.
(fig. 84,
84, right)
right) are
are fed
fed by
by fractures,
fractures, jOints,
jOints,
small volumes
small
volumes of
or bedding
or
bedding planes
planes in
in rocks
rocks that
that have
have low
low intergranular
intergranular permeability.
permeability. Small
Small springs
springs of
of this
this type
type
joint intersects
intersects a
a bedding
bedding plane
plane and
and that
that generally
generally discharge
discharge only
only
that issue
that
issue where
where a
a vertical
vertical joint
of water
water are
are typical
typical of
of parts
parts of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province,
Province, but
but are
are also
also
small volumes
small
volumes of
in the
in
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge.
Ridge. Tubular
Tubular springs
springs (fig.
(fig. 84,
84, left)
left) issue
issue from
from solution
solution channels
channels in
in
carbonate rocks.
carbonate
rocks. The
The largest
largest magnitude
magnitude springs
springs are
are of
of this
this type
type because
because the
the catchment
catchment basins
basins
of networks
of
networks of
of solution
solution openings
openings are
are likely
likely to
to be
be more
more extensive
extensive than
than those
those of
of intersecting
intersecting
fractures, and
fractures,
and the
the large
large solution
solution openings
openings in
in the
the carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks are
are able
able to
to transmit
transmit large
large
quantities of
quantities
of water.
water. For
For example,
example, in
in Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, 90
90 percent
percent of
of the
the springs
springs that
that discharge
discharge 100
100
gallons per
gallons
per minute
minute or
or more
more issue
issue from
from Ordovician
Ordovician and
and Cambrian
Cambrian limestones
limestones and
and dolomites;
dolomites;
of those
those that
that discharge
discharge more
more than
than 2,000
2,000 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute issue
issue from
from limestone.
limestone.
most of
most
be either
either confined
confined or
or unconfined.
unconfined.
Water in
Water
in the
the aquifers
aquifers from
from which
which the
the springs
springs issue
issue can
can be
Springs that
Springs
that issue
issue from
from aquifers
aquifers that
that contain
contain water
water under
under confined
confined conditions
conditions are
are called
called
artesian springs,
artesian
springs, whereas
whereas those
those that
that issue
issue from
from unconfined
unconfined aquifers
aquifers are
are called
called gravity
gravity springs.
springs.
is related
related to
to geologic
geologic structure
structure and
and topography.
topography. In
In the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge
Spring location
Spring
location is
of
Province, many
Province,
many springs
springs are
are located
located on
on or
or near
near anticlinal
anticlinal axes
axes and
and around
around the
the noses
noses of
plunging anticlines.
plunging
anticlines. Open
Open tension
tension fractures
fractures tend
tend to
to be
be concentrated
concentrated in
in these
these places,
places, and
and in
in the
the
case of
case
of plunging
plunging anticlines,
anticlines, water-yielding
water-yielding beds
beds may
may drain
drain in
in the
the direction
direction of
of plunge.
plunge. Large
Large
springs are
springs
are common
common where
where water
water gaps
gaps have
have been
been cut
cut through
through anticlinal
anticlinal ridges
ridges because
because waterwater­
yielding geologic
yielding
geologic formations
formations are
are commonly
commonly exposed
exposed at
at the
the lowest
lowest altitudes
altitudes in
in these
these gaps.
gaps. The
The
bases of
bases
of sandstone
sandstone ridges
ridges are,
are, in
in general,
general, the
the sites
sites of
of major
major springs.
springs. The
The largest
largest springs
springs tend
tend
to be
to
be in
in valleys,
valleys, and
and some
some form
form the
the headwaters
headwaters of
of streams.
streams.
of the
the springs
springs in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province discharge
discharge water
water that
that is
is distinctly
distinctly warmer
warmer
Some of
Some
of the
the thermal
thermal springs
springs in
in the
the Eastern
Eastern United
United States
States are
are
than the
than
the average
average air
air temperature.
temperature. Most
Most of
in the
in
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province.
Province. The
The spring
spring waters
waters have
have become
become naturally
naturally heated
heated by
by deep
deep
circulation of the water to levels where the rocks are substantially warmer than the average
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surface temperature
surface
temperature of
of the
the Earth.
Earth. This
This increase
increase in
in temperature
temperature with
with depth
depth is
is called
called the
the
geothermal gradient.
geothermal
gradient. The
The normal
normal geothermal
geothermal gradient
gradient for
for the
the Eastern
Eastern United
United States
States is
is
sufficient to
sufficient
to warm
warm the
the circulating
circulating water
water appreciably.
appreciably. For
For water
water to
to reach
reach the
the temperatures
temperatures
observed in
observed
in thermal
thermal springs
springs of
of Segment
Segment 11,
11, circulation
circulation to
to minimum
minimum depths
depths of
of from
from 800
800 to
to
5,200 feet
5,200
feet is
is required.
required. Conditions
Conditions for
for a
a thermal
thermal spring
spring require
require that
that the
the flow
flow of
of ground
ground water
water be
be
concentrated, channeled
concentrated,
channeled to
to depths
depths sufficient
sufficient to
to heat
heat the
the water,
water, and
and then
then channeled
channeled back
back to
to
the land
the
land surface.
surface. Folding,
Folding, faulting,
faulting, and
and fracturing
fracturing of
of confined
confined aquifers
aquifers provide
provide the
the necessary
necessary
paths and
paths
and barriers
barriers to
to channel
channel the
the flow
flow of
of the
the water
water (fig.
(fig. 85).
85). Water
Water enters
enters fractured
fractured rocks
rocks at
at
topographically high
topographically
high recharge
recharge areas,
areas, and
and the
the cold
cold water
water moves
moves deeply
deeply enough
enough to
to become
become
in valleys
valleys that
that have
have developed
developed
heated and
heated
and subsequently
subsequently rise.
rise. Thermal
Thermal springs
springs commonly
commonly issue
issue in
on or
on
or near
near the
the crest
crest of
of anticlines,
anticlines, but
but generally
generally a
a variety
variety of
of geologic
geologic structures
structures combine
combine to
to
form the
form
the deep
deep flow
flow system
system that
that results
results in
in the
the thermal
thermal springs.
springs.
as the
the water
water is
is
Deeply circulating
Deeply
circulating waters
waters might
might have
have a
a long
long residence
residence time
time in
in the
the aquifer,
aquifer, and
and as
heated, it
heated,
it can
can become
become exposed
exposed to
to emanations
emanations of
of gases
gases and
and vapors
vapors from
from deeper
deeper in
in the
the Earth.
Earth.
This exposure
This
exposure and
and the
the heat
heat of
of the
the water
water facilitates
facilitates the
the dissolution
dissolution of
of minerals
minerals from
from the
the
by the
the ground
ground water.
water. Generally,
Generally, the
the water
water in
in thermal
thermal springs
springs that
that discharge
discharge
surrounding rock
surrounding
rock by
is mineralized
mineralized and
and commonly
commonly contains
contains hydrogen
hydrogen sulfide.
sulfide. The
The water
water from
from
from limestone
from
limestone is
thermal springs
thermal
springs that
that discharge
discharge from
from the
the Oriskany
Oriskany Sandstone
Sandstone is
is reported
reported to
to contain
contain more
more
dissolved minerals
dissolved
minerals than
than water
water from
from cold
cold springs
springs that
that issue
issue from
from the
the same
same formation.
formation. Waters
Waters
of the
the
from many
from
many thermal
thermal springs
springs have
have been
been thought
thought to
to have
have medicinal
medicinal properties
properties because
because of
mineralization.
mineralization.
RELATION OF
RELATION
OF GEOLOGY
GEOLOGY AN
AN D
D WELL
WELL YIELD
YIELD
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province.
Province. Some
Some geologic
geologic
Several geologic
Several
geologic factors
factors influence
influence well
well yields
yields in
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in carbonate
carbonate and
and noncar-bonate
noncar-bonate aquifers.
aquifers.
structural factors
structural
factors affect
affect the
the yield
yield of
Wells located
Wells
located along
along fracture
fracture traces
traces in
in any
any type
type of
of rock
rock usually
usually yield
yield much
much more
more water
water than
than
Fold hinges
hinges represent
represent areas
areas where
where fractures
fractures are
are more
more
wells that
wells
that do
do not
not penetrate
penetrate fractures.
fractures. Fold
abundant and
abundant
and rock
rock cleavage
cleavage can
can be
be well
well developed,
developed, which
which enhances
enhances secondary
secondary permeability.
permeability.
of strata
strata in
in the
the area
area of
of a
a fold
fold hinge
hinge tends
tends to
to be
be less,
less, a
a factor
factor associated
associated with
with
Also, the
Also,
the dip
dip of
in beds
beds that
that dip
dip at
at angles
angles of
of less
less than
than 15
15 degrees
degrees generally
generally
higher well
higher
well yields.
yields. Wells
Wells completed
completed in
yield more
yield
more water
water than
than those
those completed
completed in
in beds
beds that
that are
are inclined
inclined more
more steeply
steeply because
because more
more
bedding-plane partings
bedding-plane
partings are
are penetrated
penetrated by
by a
a well
well of
of a
a given
given depth
depth in
in the
the nearly
nearly horizontal
horizontal
of the
the same
same depth
depth in
in steeply
steeply dipping
dipping beds.
beds. Wells
Wells located
located on
on anticlines
anticlines yield
yield
strata than
strata
than one
one of
more water
more
water than
than those
those on
on synclines
synclines because
because the
the fractures
fractures on
on anticlines
anticlines are
are tensional
tensional and,
and,
thus, more
thus,
more apt
apt to
to be
be open
open than
than the
the compressional
compressional fractures
fractures on
on synclines.
synclines. Thin-bedded
Thin-bedded rocks
rocks
generally have
generally
have more
more closely
closely spaced
spaced fractures
fractures than
than thick-bedded
thick-bedded rocks
rocks and,
and, therefore,
therefore, are
are likely
likely
to have
to
have higher
higher fracture
fracture permeability
permeability and
and to
to yield
yield more
more water.
water.
Topographic location
Topographic
location affects
affects well
well yield;
yield; wells
wells in
in valley
valley bottoms
bottoms generally
generally are
are more
more productive
productive
than those on ridges or uplands because fracture zones in noncarbonate rocks and solution
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channels in
channels
in carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks tend
tend to
to be
be concentrated
concentrated in
in valleys.
valleys. Regolith
Regolith is
is generally
generally thicker
thicker in
in
water for
for gradual
gradual release
release to
to the
the underlying
underlying bedrock
bedrock aquifers.
aquifers.
valleys and,
valleys
and, thus,
thus, stores
stores more
more water
Noncarbonate rocks
Noncarbonate
rocks interbedded
interbedded with
with carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks are
are typically
typically more
more permeable
permeable than
than
noncarbonate rocks
noncarbonate
rocks with
with no
no intervening
intervening carbonate
carbonate strata.
strata. In
In noncarbonate
noncarbonate rocks,
rocks, friable
friable
sandstone probably
sandstone
probably is
is potentially
potentially the
the most
most productive
productive aquifer.
aquifer. Shale,
Shale, massive
massive mudstone,
mudstone, and
and
the least
least productive
productive rock
rock types.
types.
claystone are
claystone
are the
Some factors
Some
factors influence
influence well
well yields
yields only
only in
in carbonate
carbonate aquifers.
aquifers. Well
Well yields
yields are
are generally
generally
to the
the thickness
thickness of
of the
the regolith
regolith that
that overlies
overlies a
a carbonate
carbonate aquifer.
aquifer. The
The regolith
regolith acts
acts
proportional to
proportional
as a
as
a sponge
sponge and
and stores
stores water
water for
for gradual
gradual release
release to
to solution
solution openings
openings in
in the
the underlying
underlying
of this
this water
water contributes
contributes to
to the
the continued
continued dissolution
dissolution of
of
carbonate rock.
carbonate
rock. The
The continual
continual release
release of
the carbonate
the
carbonate rock
rock and
and expansion
expansion and
and enlargement
enlargement of
of the
the solution
solution openings.
openings. Well
Well yield
yield varies
varies
with carbonate
with
carbonate rock
rock type;
type; the
the bestbest- to
to worst-yielding
worst-yielding carbonate
carbonate lithologies
lithologies are,
are, in
in order,
order, sandy
sandy
dolomite, coarse-grained
dolomite,
coarse-grained dolomite,
dolomite, limestone,
limestone, and
and fine-grained
fine-grained dolomite.
dolomite.
GROUND-WATER QUALITY
GROUND-WATER
QUALITY
of water
water in
in the
the aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province is
is somewhat
somewhat
The chemical
The
chemical quality
quality of
variable but
variable
but is
is generally
generally suitable
suitable for
for municipal
municipal supplies
supplies and
and other
other purposes.
purposes. Most
Most of
of the
the water
water
in the
in
the upper
upper parts
parts of
of the
the aquifers
aquifers is
is not
not greatly
greatly mineralized
mineralized and
and is
is suitable
suitable for
for drinking
drinking and
and
other uses.
uses. However,
However, the
the deep
deep parts
parts of
of the
the aquifers
aquifers contain
contain saline
saline water
water in
in many
many places
places
most other
most
and brackish
and
brackish water
water has
has been
been reported
reported locally
locally from
from zones
zones as
as shallow
shallow as
as 90
90 feet
feet below
below the
the land
land
of the
the Susquehanna
Susquehanna River
River in
in Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania. The
The large
large
surface in
surface
in valleys
valleys near
near the
the West
West Branch
Branch of
dissolved-solids concentrations
dissolved-solids
concentrations in
in the
the saline
saline and
and brackish
brackish water
water might
might result
result from
from the
the
dissolution of
dissolution
of halite
halite (rock
(rock salt)
salt) at
at greater
greater depths
depths by
by deeply-circulating
deeply-circulating water.
water. Abandoned
Abandoned or
or
improperly plugged
improperly
plugged boreholes
boreholes drilled
drilled for
for oil
oil and
and gas
gas exploration
exploration provide
provide paths
paths for
for upward
upward
of mineralized
mineralized water
water in
in some
some areas.
areas.
movement of
movement
of calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium carbonate,
carbonate, which
which are
are
The carbonate-rock
The
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers consist
consist mainly
mainly of
of ground
ground water.
water. Waters
Waters from
from these
these
readily dissolved
readily
dissolved and
and thus
thus affect
affect the
the chemical
chemical composition
composition of
aquifers have
aquifers
have dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations that
that average
average about
about 330
330 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter and
and
that averages
averages about
about 280
280 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, which
which is
is considered
considered to
to be
be very
very hard.
hard.
hardness that
hardness
is measured
measured in
in pH
pH units,
units, is
is 7.4
7.4 (slightly
(slightly basic);
basic);
The median
The
median hydrogen
hydrogen ion
ion concentration,
concentration, which
which is
of calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium carbonate
carbonate minerals
minerals raises
raises the
the pH
pH of
of the
the water
water and
and
dissolution of
dissolution
increases the
increases
the hardness.
hardness. The
The median
median iron
iron concentration
concentration is
is 0.1
0.1 milligram
milligram per
per liter,
liter, which
which is
is
considered to
considered
to be
be low,
low, but
but concentrations
concentrations as
as large
large as
as 8
8 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter have
have been
been reported.
reported.
Water in
Water
in the
the carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers is
is mostly
mostly a
a calcium
calcium plus
plus magnesium
magnesium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type
(fig. 86A).
(fig.
86A).
of fractured
fractured sandstone
sandstone but
but
The undifferentiated
The
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers
aquifers consist
consist principally
principally of
locally include fractured shale. The minerals that compose these rocks are chiefly Silicates,
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which are
which
are much
much less
less soluble
soluble than
than those
those that
that compose
compose the
the carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers.
aquifers. The
The water
water
is mostly
is
mostly a
a calcium
calcium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type (fig.
(fig. 868).
868). Dissolved-solids
Dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations are
are small
small and
and
average only
average
only about
about 150
150 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter.
liter. Hardness
Hardness averages
averages about
about 100
100 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter,
is considered
considered to
to be
be moderately
moderately hard.
hard. The
The median
median hydrogen
hydrogen ion
ion concentration,
concentration,
and the
and
the water
water is
which is
which
is measured
measured in
in pH
pH units,
units, is
is 7.4.
7.4. The
The median
median iron
iron concentration
concentration is
is about
about 0.1
0.1 milligram
milligram
per liter,
per
liter, but
but concentrations
concentrations as
as large
large as
as 14
14 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter have
have been
been reported.
reported. In
In some
some
is mixed
mixed with
with acidic
acidic mine
mine water,
water, which
which can
can contain
contain large
large
coal-mining areas,
coal-mining
areas, the
the ground
ground water
water is
concentrations of
concentrations
of iron,
iron, manganese,
manganese, sulfate,
sulfate, and
and dissolved
dissolved solids.
solids.
FRESH GROUND-WATER
FRESH
GROUND-WATER WITHDRAWALS
WITHDRAWALS
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province
Total freshwater
Total
freshwater withdrawals
withdrawals from
from consolidated-rock
consolidated-rock aquifers
aquifers in
in Segment
in
Segment 11
11 were
were about
about 371
371 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day during
during 1985.
1985. With-drawals
With-drawals from
from
carbonate-rock aquifers
carbonate-rock
aquifers were
were estimated
estimated to
to be
be 249
249 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day (fig.
(fig. 87).
87). Slightly
Slightly
more than
more
than one-half
one-half of
of this
this water
water was
was used
used for
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial supplies.
supplies. Withdrawals
Withdrawals
from undifferentiated
from
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers,
aquifers, primarily
primarily sandstone
sandstone aquifers,
aquifers, in
in the
the Valley
Valley
be 122
122 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day.
day. About
About two-thirds
two-thirds of
of this
this
and Ridge
and
Ridge Province
Province were
were estimated
estimated to
to be
was used
used for
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial supplies.
supplies.
water was
water
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GROUND WATER
GROUND
WATER ATLAS
ATLAS of
of the
the UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
Delaware, Maryland,
Delaware,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
West Virginia
Virginia
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
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Appalachian Plateaus
Appalachian
Plateaus aquifers
aquifers
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
11 extends
extends over
over most
most of
of West
West
The Appalachian
The
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Physiographic
Physiographic Province
Province in
in Segment
Segment 11
Virginia, more
Virginia,
more than
than one-half
one-half of
of Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, and
and small
small parts
parts of
of westernmost
westernmost Virginia
Virginia and
and
88). The
The province
province is
is bounded
bounded on
on the
the east
east and
and southeast
southeast by
by the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge
Maryland (fig.
Maryland
(fig. 88).
Province and
Province
and by
by a
a narrow
narrow strip
strip of
of the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Province
Province in
in Erie
Erie County,
County, Pa.
Pa. The
The
Appalachian Plateaus
Appalachian
Plateaus Province
Province extends
extends into
into Segments
Segments 6,
6, 10,
10, and
and 12
12 of
of this
this Atlas
Atlas but
but is
is most
most
in Segment
Segment 11.
11. In
In most
most places,
places, the
the eastern
eastern boundary
boundary of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus is
is
extensive in
extensive
marked by
marked
by an
an escarpment
escarpment called
called the
the Cumberland
Cumberland Escarpment
Escarpment in
in Virginia
Virginia and
and the
the Allegheny
Allegheny
Front in
Front
in West
West Virginia,
Virginia, Maryland,
Maryland, and
and Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania. A
A northward-facing
northward-facing erosional
erosional escarpment
escarpment
forms the
forms
the boundary
boundary between
between the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus and
and the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Provinces.
Provinces.
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province is
is higher
higher than
than that
that of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge
The altitude
The
altitude of
Province, as
Province,
as well
well as
as the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Province.
Province.
in consolidated
consolidated sedimentary
sedimentary rocks
rocks in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province are
are divided
divided
Aquifers in
Aquifers
into the
into
the following
following categories-Mississippian
categories-Mississippian aquifers
aquifers and
and Permian
Permian and
and Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian aquifers
aquifers
(fig. 88).
(fig.
88). Most
Most of
of the
the water-yielding
water-yielding rocks
rocks are
are sandstones
sandstones (fig.
(fig. 89
89 ),
), but
but carbonate
carbonate rocks
rocks of
of
Mississippian age
Mississippian
age locally
locally yield
yield water
water in
in parts
parts of
of Virginia
Virginia and
and West
West Virginia.
Virginia. Coal
Coal beds
beds and
and
seams yield
seams
yield water
water because
because they
they commonly
commonly are
are fractured
fractured along
along joint
joint systems
systems (cleat)
(cleat) that
that store
store
in Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania,
and transmit
and
transmit water.
water. Devonian
Devonian siltstone,
siltstone, shale,
shale, and
and thin-bedded
thin-bedded sandstone
sandstone in
Maryland, and
Maryland,
and West
West Virginia
Virginia locally
locally yield
yield sufficient
sufficient water
water for
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial
supplies, especially where the rocks are fractured, but are not considered to be principal
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aquifers in
aquifers
in this
this report.
report. Unconsolidated
Unconsolidated glacial
glacial and
and alluvial
alluvial deposits,
deposits, discussed
discussed in
in the
the Surficial
Surficial
aquifer system
aquifer
system section
section of
of this
this chapter,
chapter, are
are productive
productive aquifers
aquifers in
in large
large areas
areas in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
and smaller
and
smaller areas
areas in
in West
West Virginia.
Virginia.
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province are
are almost
almost flat-lying
flat-lying to
to gently
gently
The consolidated
The
consolidated rocks
rocks of
of the
the beds
beds rarely
rarely exceeds
exceeds 25
25 feet
feet per
per mile.
mile. Elongate,
Elongate, gentle
gentle folds
folds
folded; the
folded;
the regional
regional dip
dip of
form alternating
form
alternating anticlines
anticlines and
and synclines
synclines in
in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania and
and West
West Virginia.
Virginia. These
These gentle
gentle
warps are
warps
are surface
surface expressions
expressions of
of small
small displacements
displacements along
along deep-seated
deep-seated faults
faults in
in many
many cases.
cases.
Deformation of
Deformation
of strata
strata in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus is
is extremely
extremely subtle
subtle compared
compared to
to the
the folding
folding
in the
in
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province.
Province. The
The Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Province
Province is
is similar
similar to
to the
the Appalachian
Appalachian
Plateaus in
Plateaus
in the
the nearly
nearly flat-lying
flat-lying attitude
attitude of
of its
its rock
rock layers
layers and
and in
in the
the geologic
geologic formations
formations
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian and
and Mississippian
Mississippian age
age have
have been
been eroded
eroded away
away in
in
present, but
present,
but the
the formations
formations of
the Central
the
Central Lowland.
Lowland.
HYDROGEOLOGIC UNITS
HYDROGEOLOGIC
UNITS
in Segment
Segment
Consolidated sedimentary
Consolidated
sedimentary rocks
rocks that
that compose
compose the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus aquifers
aquifers in
11 range
11
range in
in age
age from
from Devonian
Devonian to
to Permian
Permian (fig.
(fig. 89).
89). Not
Not all
all the
the geologic
geologic formations
formations recognized
recognized
in each
in
each of
of the
the States
States are
are shown
shown in
in the
the figure.
figure. Some
Some formations
formations are
are thin
thin or
or are
are of
of local
local extent;
extent;
as a
as
a result,
result, they
they are
are not
not important
important in
in the
the hydrogeologic
hydrogeologic framework
framework and
and are
are omitted.
omitted. Most
Most of
of
the productive
the
productive aquifers
aquifers consist
consist of
of sandstone
sandstone or
or conglomerate,
conglomerate, but
but limestone
limestone formations
formations locally
locally
yield significant
yield
significant volumes
volumes of
of water.
water. The
The water-yielding
water-yielding character
character of
of the
the geologic
geologic units
units shown
shown as
as
aquifers in
aquifers
in figure
figure 89
89 varies
varies because
because the
the units
units change
change in
in lithology
lithology and
and thickness
thickness from
from place
place to
to
place.
place.
In southwestern
In
southwestern Pennsylvania,
Pennsylvania, the
the consolidated
consolidated rocks
rocks nearest
nearest the
the surface
surface are
are mostly
mostly
Pennsylvanian in
Pennsylvanian
in age.
age. Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks
rocks are
are the
the principal
principal coal-bearing
coal-bearing formations
formations and
and
consist of
consist
of cyclic
cyclic sequences
sequences of
of sandstone,
sandstone, shale,
shale, conglomerate,
conglomerate, clay,
clay, coal,
coal, and
and minor
minor limestone.
limestone.
beds and
and limestones
limestones also
also yield
yield
The sandstones
The
sandstones are
are the
the most
most productive
productive aquifers,
aquifers, although
although coal
coal beds
water; the
water;
the limestones,
limestones, however,
however, are
are thin
thin compared
compared to
to those
those of
of the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province.
Province.
Rocks of
Rocks
of Permian
Permian age
age cover
cover most
most of
of Greene
Greene and
and Washington
Washington Counties
Counties in
in the
the southwestern
southwestern
of the
the State.
State. Permian
Permian rocks
rocks are
are similar
similar in
in lithology
lithology and
and water-yielding
water-yielding characteristics
characteristics to
to
corner of
corner
in cycles;
cycles; they
they contain
contain only
only thin
thin coal
coal beds
beds
the Pennsylvanian
the
Pennsylvanian rocks,
rocks, but
but were
were not
not deposited
deposited in
and consist
and
consist of
of more
more shale
shale and
and less
less sandstone
sandstone and
and conglomerate
conglomerate than
than the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian
of shale,
shale, sandstone,
sandstone, and
and siltstone
siltstone with
with minor
minor
strata. Mississippian
strata.
Mississippian rocks
rocks consist
consist mostly
mostly of
conglomerate and
conglomerate
and limestone
limestone and
and are
are exposed
exposed north
north and
and east
east of
of the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks
rocks
where the
where
the beds
beds of
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian age
age have
have been
been removed
removed by
by erosion.
erosion. The
The principal
principal waterwater­
of the
the Permian
Permian and
and Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian Dunkard
Dunkard Group
Group
yielding geologic
yielding
geologic units
units are
are sandstones
sandstones of
89). Reported
Reported typical
typical yields
yields of
of
through the
through
the Mississippian
Mississippian and
and Devonian
Devonian Pocono
Pocono Formation
Formation (fig.
(fig. 89).
wells completed
wells
completed in
in all
all these
these units
units range
range from
from 30
30 to
to 300
300 gallons
gallons per
per minute,
minute, but
but some
some wells
wells
yield as
yield
as much
much as
as 600
600 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Rocks
Rocks of
of Devonian
Devonian age
age are
are exposed
exposed north
north of
of the
the
Mississippian strata in the Appalachian Plateaus Province and in the small part of the Central
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Plateaus aquifers
aquifers text
text
Lowlands Province
Lowlands
Province in
in Segment
Segment 11.
11. Devonian
Devonian strata
strata consist
consist mostly
mostly of
of fine
fine grained
grained sandstone,
sandstone,
siltstone, and
siltstone,
and shale,
shale, and
and are
are not
not considered
considered to
to be
be principal
principal aquifers,
aquifers, although
although these
these beds
beds
locally yield
locally
yield as
as much
much as
as 200
200 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute where
where they
they are
are fractured.
fractured.
in Maryland
Maryland is
is only
only in
in Garrett
Garrett County
County and
and the
the adjoining
adjoining
The Appalachian
The
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province in
of Allegany
Allegany County
County (fig.
(fig. 88).
88). Rocks
Rocks of
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian age
age cover
cover most
most of
of the
the
western one-third
western
one-third of
Plateaus area,
Plateaus
area, but
but Mississippian
Mississippian and
and Devonian
Devonian rocks
rocks are
are exposed
exposed along
along the
the crests
crests of
of northeastnortheast­
trending anticlines
trending
anticlines and
and in
in some
some of
of the
the deeper
deeper valleys.
valleys. The
The Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian and
and upper
upper
Mississippian geologic
Mississippian
geologic formations
formations and
and their
their water-yielding
water-yielding characteristics
characteristics are
are similar
similar to
to those
those
of Pennsylvania
of
Pennsylvania (fig.
(fig. 89).
89). Yields
Yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks
rocks range
range from
from 20
20 to
to
430 gallons
430
gallons per
per minute,
minute, but
but yields
yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in Mississippian
Mississippian strata
strata only
only range
range from
from
20 to
20
to 180
180 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Devonian
Devonian rocks
rocks in
in Maryland
Maryland locally
locally yield
yield only
only small
small quantities
quantities of
of
water.
water.
of West
West Virginia
Virginia are
are similar
similar to
to those
those of
of Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania (~
The water-yielding
The
water-yielding geologic
geologic units
units of
89), except
89),
except that
that the
the sandstones
sandstones of
of the
the Mauch
Mauch Chunk
Chunk Group
Group yield
yield little
little water,
water, and
and the
the
Mississippian Greenbrier
Mississippian
Greenbrier Limestone
Limestone locally
locally is
is a
a productive
productive aquifer.
aquifer. The
The Greenbrier
Greenbrier is
is exposed
exposed
in parts
parts of
of Tucker,
Tucker, Randolph,
Randolph, Pocohontas,
Pocohontas, Greenbrier,
Greenbrier, and
and Monroe
Monroe Counties
Counties in
in the
the
primarily in
primarily
of the
the State.
State. Yields
Yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in Permian
Permian and
and Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian
southeastern part
southeastern
part of
sandstones range
sandstones
range from
from 5
5 to
to 400
400 gallons
gallons per
per minute.
minute. Yields
Yields from
from the
the Greenbrier
Greenbrier Limestone
Limestone
range from
range
from 5
5 to
to 100
100 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute to
to wells,
wells, but
but some
some springs
springs that
that issue
issue from
from the
the
Greenbrier discharge
Greenbrier
discharge 1,000
1,000 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute or
or more.
more. Yields
Yields of
of wells
wells completed
completed in
in sandstone
sandstone
of the
of
the Pocono
Pocono Group
Group range
range from
from 5
5 to
to 120
120 gallons
gallons per
per minute,
minute, but
but the
the water
water in
in the
the deeper
deeper
parts of
parts
of the
the Pocono
Pocono is
is highly
highly mineralized.
mineralized.
in Virginia
Virginia covers
covers Buchanan
Buchanan and
and Dickenson
Dickenson Counties
Counties and
and
The Appalachian
The
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province in
parts of
parts
of four
four adjoining
adjoining counties
counties in
in the
the southwestern
southwestern corner
corner of
of the
the State.
State. The
The principal
principal waterwater­
yielding geologic
yielding
geologic units
units are
are sandstones
sandstones of
of the
the Harlan,
Harlan, the
the Wise,
Wise, and
and the
the Lee
Lee Formations
Formations of
of
Pennsylvanian age
Pennsylvanian
age and
and the
the Mississippian
Mississippian Greenbrier
Greenbrier Limestone
Limestone (fig.
(fig. 89).
89). Water
Water from
from these
these
aquifers is
aquifers
is used
used mainly
mainly for
for domestic
domestic supply
supply because
because well
well yields
yields are
are generally
generally less
less than
than 12
12
gallons per
gallons
per minute
minute from
from the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian aquifers
aquifers and
and less
less than
than 50
50 gallons
gallons per
per minute
minute from
from
the Greenbrier
the
Greenbrier Limestone.
Limestone. Many
Many of
of the
the sandstone
sandstone beds
beds in
in the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks
rocks are
are tightly
tightly
less permeable
permeable than
than the
the coal
coal beds,
beds, which
which tend
tend to
to be
be highly
highly fractured
fractured and
and
cemented and
cemented
and are
are less
thus yield
thus
yield water.
water. Some
Some deep
deep coal
coal mines
mines in
in this
this area
area are
are reported
reported to
to be
be dry,
dry, which
which suggests
suggests
that water-bearing
that
water-bearing fractures
fractures in
in all
all the
the rocks
rocks extend
extend only
only a
a few
few hundred
hundred feet
feet below
below land
land surface.
surface.
GROUND-WATER FLOW
GROUND-WATER
FLOW
Bedrock aquifers
Bedrock
aquifers in
in the
the unglaciated
unglaciated part
part of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province accept
accept less
less
recharge than
recharge
than those
those in
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province.
Province. This
This is
is because
because the
the unglaciated
unglaciated part
part of
of
the Appalachian
the
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus is
is highly
highly dissected,
dissected, much
much of
of the
the area
area is
is sloping,
sloping, and
and the
the slopes
slopes are
are
covered with only thin accumulations of regolith. Accordingly, most of the precipitation that
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falls on
falls
on the
the area
area runs
runs rapidly
rapidly off
off the
the slopes.
slopes. However,
However, a
a small
small part
part of
of the
the precipitation
precipitation
infiltrates the
infiltrates
the Earth's
Earth's surface
surface and
and moves
moves downward
downward through
through the
the unsaturated
unsaturated zone
zone to
to infiltrate
infiltrate
in unweathered
unweathered bedrock.
bedrock. The
The general
general movement
movement of
of
weathered bedrock
weathered
bedrock and
and shallow
shallow fractures
fractures in
the water
the
water is
is from
from areas
areas of
of high
high head,
head, usually
usually at
at high
high altitude,
altitude, toward
toward areas
areas of
of low
low head,
head,
usually in
usually
in lowlying
lowlying areas.
areas. The
The water
water generally
generally moves
moves vertically
vertically downward
downward in
in areas
areas of
of recharge,
recharge,
then horizontally
then
horizontally in
in the
the aquifers,
aquifers, and
and finally
finally upward
upward in
in discharge
discharge areas
areas as
as it
it follows
follows paths
paths of
of
least resistance.
least
resistance. The
The movement
movement of
of the
the water
water is
is steplike
steplike because
because it
it moves
moves vertically
vertically through
through
fractures, then
fractures,
then horizontally
horizontally through
through sandstone
sandstone or
or coal
coal beds,
beds, and
and vertically
vertically again
again when
when it
it
encounters other
encounters
other fractures.
fractures. The
The water
water will
will follow
follow permeable
permeable beds
beds or
or a
a zone
zone of
of fractures
fractures
laterally for
laterally
for considerable
considerable distances.
distances. Saline
Saline water
water or
or brine
brine is
is near
near the
the surface
surface in
in much
much of
of the
the
area because
area
because circulation
circulation of
of fresh
fresh ground
ground water
water generally
generally extends
extends no
no more
more than
than a
a few
few hundred
hundred
feet below
feet
below the
the land
land surface.
surface. Most
Most of
of the
the ground
ground water
water moves
moves through
through local
local or
or intermediateintermediate­
scale flow
scale
flow systems;
systems; no
no regional
regional flow
flow occurs.
occurs.
Circulation of
Circulation
of ground
ground water
water in
in the
the more
more dissected
dissected parts
parts of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus can
can be
be
envisioned as
envisioned
as the
the drainage
drainage of
of "hydrologic
"hydrologic islands"
islands" into
into bounding
bounding valleys
valleys underlain
underlain by
by older
older
rocks; these
rocks;
these "islands"
"islands" consist
consist of
of younger
younger rocks
rocks at
at higher
higher altitudes.
altitudes. The
The edges
edges of
of two
two such
such
"islands" with
"islands"
with an
an intervening
intervening valley
valley are
are shown
shown in
in figure
figure 90.
90. Water
Water moves
moves down
down tributary
tributary
valleys toward
valleys
toward major
major rivers,
rivers, partly
partly as
as surface
surface water
water through
through gaining
gaining streams
streams and
and partly
partly as
as
ground water
ground
water in
in alluvial
alluvial or
or bedrock
bedrock aquifers.
aquifers. Saline
Saline water
water or
or brine
brine at
at shallow
shallow depths
depths is
is virtually
virtually
stagnant.
stagnant.
Springs commonly
Springs
commonly mark
mark the
the intersection
intersection of
of the
the water
water table
table with
with a
a valley
valley wall
wall (fig.
(fig. 90).
90). LowLow­
as shale
shale or
or siltstone,
siltstone, or
or ironstone
ironstone layers,
layers, retard
retard the
the vertical
vertical
permeability rocks,
permeability
rocks, such
such as
movement of
movement
of water.
water. The
The water
water moves
moves laterally
laterally in
in permeable
permeable strata
strata atop
atop the
the low-permeability
low-permeability
rocks until
rocks
until it
it discharges
discharges as
as springflow.
springflow. Most
Most of
of the
the water
water that
that discharges
discharges from
from springs
springs and
and
much that
much
that discharges
discharges to
to surface
surface streams
streams is
is in
in the
the aquifers
aquifers under
under unconfined
unconfined conditions.
conditions.
Water that
Water
that leaks
leaks downward
downward across
across shale
shale or
or other
other low-permeability
low-permeability confining
confining units
units is
is present
present
under confined
under
confined conditions.
conditions. Water
Water in
in wells
wells that
that penetrate
penetrate an
an artesian
artesian aquifer
aquifer rises
rises above
above the
the
top of
top
of the
the aquifer
aquifer and
and can
can flow
flow at
at the
the land
land surface.
surface. Confined
Confined conditions
conditions frequently
frequently occur
occur in
in the
the
troughs of
troughs
of the
the gently
gently warped
warped synclines
synclines that
that characterize
characterize parts
parts of
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus (~
91 ).
91
). The
The figure
figure shows
shows an
an aquifer
aquifer that
that is
is overlain
overlain and
and underlain
underlain by
by less-permeable
less-permeable material
material
of the
the aquifer;
aquifer;
with recharge
with
recharge areas
areas at
at a
a higher
higher altitude
altitude than
than the
the central,
central, down-folded
down-folded part
part of
thus, the
thus,
the water
water is
is under
under pressure.
pressure. The
The potentiometric
potentiometric surface,
surface, which
which represents
represents this
this pressure,
pressure,
is defined
is
defined as
as the
the height
height to
to which
which water
water will
will rise
rise in
in tightly
tightly cased
cased wells
wells that
that penetrate
penetrate the
the
aquifer. The
aquifer.
The potentiometric
potentiometric surface
surface is
is drawn
drawn down
down around
around a
a flowing
flowing well
well or
or a
a well
well that
that is
is being
being
of the
the release
release of
of part
part of
of the
the pressure.
pressure.
pumped because
pumped
because of
Fresh ground
Fresh
ground water
water generally
generally circulates
circulates only
only to
to shallow
shallow depths
depths in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus
Province. In
Province.
In much
much of
of the
the area,
area, saline
saline water
water or
or brine
brine is
is not
not far
far below
below the
the land
land surface
surface with
with only
only
a thin transition zone between the freshwater and saltwater. In the Pittsburgh, Pa., area, wells
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drilled deeper
drilled
deeper than
than 100
100 feet
feet below
below the
the level
level of
of the
the nearest
nearest major
major stream
stream might
might yield
yield saline
saline
water. The
water.
The discovery
discovery of
of saltwater
saltwater springs
springs in
in the
the 18th
18th century
century led
led to
to a
a flourishing
flourishing salt
salt industry
industry
in West
in
West Virginia.
Virginia. The
The origin
origin of
of the
the brine
brine that
that feeds
feeds the
the springs
springs is
is uncertain,
uncertain, but
but one
one possible
possible
explanation is
explanation
is that
that salt
salt has
has been
been leached
leached from
from deposits
deposits of
of rock
rock salt
salt and
and other
other evaporites.
evaporites. Such
Such
deposits are
deposits
are in
in the
the Upper
Upper Silurian
Silurian Salina
Salina Group,
Group, which
which underlies
underlies much
much of
of western
western
in the
the Wills
Wills Creek
Creek Shale
Shale of
of Maryland,
Maryland, West
West Virginia,
Virginia, and
and Virginia.
Virginia. The
The brine
brine
Pennsylvania, and
Pennsylvania,
and in
might move
might
move upward
upward along
along deep-seated
deep-seated fractures.
fractures.
of brine
brine in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province compared
compared to
to its
its near-absence
near-absence in
in
The presence
The
presence of
the Valley
the
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge Province
Province also
also might
might be
be attributed
attributed to
to the
the following
following factors
factors that
that determine
determine
the relative
the
relative effectiveness
effectiveness of
of flushing
flushing of
of the
the brine
brine by
by freshwater:
freshwater:
In the
In
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus,
Plateaus, extenSive,
extenSive, almost
almost flat-lying
flat-lying confining
confining units
units of
of shale,
shale, siltstone,
siltstone,
of water.
water. This
This is
is especially
especially
clay, and
clay,
and dense
dense limestone
limestone effectively
effectively impede
impede the
the vertical
vertical movement
movement of
of the
the Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks,
rocks, which
which cover
cover a
a large
large part
part of
of the
the area.
area.
true of
true
oo
The aquifers
The
aquifers and
and confining
confining units
units are
are not
not as
as intensely
intensely fractured
fractured in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus
as in
as
in the
the Valley
Valley and
and Ridge.
Ridge. The
The fractures
fractures also
also decrease
decrease in
in number
number with
with depth,
depth, and
and the
the
of water
water likewise
likewise decreases
decreases with
with depth.
depth.
circulation of
circulation
o
o
Most of
Most
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus lacks
lacks the
the thick,
thick, solution-riddled
solution-riddled carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers of
of
the Valley
the
Valley and
and Ridge;
Ridge; such
such aquifers
aquifers are
are conduits
conduits for
for the
the vigorous
vigorous circulation
circulation of
of water.
water.
o
o
of the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus are
are only
only mildly
mildly deformed
deformed compared
compared to
to those
those of
of the
the
The rocks
The
rocks of
of the
the geologic
geologic section
section is,
is, therefore,
therefore, not
not brought
brought near
near the
the
Valley and
Valley
and Ridge.
Ridge. The
The lower
lower part
part of
land surface
land
surface by
by thrust
thrust faults
faults or
or overturned
overturned folds
folds and
and is
is unable
unable to
to receive
receive freshwater
freshwater as
as
recharge or
recharge
or to
to readily
readily discharge
discharge entrapped
entrapped fluids,
fluids, such
such as
as brine.
brine.
In the
In
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Province,
Province, very
very saline
saline water
water is
is at
at shallow
shallow depths
depths in
in the
the consolidated
consolidated
rocks below
rocks
below the
the glacial
glacial drift.
drift. The
The bedrock
bedrock is
is generally
generally low-permeability
low-permeability Devonian
Devonian shale
shale and
and is
is
an extension
an
extension of
of deeply
deeply buried
buried formations
formations that
that contain
contain saline
saline water
water in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus
Province. The
Province.
The younger,
younger, more
more permeable
permeable bedrock
bedrock formations
formations that
that contain
contain most
most of
of the
the
freshwater circulation
freshwater
circulation system
system in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province have
have been
been eroded
eroded away
away in
in
the Central
the
Central Lowland
Lowland Province.
Province.
FACTORS THAT
FACTORS
THAT AFFECT
AFFECT GROUND-WATER
GROUND-WATER FLOW
FLOW
Underground mining
Underground
mining of
of coal
coal disturbs
disturbs the
the natural
natural ground-water
ground-water flow
flow system
system when
when the
the mines
mines
of unwanted
unwanted water
water and
and mining
mining
are active
are
active because
because artificial
artificial drains
drains are
are constructed
constructed to
to dispose
dispose of
can create
create new
new fractures
fractures and
and thus
thus increase
increase permeability.
permeability. The
The regional
regional water
water table
table
activities can
activities
can be
can
be lowered
lowered when
when the
the drains
drains are
are effective,
effective, and
and ground-water
ground-water flow
flow directions
directions can
can be
be
changed in some cases until flow moves across former ground-water divides into adjoining
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basins. Ground
basins.
Ground water
water tends
tends to
to flow
flow toward
toward mines,
mines, which
which are
are usually
usually dewatered
dewatered by
by pumping.
pumping.
Adverse effects
Adverse
effects of
of mine
mine drainage
drainage on
on well
well yields
yields are
are greatest
greatest where
where the
the mines
mines are
are not
not much
much
of the
the wells
wells and
and where
where vertical
vertical fractures
fractures connect
connect the
the aquifers
aquifers and
and
deeper than
deeper
than the
the bottoms
bottoms of
the mines.
the
mines. Abandoned
Abandoned mines
mines can
can collapse,
collapse, which
which causes
causes fracturing
fracturing of
of the
the rocks
rocks that
that overlie
overlie
the mine
the
mine and
and might
might be
be accompanied
accompanied by
by an
an appreciable
appreciable depression
depression on
on the
the land
land surface.
surface. These
These
conditions are
conditions
are likely
likely to
to enhance
enhance recharge
recharge to
to the
the ground-water
ground-water system
system and
and to
to reduce
reduce surface
surface
runoff and
runoff
and evapotranspiration.
evapotranspiration.
Uncased boreholes
Uncased
boreholes that
that penetrate
penetrate several
several aquifers,
aquifers, which
which might
might have
have different
different heads,
heads, provide
provide
artificial interconnections,
artificial
interconnections, or
or "short
"short circuits,"
circuits," between
between the
the aquifers.
aquifers. The
The water
water that
that enters
enters the
the
borehole from
borehole
from aquifers
aquifers with
with higher
higher heads
heads moves
moves up
up the
the borehole
borehole and
and then
then laterally
laterally into
into
aquifers with
aquifers
with lower
lower heads
heads so
so that
that the
the composite
composite head
head in
in the
the well
well is
is different
different than
than that
that in
in each
each
of the
of
the aquifers.
aquifers. Flow
Flow within
within the
the borehole
borehole will
will continue,
continue, even
even when
when the
the well
well is
is not
not being
being
in the
the two
two aquifers
aquifers becomes
becomes equal.
equal. The
The freshwater
freshwater flow
flow system
system of
of an
an
pumped, until
pumped,
until the
the head
head in
area can
area
can be
be significantly
significantly altered
altered where
where numerous
numerous uncased
uncased wells
wells exist
exist and
and may
may result
result in
in a
a
change in
change
in the
the potentiometric
potentiometric surface.
surface.
be traced
traced over
over many
many
Although bedrock
Although
bedrock formations
formations in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province can
can be
miles, the
miles,
the distribution
distribution of
of lo-cal
lo-cal aquifers
aquifers within
within these
these formations
formations depends,
depends, in
in most
most cases,
cases, on
on the
the
distribution of
distribution
of fracture
fracture permeability.
permeability. Erosion
Erosion is
is one
one factor
factor that
that controls
controls the
the distribution
distribution of
of
fractures. Local
fractures.
Local aquifers,
aquifers, in
in some
some cases,
cases, are
are in
in valleys
valleys (fig.
(fig. 92).
92). Near-vertical
Near-vertical tensile
tensile fractures
fractures
and horizontal
and
horizontal fractures
fractures are
are associated
associated with
with slumping
slumping that
that takes
takes place
place along
along valley
valley walls,
walls, and
and
be concentrated
concentrated by
by the
the fractures.
fractures. Under
Under the
the valley
valley floors,
floors, the
the most
most
recharge tends
recharge
tends to
to be
significant fractures
significant
fractures are
are parallel
parallel to
to bedding,
bedding, or
or nearly
nearly horizontal.
horizontal. Relief
Relief of
of compressional
compressional stress
stress
results when
results
when the
the weight
weight of
of the
the rock
rock that
that overlies
overlies aa valley
valley is
is reduced,
reduced, because
because part
part of
of the
the rock
rock
is removed
is
removed by
by erosion.
erosion. This
This causes
causes the
the remaining
remaining rock
rock to
to separate
separate along
along bedding
bedding planes
planes and
and
in the
the formation
formation of
of vertical
vertical fractures.
fractures. Fractures
Fractures that
that underlie
underlie the
the valley
valley are
are
also results
also
results in
interconnected with
interconnected
with those
those along
along the
the valley
valley walls,
walls, and
and the
the interconnected
interconnected fracture
fracture set
set enhances
enhances
of the
the rock.
rock. Away
Away from
from the
the valley
valley walls,
walls, fractures
fractures are
are scarce
scarce and
and less
less likely
likely to
to
the permeability
the
permeability of
be interconnected;
be
interconnected; accordingly,
accordingly, wells
wells in
in these
these areas
areas will
will tend
tend to
to have
have lower
lower yields
yields than
than those
those
in the
in
the valleys.
valleys. Furthermore,
Furthermore, water
water in
in the
the shallow
shallow fractures
fractures on
on hilltops
hilltops tends
tends to
to drain
drain in
in dry
dry
of some
some wells
wells might
might accordingly
accordingly decline.
decline. In
In general,
general, well
well yields
yields are
are directly
directly
seasons, and
seasons,
and yields
yields of
of interconnected
interconnected fractures.
fractures.
proportional to
proportional
to the
the number
number of
GROUND-WATER QUALITY
GROUND-WATER
QUALITY
of water
water in
in the
the freshwater
freshwater parts
parts of
of the
the bedrock
bedrock aquifers
aquifers of
of the
the
The chemical
The
chemical quality
quality of
Appalachian Plateaus
Appalachian
Plateaus Province
Province is
is somewhat
somewhat variable
variable but
but generally
generally is
is satisfactory
satisfactory for
for municipal
municipal
supplies and
supplies
and other
other purposes.
purposes. Most
Most of
of the
the water
water in
in the
the upper
upper parts
parts of
of the
the aquifers
aquifers is
is not
not greatly
greatly
is suitable,
suitable, or
or can
can be
be treated
treated and
and made
made suitable,
suitable, for
for most
most uses.
uses. Saline
Saline water
water
mineralized and
mineralized
and is
commonly is
commonly
is in
in the
the aquifers
aquifers at
at depths
depths of
of only
only a
a few
few hundred
hundred feet
feet below
below the
the land
land surface.
surface.
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HA 730-L
HA
730-L Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus aquifers
aquifers text
text
The undifferentiated
The
undifferentiated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers
aquifers consist
consist principally
principally of
of sandstone
sandstone and
and fractured
fractured
shale and
shale
and coal.
coal. Most
Most of
of the
the minerals
minerals that
that compose
compose these
these aquifers
aquifers do
do not
not readily
readily dissolve,
dissolve, and
and
is a
a calcium
calcium sodium
sodium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type (fig.
(fig. 93A).
93A). Dissolved-solids
Dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations are
are
the water
the
water is
small and
small
and aver-age
aver-age only
only about
about 230
230 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter.
liter. Hardness
Hardness averages
averages about
about 95
95 milligrams
milligrams
per liter,
per
liter, which
which is
is considered
considered to
to be
be moder-ately
moder-ately hard.
hard. Water
Water from
from predominately
predominately shale
shale aquifers
aquifers
in Pennsylvania
in
Pennsylvania is
is reported
reported to
to be
be hard,
hard, whereas
whereas that
that from
from predominately
predominately sandstone
sandstone aquifers
aquifers is
is
reported to
reported
to be
be soft.
soft. The
The median
median hydrogen
hydrogen ion
ion concentration,
concentration, which
which is
is measured
measured in
in pH
pH units,
units, is
is
7.3. The
7.3.
The median
median iron
iron concentration
concentration is
is about
about 0.1
0.1 milligram
milligram per
per liter,
liter, but
but concentrations
concentrations as
as large
large
as 38
as
38 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter
liter have
have been
been reported.
reported.
of calcium
calcium and
and magnesium
magnesium carbonate
carbonate minerals,
minerals, which
which
Carbonate-rock aquifers
Carbonate-rock
aquifers consist
consist mostly
mostly of
of the
the ground
ground water.
water. Limited
Limited data
data
are readily
are
readily soluble
soluble and
and affect
affect the
the chemical
chemical composition
composition of
show that
show
that dissolved-solids
dissolved-solids concentrations
concentrations in
in water
water from
from carbonate-rock
carbonate-rock aquifers
aquifers in
in the
the
Appalachian Plateaus
Appalachian
Plateaus Province
Province average
average about
about 180
180 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, and
and hardness
hardness averages
averages
is considered
considered to
to be
be hard.
hard. The
The median
median hydrogen
hydrogen ion
ion
about 170
about
170 milligrams
milligrams per
per liter,
liter, which
which is
concentration, which
concentration,
which is
is measured
measured in
in pH
pH units,
units, is
is 7.5
7.5 (slightly
(slightly basic).
basic). The
The median
median iron
iron
is near
near zero.
zero. Water
Water in
in these
these aquifers
aquifers is
is mostly
mostly a
a calcium
calcium bicarbonate
bicarbonate type
type (~
concentration is
concentration
938).
938).
Contamination of
Contamination
of ground
ground water
water by
by the
the improper
improper construction
construction or
or plugging
plugging of
of oil
oil and
and gas
gas wells
wells is
is
a common
a
common problem
problem in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province.
Province. The
The area
area is
is the
the cradle
cradle of
of the
the oil
oil
industry in
industry
in the
the United
United States;
States; drilling
drilling for
for oil
oil began
began in
in the
the 1860's,
1860's, and
and drilling
drilling for
for brine
brine began
began
even earlier.
even
earlier. Natural
Natural brines
brines are
are associated
associated with
with accumulations
accumulations of
of oil
oil and
and gas
gas and
and are
are at
at
in many
many places.
places. Wells
Wells that
that penetrate
penetrate aquifers
aquifers that
that contain
contain brine,
brine, if
if not
not properly
properly
shallow depths
shallow
depths in
cased and
cased
and cemented,
cemented, can
can provide
provide conduits
conduits for
for the
the brine
brine to
to enter
enter shallower
shallower freshwater
freshwater
aquifers. It
aquifers.
It was
was once
once a
a common
common practice
practice for
for brine
brine produced
produced with
with oil
oil and
and gas
gas to
to be
be discharged
discharged
into open
into
open pits
pits from
from which
which it
it seeped
seeped downward
downward to
to contaminate
contaminate fresh
fresh ground-water
ground-water bodies.
bodies.
Such practices
Such
practices are
are generally
generally prohibited
prohibited now,
now, but
but effects
effects of
of the
the past
past remain.
remain.
In coal-mining
In
coal-mining areas,
areas, which
which in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus Province
Province are
are generally
generally within
within the
the
limits of
limits
of Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian rocks
rocks (fig.
(fig. 88),
88), ground
ground water
water commonly
commonly includes
includes water
water that
that has
has been
been
in contact
in
contact with
with mine
mine workings
workings or
or that
that has
has infiltrated
infiltrated and
and leached
leached mine
mine spoil
spoil piles
piles (fig.
(fig. 94).
94).
Water affected
Water
affected by
by coal-mining
coal-mining operations
operations is
is usually
usually acidic.
acidic. Sulfur-bearing
Sulfur-bearing minerals,
minerals, such
such as
as
pyrite, that
pyrite,
that are
are present
present in
in the
the coal
coal are
are exposed
exposed to
to air
air in
in mines
mines and
and spoil
spoil piles,
piles, and
and the
the oxidized
oxidized
sulfur combines
sulfur
combines with
with water
water to
to form
form sulfuric
sulfuric acid.
acid. The
The acid
acid water
water commonly
commonly contains
contains large
large
concentrations of
concentrations
of iron,
iron, manganese,
manganese, sulfate,
sulfate, and
and dissolved
dissolved solids
solids and
and is
is highly
highly colored
colored (fig.
(fig. 95).
95).
An exception
An
exception is
is in
in the
the southern
southern coal
coal fields
fields of
of West
West Virginia
Virginia where
where the
the coal
coal is
is low
low in
in sulfur,
sulfur,
mine drainage
mine
drainage tends
tends to
to be
be alkaline,
alkaline, and
and water
water from
from working
working or
or abandoned
abandoned mines
mines is
is commonly
commonly
used for
used
for public
public supply.
supply.
FRESH GROUND-WATER
FRESH
GROUND-WATER WITHDRAWALS
WITHDRAWALS
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HA 730-L
HA
730-L Appalachian
Appalachian Plateaus
Plateaus aquifers
aquifers text
text
Total freshwater
Total
freshwater withdrawals
withdrawals from
from consolidated
consolidated sedimentary-rock
sedimentary-rock aquifers
aquifers in
in the
the Appalachian
Appalachian
Plateaus and
Plateaus
and the
the Central
Central Lowland
Lowland Provinces
Provinces were
were estimated
estimated to
to be
be 282
282 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day
day
during 1985.
during
1985. About
About 47
47 percent
percent of
of this
this amount,
amount, or
or about
about 133
133 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day, was
was
withdrawn for
withdrawn
for domestic
domestic and
and commercial
commercial supplies
supplies (fig.
(fig. 96).
96). About
About 116
116 million
million gallons
gallons per
per day,
day,
41 percent
percent of
of the
the total
total withdrawals,
withdrawals, was
was pumped
pumped for
for industrial,
industrial, mining,
mining, and
and
or about
or
about 41
thermoelectric power
thermoelectric
power purposes;
purposes; most
most of
of this
this water
water was
was used
used in
in coal
coal mining
mining operations.
operations.
Return to
Return
to previous
previous section
section Valley
Valley and
and Ridge
Ridge aquifers
aquifers
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HA 730-L
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table of
of contents
contents
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to Ground
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Water Atlas
Atlas home
home page
page
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HA 730-L
HA
730-L References
References
.USGS
.USGS
GROUND WATER
GROUND
WATER ATLAS
ATLAS of
of the
the UNITED
UNITED STATES
STATES
Delaware, Maryland,
Delaware,
Maryland, New
New Jersey,
Jersey, North
North Carolina,
Carolina,
Pennsylvania, Virginia,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
West Virginia
Virginia
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REFERENCES
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Virginia Department
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Hydrology of
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Area 10,
10, eastern
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HA 730-L
HA
730-L References
References
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U.S. Geological
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_
__
_ 1938,
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____
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HA
730-L References
References
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____
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River, Shenango
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River, Mahoning
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U.S. Geological
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of stress-relief
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http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l!gif/Ltab1.GIF
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l!gif/Ltab1.GIF
Tab Ie 1_
Table
1. CrY:5
Crystalline-rock
t a II i n e- r 0 c.k and
and minor,
rn i n or ( undifferu n d iff e renti at ed sed
irn ent ary- roc.k aquifers
aq u iter:5 un
d erl i e
entiated
sedimentary-rock
underlie
rnost of
Piedrnont and
Ridge
most
of the
the Piedmont
and the
the Blue
Blue Ridge
Pro ....·inc. e sin
S e g rn en t 11.
Provinces
in Segment
11.
Aquifer
~'Jife:r
Rock types
c: I)'SIzi
IIne-...~ck
Crystalline-rock
G lUIGranite,
;:'e:. rrnmafie
IX: u-od
Is:k:
and ~
felsic
'T,dand
IJrod
itfe:r~tioJ:.e:d
undifferentiated,
:!>edsedimentary-rock
~,t..'!.I1)' - ...~ k
'XIIJaquifers
i~ ~
=-
Aquifers in early
Meso~lJifer:s:
e:'!'Irly
,......
n
::D
basins
i::zoic
bt.sr,s
Carbonate-rock aquifers
re:~tzJge: 0 f
Percentage
of
ri:: d-n on t u-o
d
Piedmont
and
'B
~ Ridge:
re:'!'l
Blue
Ridge'!'I area
IJr.:Ier~ i-o
underlain
86
YO br,k:
volcanicrod;s"
rocks, groe:~
gneiss,
$0::1'0schist.
ist, s~
slate,phyll~_e:.,
phyllite,
qlJ'!'lquartzite,
rt::z~. mr,or
corog bmminor conglomerot.e.
S'!'Irodst.oroe:.,
erate,
sandstone, :SI-ot.o
shaleIe
Sandstone,
diabase
S>:ro
d sI:o roe:.shale,
:sh '!'lie.
d i'!'I b
ddikes,
il-z:s, basa
b~it tflows
tko......:s:
=
Limestone, dolomite, marble
19
3
1 ...,. ~LIJ-:-r.-:.I :::'F-ft"-=+r~« I.t.+ ·:'I"+:II~ 11.4+11-:.1 ... t-1 ...:. .......Vr+..:·z.:-I-:: M ......... tr:- ... r-:-:::i-: ••:.I"+ r.-:J.
p'w\IdJ .....
~lJr+u
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l!gif/Ltabl.GIF [8/27/2009 11 :20:05 AM]
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l/gif/Ltab2.
http://pubs.usgs.gov
/ha/ha730/ch_l/gif/Ltab2.GIF
GIF
Table :2
Table
:2 _
_ Car
Car bon
bon at
at e
e --roc
roc k
k aa qui
qui fer
fer sin
sin the
the Pi
Pi e
e ddm
m00 n
n tan
tan d
d BB IIuueeRid
Rid g
g ee
Proyinces
Pr m' in ces of
of Ne.
N e.wJersey
. . 1 J e rse''p''c arbonate-rock
c arbon ate- rock
aquifers
aq u ife rs
in in
thethPied­
e Pi edmont and
and Blue
Blue Ridge
Ridge Provinces
Provinces of
of Ne
New
Jersev and
and eastern
eastern
mont
..........1 Jersev
Pe nn
Pe
nn svlvan
svlyan ii aa g
g en
en era
era IIV
IIy yVii el
eldd vvol
ol uume
mess of
of water
water to
to well
wells.s.
......-- '"'"ii
E
E
E
E
••
..c
..c
II!
II!
.::
.::
.:2
.:2
.~
~
"2
"2
0
0
.~
(0
(I
S r--S
r---
..1!
..1!
.!1.
.!1.
.::
.::
.:2
.:2
Sldijnp"5
Sldijnp"5
•• iI:
••
iI:
PriM'~
n,5Ue::m:
n5Ue::m:
1iI:~1oJy
~
Be ee krn.~
Be
\o:rn.~ r,
r, fI:HIl'I
fI:HIl'I
C
C t,ert).'
t,ert).'
IiIi rre:·rone
rre:'rol'le
GrolJ~'
.~r,d
~r,d
1,4:10-1 fijO
1,4:10-1
fijO
TypAl..d1
TypAl..d1
yil::U(:pao-.s:
yil::U(:pao-.s:
Ilit:nll.IB
"n11118
pa' ....
pa'
.... ~)
--
dobm~
dobrri--==
AJloi!:l'ItO'NI'I
AJIeI'lWNI'I
Dolo:mite
Dolo:mite
C
C toert't'
t.ert't'
do:,brrj~
do:,br.-j--==
1,700
1,700
60-210
60-210
Lo::itto~~illoi!:
Lo::itt.~~ille
Dobrnite
Clobrnite
900
100
100
t&rble
~rbloi!:
--
90--900
90-0900
Upper
Upper
j:Q rt:
j:Q
rt: 1'101:
no1: a~
re I~
re
I~~ ble
bioi!:
.~ 1'1'11 .~ IJ
IJ iter;
iter; b,.o.'er
b,.o.'er ~rt:
,::ro~,~ O'J\
OIJt:, COI'I~
C:OI'I~ il'l~ c:.:n.'
c:.~.' itie;,
itie;,
,::rop'~
Cor,~ il'l~ ~ ...
cOI'l~
... itil::~; ~ I~'
r.-jg 1'to1:
rrjg
01: 't'iekl
't'iekl 1
1 [JOO
[JOO 9~lIor,~
9~lIcr,~
perrril'llJte
perml'lo.rte
.Q
.Q
E
E
JJ
~rrr~1:br,
FOrrr~1:br,
.::
.::
.:2
.:2
~
E
E
~
!!
!1
r,r, klin
klil'l
t&rble
M~rbloi!:
~r~
~r<!l
0..
0..
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l/gif/Ltab2.GIF [8/27/2009 11 :20:21 AM]
H
H ~ t.~,
to~, ~erI'lOIJ~,
~o::rI'lOIJ~,
IJIJ I'Ido::rl
I'Id 0:: rl ie;,
ie;, 1001'
lo:M'0' <!Ire~
~re~
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l/gif/Ltab3.
http://pubs.usgs.gov
/ha/ha730/ch_l/gif/Ltab3.GIF
GIF
Table 3.
3_ Th
Th e
e car
Table
C:.arbon
bon at
ate-r
e-roc.k
oc.k aq
aquif
uifers
ers in
in th
thee Han
Hanoverover-York-La
York-La ncaster
nc.aster
Vall ey
Vall
ey are
are a
a yy ii e
e IIdd :5sm
m aaIIII tt 00 I aI ra9re9ve0vIoI
um
um
es
e s of
of VJ
watateerr
••
:!
:!
••::.=-
-'II
-'II
CI)
CI)
E
f
••
!!
Stdiplp"5
Stdif1llp" 5:
I) ;~
Bee~ntt:'Il'n
Bee~ntt:wn
Lim::~,e
Lim::~,o::
o'~
(:;ro'Jp
~nd dobmit:o::
dobmit:-::
'E .-
TlP A1
TlP
_
A1 _
yBd (P.IIS
yBd
(P.IIS
11,4JXI-2;OCI
,4JXI-2;OCI
5(1
Do km it.o::
it.o::
l,OIXI
1,OCI'.1
:<S
25
ForrrCl1:br,
Forr....:.1:ior'
Lim::~e
Lim::~o::
~r,d dobmit:o::
dobmit:-::
~l'Id
1.000
1PIXJ
10
10
Zcok:z.
Zcob Corner
Corno::r
Form:.1:ior,
Forr'-Cl1:br,
dc,br.-,~
dobm~
1f,00
1f,1XJ
6
1,000
l,OIXJ
100-200
100-21XJ
Lirr.e~one
Lirr.e-~o
no::
82)
220
17
17
Do
Dolomit:o::
10mit:-::
eM
eM
3(1-6~(1
Lim::~e
Lim::~o::
500-9))
51XJ-9XJ
65
65
~rblo::
~rblc:
750
750
10-15
10-15
S{lO
S{lO
75
75
[1.:0
km it:-::
Dokmit:o::
1,000
l,OIXJ
100-200
100-21XJ
Lim::~e
Lim::~o::
~r,d dobmit:o::
dobmit:-::
S{l0
S{lO
17
17
Do km it.o::
it.o::
650
650
30-65(1
•• it
••
it
idooIo ••
idooIo
Cono::o::~~glJe
Cono::oct.~gIJO::
GrolJP
E~uff·~b Sping-:o
Sping~
peT II1IiII.dI:J
nW.dI:J
::::
....
....
tt0
°
Z
Z
<=
<=
.:2
.:2
tt
()
()
S~l'Id't'
I...e:dger
I...e:dgo::r
Dd
Ddonit:o::
0 nit:-::
Dol
omit:-::
Dolomit:o::
KiI'l~I"~
For ITCI
m:. t.iOI'l
Vir,~,~e
Vir,~,~o::
Dobm~
Dolom~
.::
.::
.::.:2
.::.:2
.:2 l:i
.:2
..i=i
.~ ;:
c
)0. L..
o ..,
°u
)0.
Co r, ~,::.g~
~'::-g~
Lim::'~or,e
Lim::'~or,o::
C.:-::~~,~ ille:
C.:x:~~,~
il ~
MHblo::
M~rb~
E; IbrcoOk.
E;
~
rrrlO'l: io r,
~rrrlO1:br,
.::
.::
'"
::0
(,?,
i..?'
.~
r.d
I'Id do
dolomite
I0 nit:o::
Rern.ts
Rern.ts
Moder~'e: '~ield-:o
Modo::r~'t::
'~ield·~
Go::
litt:1c:
Go:: no::r~
ner~ I"" 't'ie Id litt:1o::
w~1:o::r , blJ1: Zcob
Zcok:z.
Cor 1'r.o::
10:: r ForrrClt.ion
Forrrat.ion
1,~I",,'t'ield~
1=1",,'t'io::ld-:o
rfloro:: 1:t,·~n 11 PIXJ
poo
rflore
g~ Ibr,~
Ibr,-:o per
po::r rril'l1J1:o::
~1I't''t'iel®lJpb
~1I't''t'iel®IJPb
1,
1, 100
llXJ g~llon-:o
g~1 bn~
per r.-i 1'I1J1:o::
~rgo:: '~ield-:o
'~ield~ p=*~i ble:
blc:
tt rom .z-:oIIJ1:bn
'!>011J1:ion C~·~
rtio::-z.
-=~.~ itio::-z.
..,
'E u
'E."
0.::
o~
..,..,
:u:u
..:
..:
.......
1
1
n.i5:b.em:
n.i5:b.em:
~
~.,~
..,..,.::.::
~
JJ
I...e:dger
I...e:dgo::r
Dd,:mit:-::
Ddc'nit:o::
Kil'l~l"~
~rma1:br,
~rma1:ior,
Vil'lt,a.~e
Vint,a.~o::
Ddonit:o::
Ddonit:-::
Li m:: .~tt:4" e
0::
dolomit:o::
dolomit:-::
·~l'Id
'~l'Id
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l/gif/Ltab3.GIF [8/27/2009 11 :20:23 AM]
Lo-..<III't'
Lor..<lll't' 't'iel® IJ p b
1,(0)
1,00) g~llon-:o
g~llon~
per r,-i r"J1:o::
~1I't''t'iel®lJpb
1,
bn-:o
1, 100
llXJ g~1 bn~
per r.-i I'IIJ1:e
1'I1J1:0::
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l!gif/Ltab4.GIF
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l!gif/Ltab4.GIF
Table
Three
carbonate-rock
are iin
thee FFrederick
Valley,
Tab
Ie 44.
_ Th
r e e car
bon a t e- rock aaquifers
q u if e r s are
nth
red e rick Va
II e V .'
Maryland,
andd Fred
Frekerick
yield
M
arvl an do' area,
area .. but
but only
on I''p' the
th e Grove
G rove an
eri ck LiLimestones
m eston es vi
el d
larqe
of .........
ater to
to .........
ells
large volumes
volumes of
water
wells
[-.no data]
[-.l'Iodruj
--
E
.. ~
St~ ..
TlP A1
TlP
_
A1 _
1
1
••
•• it
it
P'lWpal
lillobty
liIlob"
n~be::z:
Grove
L3~
Limestone
Li~rl~
L
Li~:or.::
irne-zo1:o:o r..::
Limestone
Li~rl~
600
600
70-215
7O-21S
Forms
ridges,blrt
but'::OI'l~il'l'ZO
contains
!='orIT0
rklge-zo.
solution ..cavities
oc.llJ1:brlo::.:!l·
it:~'ZO
.~
Frederick
~r~d~rk:k.
!='r~d~rk:k.
Li~1:orl~
Limestone
L
Li~:o~
irne-zo1:o:o ~
Li~1:orl~
Limestone
5OO
SOO
120-170
1:;:{1-170
LD:<ant' Frederick
't'ie ~'ZO IJ P 1:0 27S
Limestone
g~ Ibl'l'ZO
~r mi 1'I1Ji:e
0
Tom'ZOt
......·1'I
Tomotown
[bl.:omit:~
Dobm~
Dolomite
Dolomite
[bl.:omit:~
200
200
!
.::
.S!
.:2
.\;!." ~
:-'r::-Q
.g<:1i:
~
<:1
o
~1J
Ru'db:
Ra'db:
y6lfp.as
y6lfp.as
peT
peT
mill dI:J
mill
dI:J
I:.,)
.::
~
--
Pr~
1'11: orll't'
~'ZO ~ l'I~rrc....... 'Z01:rip
Tomotown
....I~*
HI ~9~ .:of ....~ I~t'
Dolomite
.~IOI'Ig
11 :20:26
:20:26 AM]
AM]
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l!gif/Ltab4.GIF
http://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_l!gif/Ltab4.GIF [8/27/2009
[8/27/2009 11