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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles
BOLIVARIAN REPUBLIC OF
VENEZUELA
by
Dr Raul R. Vera
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© FAO 2006
3
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 7
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 8
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 10
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE 12
The Llanos
12
Maracaibo Lake and the Coro System
13
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES
14
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 15
8. REFERENCES 16
9. CONTACTS 18
10. AUTHOR
19
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
5
1. INTRODUCTION
Venezuela is on the northern tip of South America
between 0º45’ and 15º 40’ N, and 59º 45’ and
73º 25’ W. Its surface area is 916 445 km2, of
which 882 050 are continental. It borders on
the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the
North, and Colombia, Brazil and Guyana to the
West and South respectively (see Figure 1).
Venezuela is a federal nation, including 23
States and a Federal District. Its population in
2001 was 24 600 000 (World Bank, 2001), and
its rate of population growth 1.9% per year.
According to the World Factbook the population
in July 2006 was 25 730 435 with a growth
rate of 1.38%. The urban population is 87%
of the total. The valleys and piedmont of the
Coastal Mountains (Cordillera de la Costa) and
the Andean mountains (“Cordillera Andina”)
contain 60% of the population, whereas people
are much sparser in the large basin of the Orinoco
and Apure rivers. Over 40% of the population is
in the largest eight cities On the other hand, only
1.5% of the population, including the majority of
the indigenous population, is located South of the
Orinoco River and in the State of Zulia (bordering
the South and West of the Maracaibo Lake).
The gross internal product is approximately
US$ 5 100 per capita (World Bank, 2002).
Industry contributes 50% of the total, services
45% and agriculture only 5% (CATIE/FAO,
2000; World Bank, 2001). Venezuela’s human
development index was 0.765 in 1999 (UNDP, Figure 1. Location and map of Venezuela
2001). In spite of a long agricultural tradition,
starting with the Spanish colonization, the discovery of oil in the Llanos or western Plains led to the
present day economic importance of the industrial sector.
Venezuela’s abundant farmland and temperate climate provide ideal conditions for agriculture.
However, as oil came to dominate the economy, agriculture languished and, during the oil-boom years
of the 1970s, imports of agricultural products rose rapidly. The sector today only provides less than
five% of GDP, whereas four decades ago it was one of the main backbones of the economy. Even
though today approximately only one-fifth of the land is used for agriculture, it remains an important
source of employment (around 14% of the labour force). More than half of agricultural income is from
cattle ranching, while dairy products, fruit, grain, poultry farming and vegetables aggregated generate
approximately 40%, with the balance coming from forestry and fishing.
Despite long periods when heavy subsidies were provided to the agricultural sector, Venezuela imports
more than half of its needs for wheat, sugar, vegetable oil and yellow maize, with the United States
supplying more than one-third of Venezuela’s total food imports (LatinFocus, 2002). Nevertheless, the
oil industry also led to the development of good infrastructure (roads, markets, communications, etc.) in
the interior of the country (Pittevil and Buroz, 2001), which should facilitate agricultural intensification.
Nearly 80% of Venezuela’s income comes from oil (Venezuela, 1995). Other important mineral resources
are bauxite and iron (CEPAL, 2001).
The agricultural area of Venezuela is variously reported as 21 600 000 ha (FAO databases) to 34 600 000 ha
(Venezuela, 1995). The FAO databases report that 84% of the former figure is covered by permanent pastures,
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
6
Table 1. Stock of ruminant animals
Cattle nos (,000)
Goats nos (,000)
Sheep nos (,000)
1980
1990
1995
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
10 539
1 337.7
344 000
13 272.1
1 650
351 200
13 950.4
1 173.3
481 697
15 164.4
1 205.1
471 216
15 474.1
1 224.7
485 066
15 791.1
1 250.9
511 784
15 988.9
1 279.6
520 225
16 231.6
1 310.8
528 190
16 300
1 320
530 000
(FAO databases, 2006)
Table 2. Production of beef and veal and cow milk, and beef and veal and milk imports in Venezuela,
metric tons selected years 1985-2005 (FAO databases, 2006)
Production
Beef and Veal Mt
Cow Milk, Whole, Fresh
Mt (,000)
Imports
Beef and Veal Mt
Milk, fresh Mt
Milk equivalent Mt*(,000)
1985
1989
1993
1997
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
323 568 337 601 393 534 422 853 428 755 418 182 428 845 435 181 375 982 405 000
1 579.6
1 689.5
1 713.4
1 475.4
1 414.6
1 400.5
1 389.3
1 238.5
1 119.5
1 268.0
1 200
310
598.7
3,807
0
361.6
832
444
355.9
641
1 294
476.8
3 740
2 770
648.9
5 590
2 750
576.4
5 952
2 531
440
2 327
3 681
5 538
24 571
3 225
450.8
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a. = not available
* especially dry milk
(FAO databases, 2006)
a fraction that remained stable over the last 20 years, while Table 3. Land tenure in Venezuela as of 1985
No. of farms
Area occupied
Venezuela (1995) estimated that 79% of the latter area was Size, ha
No.
%
ha
%
adequate for livestock production.
0-19.9
279 072
73.2
1 308 218
4.2
The number of ruminant livestock over the last 20-49.9
39 714
10.4
1 124 550
3.6
decade has also remained fairly stable with some 50-199.9
35 391
9.3
3 174 690
10.1
19 067
5.0
7 571 655
24.2
increases, and is shown in Table 1, whereas the 200-999
5 608
1.5 18 099 042
57.9
production of beef and milk during the late 1990s >1000
2 424
0.6
decreased somewhat in a difficult political and socio- Landless
Total
381 276
100 31 278 155
100
economic scenario (Table 1).
Modified from Delahaye (1996)
The most important region for livestock production
is the Llanos (see section 3, below), which contains Table 4. Important macroeconomic
8 200 000 cattle, 270 000 sheep, 50 000 buffalo and indicators of agricultural resources and
production, 1990–2000
78 000 goats (Pittevil and Buroz, 2001).
Economic indicator
1990
2000
Important crops, in decreasing order of sown area, Volume of agricultural
100.2
115.2
include maize, coffee, sorghum, sugarcane, rice and production, index
97.4
114.4
cassava (CEPAL 2001). Several species and types of Volume of crop production, index
Volume
of
livestock
production,
100.2
114.3
bean, although sown in smaller areas, are important index
components of the diet.
Arable land, 1000 ha
2 980
2,640
Beef consumption per capita is 17.3 kg/year (FAO, Permanent crops, 1000 ha
915
850
480
575
1999), a figure slightly below the average for South Irrigated land, 1000 ha
Fertilizer
use,
Mt
427
000
226
800
America (in 1996), and milk consumption is 82 litres/
(CEPAL, 2001)
capita.year (Paredes, 2002).
As indicated above, Venezuela is a land-rich country with a highly urbanized population, employed
mostly in industry and services. Nevertheless, despite agrarian reform efforts that began in 1960,
Venezuela’s land tenure patterns in 1990 still portrayed the typical Latin American dichotomy between
latifundios and minifundios (small holdings) as shown in Table 3.The country’s major land reform
programme began with an initial decree in 1958, and the Agrarian Reform Law of 1960 created the
National Agrarian Institute (Instituto Nacional Agrario--INA), which sought to provide land to those
who worked it, initially by transferring public lands and later by expropriating private holdings of arable
land not under cultivation. Despite the provision of roads, markets, schools, and clinics, new agricultural
colonies rarely had the conveniences of earlier farming towns and only modest progress was realized.
The average size of the country’s 400 000 farming units stood at 80 ha in 1989, considerably higher than
earlier decades but, according to the 1998 census, the average was 60 ha/farm (Pittevil and Buroz, 2001).
Venezuela’s Gini coefficient in the 1990s stood at 0.54.
As indicated above, agricultural production is relatively less important in Venezuela than in the rest of
Latin America, and the sector has also grown only at very modest rates, as inferred from Table 4, which
also shows several important macroeconomic indices.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
7
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY
Six different relief formations are recognized (CATIE/FAO, 2000):
a. the continental platform, located at < 1 000 m, and that covers 17% of the territory;
b. the coastal or Caribbean mountain chain, with altitudes ranging between 200 and 2 765 m, and
covering 3.2% of the land;
c. the valleys and hills of the Falcón, Lara and Yaracuy States, which represent 2.6% of the territory;
d. the Andean chain, with altitudes from 200-5 007 m, 5.8% of the land;
e. the plains or Llanos, at 40–200 m, and 25.5% of the territory, and
f. the Guyana Shield, located from 100–3 840 m and covering 45.4% of the national territory.
The main natural regions are shown in Figure 2.
There is considerable variation in Venezuelan soils, partly linked to the geology of each region.
Agricultural use of soils is constrained by a number of limitations: 4% of the territory is arid, 18% has
drainage limitations, 32% are soils of low fertility, and 44% is on steep slopes, thus leaving only 2%
without limitations (Casanova et al., 1992).
The geologically oldest formation is that of the acid Guyana shield to the south of the Orinoco River,
frequently identified as the Pantepui Region, it extends into north-western Guyana and northernmost
Brazil. The geology consists of a mainly granitic Precambian base (the Guyana Shield), overlain by
younger sedimentary sandstones and quartzites of variable thickness. This gave rise to very infertile,
leached soils that include: (a) soils of the flat-topped table mountains (“tepuys”) and the Gran Savanna,
characteristically very sandy, with extremely low organic matter content; (b) mountain clay-sand soils,
derived from granite and gneiss and (c)
soils along the Orinoco River, influenced by
alluvial sediments.
Along the more recent Andean region
(the Andes, the Interior Chain and the
Coastal Chain), soils are newer than those
of the Guyana shield but have been altered
by erosion, particularly in the piedmont,
where human intervention has been drastic
through deforestation.
In the oldest plains or Llanos (Eastern
and Central Plains, and the Plains of
the Meta River) oxisols predominate,
frequently with very superficial horizons
and an underlying ferrous layer. The more
recent plains (Western Llanos, and South
of Lake Maracaibo), some of the best soils
are found. These are deep relatively fertile
soils, though may have drainage limitations Figure 2. Natural regions of Venezuela
during the peak of the wet season.
Table 5. Soil pH of Venezuela
The delta of the Orinoco River includes
Region1
% soils with pH<
% soils pH 5.5 to
soils limited by salinity and by the presence
5.5
8.5
Western Venezuela
60-70
30-40
of high sulphate concentrations.
15-30
70-85
Utilization of soils along much of the Western Llanos
Central Llanos
53-75
25-47
coast is severely limited by low rainfall.
Andean region
53-69
31-47
Soils are mostly superficial litosols, or Region of Zulia
32
66
poorly developed entisols, very low in Central region
19-46
54-77
organic matter and P.
Data include samples from several States, as follows: Western Venezuela:
A large proportion of soils in Venezuela Anzoátegui, Bolívar, Nva. Esparta, Monagas, Sucre; Western Llanos:
Barinas, Falcón, Lara, Portuguesa, Yaracoy; Central Llanos: Apure, Guárico;
are acid (Table 5) and therefore have low Andean region: Mérida, Táchira, Trujillo; Zulia: Zulia; Central region: Aragua,
cation exchange capacity, are low in P and Carabobo, Cojedes, Miranda
frequently in several bases.
1
8
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES
Venezuela has two very large and important catchments, those of the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean
Sea respectively. The Atlantic Ocean Catchment, which receives the Orinoco and several other important
rivers, covers 82% of the territory, with 70% drained by the Orinoco (see Figure 3) , which divides
Venezuela in two. The Caribbean catchment, receives water from several smaller basins, including the
Maracaibo Lake and those that drain the northern portions of the mountains. Although it covers only
17.5% of the territory, it is extremely important as it is densely populated.
The geography of Venezuela is relatively complex, and detailed analyses recognize 27 climatic zones,
12 types of vegetation, 23 of relief and 38 geologic units (Venezuela, 1995). In a broader analysis, the
following ecozones (see Figure 4) are generally recognized (FUDENA, 2001):
a) Maracaibo Lake and the Coro System
These two regions are extremely variable in terms of landscape and climate. The Coro system includes
the States of Falcón, Lara and parts of Zulia, Yaracuy and Carabobo. It is a combination of mountains,
Figure 3. The basin of the
Orinoco River, including
the Colombian portion
Figure 4. Ecoregions of
Venezuela
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
9
valleys and plains with the highest altitude at 1 900 metres. Rainfall between 500 and 1 500 mm, and
average temperatures between 20 and 28 ºC. At sea level, it can be quite hot. Mountains are covered
by forest that evolves to dry forest in the driest altitudes towards the coast where the vegetation is
xerophytic to desertic. Lake Maracaibo is well known for its oil deposits. The landscape around it is very
variable. In the west, towards the Colombian border, the vegetation is xerophytic to desertic, with rainfall
amounting to no more than 250 mm. This gradually increases to 1,000 mm in the plains surrounding the
city of Maracaibo. At the western extremity of these plains the vegetation evolves towards premontane
and tropical forests. Dense tropical rainforest are found south of the Lake.
This region contains one third of the country’s sown pastures, and produces 60% of the milk, 80% of
which comes from 20% of the farms (Betancourt et al., 2001).
b) South of the Orinoco River
This is a large region covered by the Guyana Shield, one of the oldest (1 500 000 000 years) geologic
formations. Towards the (eastern) border with Guyana, the predominant vegetation is savanna, with
deciduous forest which alternates with mesophyll forests in the lower areas as well as south in the area
that borders with Brazil. Here is also found the Gran Savanna, or plains located above 1 000 metres. A
characteristic geologic formation of the ecozone are the flat-topped table mountains known as “tepuys”,
which rise to heights of 1 300–3 000 m and are frequently covered by a diversity of forest formations.
Throughout the ecozone the vegetation tends to be exuberant despite the poverty of the soils, and plant
biodiversity is very high. It is estimated that it includes over 9,000 species of trees, shrubs and herbs.
Despite its size, the region is unimportant from an agricultural point of view, but mineral resources are
important (e.g., bauxite), as is ecotourism.
The Llanos. This ecozone is distributed between Colombia and Venezuela and extends over 355.112 km2,
68% of which is in the latter country. From an ecological point of view it includes some of the largest
wetlands in the world, and constitutes a major reserve of water.
The Llanos cover approximately 75% of Venezuela, house only 16% of the population (15 persons/
km2, ranging between 6 and 50 depending upon the State) but nevertheless contribute the largest portion
of cereal and livestock production of the country. The extent to which the Llanos have been developed
varies greatly between States. Although cattle, cereal and oilseeds are more or less common to all, cattle
constitute the main economic activity in the States of Barinas, Guárico and Apure, cereals production is
dominant in Portuguesa and Cojedes, and oilseeds in Monagas and Anzoategui.
The Andes. In reality, the Venezuelan Andes are a group of ecoregions common to the highest parts
of the tropical Andes and intermontane valleys that extend through Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and
northern Peru covering 49 million ha (the “Green” Andes). The region is of worldwide importance as
one of the principal centres of endemism and contains close to one half of the plants, birds, butterflies
and frogs of the neotropics, as well as constituting a major source of water. In Venezuela it includes two
distinct regions: the montane forests, and the Páramos of Mérida, which are mainly differentiated by
altitude. Part of the area drains towards Maracaibo Lake, and the rest to the Orinoco.
The Coastal, Central and Eastern, Andes. This is where Caracas, as well as several other important
cities are located. Therefore, it is probably the region that has suffered most intensive human intervention,
resulting in widespread erosion, sedimentation of valleys and considerable contamination. The Southern
slopes descend into the plains or Llanos. Depending upon the variable rainfall, they may contain rich
cloud forests, or dry montane forests. The valleys house approximately 40% of the human population and
a higher proportion of economic activities. In the intermontane valleys, sugar cane is the most important
crop, followed by horticultural crops and orchard. Warmer parts grow cocoa, plantain and root crops.
The Coastal area includes arid regions located between the Caribbean border with Colombia to the
Gulf of Cariaco. Equally arid areas are located in the Venezuelan islands, some dry Mesas in the Andes,
and the highlands of Barquisimeto State. All together, these areas amount to 41 023 km2 (Matteucci and
Colma, 1997).
10
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Ruminant based systems can be found in over 42% of the national territory (Thornton et al., 2002), with
rangeland-based systems occupying 26% of the surface area, mixed rainfed systems 15%, and irrigated
systems 1%.
A general overview of traditional cattle production systems in Venezuela summarized by Chacón
(cited by Betancourt et al., 2001) is shown in Table 6.
Although specialized beef and dairy systems exist in Venezuela, the majority of small and large
ranches have a high proportion of crossbred, Bos taurus x B. indicus cattle (sometimes called “mosaic”),
of which a proportion of lactating females may be milked. Even large ranches dedicated to cow-calf
operations frequently include a proportion of crossbred cows regularly milked. These “dual purpose”
systems are common to all tropical countries of Latin America, with some variations to accommodate
local circumstances. Typical dual-purpose systems in the tropical lowlands use crossbred females that are
hand-milked most frequently once a day with the calf on foot to stimulate milk letdown. Following the
morning milking, cows and calves are generally pastured until the afternoon when calves are separated
from their dams and yarded until the following morning. The amount of milk collected in the morning
milking, generally represents 50% or more of the total milk produced by the cow. Common variations
on this basic system may involve machine milking, particularly in cows with a high percentage of Bos
taurus, restricted suckling by calves to 30 or more minutes once or twice a day. This system is of major
importance in Venezuela, and it is estimated that it provides 95% of the milk produced (Betancourt et
al. 2001). Vaccaro (1986) reviewed the literature covering 1306 dual purpose farms in 8 countries of
tropical Latin America and the
summarized results (Table7) Table 6. Average productivity of cattle production systems in
different ecozones
apply well to Venezuela.
Parameter
Well
Poorly drained savanna Maracaibo High
The largest stock of cattle
drained
basin
Andes
NonModulated
savanna modulated
is in the State of Zulia and
0.2-0.25
1-2
1-3
3-4
around the Maracaibo Lake Stocking rate, AU/ha 0.1-0.2
15-29
100-150
300
(Zulia contains 22% of the Wt. Gain, kg/ha.year 5-25
Calving%
< 50
50-55
70-85
national stock), but since most
Milk, kg/ha.d
8-20
< 60*
cattle are dual purpose, the * Rotationally grazed well managed kikuyu pastures; cows supplemented with concentrates
state is more of a milk, than according to milk yield
a beef producer. Numerous Source: Betancourt et al. (2001)
surveys have been conducted Table 7. Characteristic parameters of dual-purpose milk and beef
in this area with the aim of systems in tropical America
further characterizing dual- Parameter
Average
Range
4
2.8-6.5
purpose systems and identify- Daily (saleable) milk yield, kg
Lactation
yield, kg
1
180
749-1
584
ing possible entry points for
Lactation length, days
290
244-311
technological and managerial
Calving,%
64
39-81
improvements. Carrizales et Age at 1st calving, months
37
32-43
al. (2000) surveyed dual pur- Calf weight gain,kg/day
0.37
0.29-0.48
pose systems biased towards Calf mortality,%
13
2-24
1.4
0.72-19
milk production among farms Stocking rate, AU/ha
476
182-749
providing 55% of the milk Milk per ha per year, kg
116
45-192
received by an important dairy Beef per ha per year, kg
Sown pastures,%
64
33-87
processing plant in the most Source: Vaccaro (1986)
important municipal district
south of the Lake, and grouped Table 8. Characteristics of dual purpose systems South of Lake
the results according to farm Maracaibo (Santa Bárbara)
Farm size + SD, ha
size (range 15-400 ha), as 141+19
107+7
26+1
shown in Table 8.
Milk yield, litres/cow.day
6
7.1
8.5
The above results demon- Milk yield, litres/ha.year
981
1332
2099
strate the upper limits of this Stocking rate, AU/ha of pasture
1.82
2.69
1.8
type of system, particularly in Source: Carrizales et al. (2000)
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
11
small to medium farms located in a favoured environment, that attempt to maximize yields within the
constraints of current costs.
These systems in the area of influence of Lake Maracaibo are essentially grassland-based, but the
relative importance of pasture species and management practices vary according to climatic conditions.
Thus, Peña et al. (1999) reported that in the drier portion (dry tropical forest), as well as in the region
of humid tropical forest, Panicum maximum was the dominant species (65 and 57% of sown pastures
respectively), whereas Brachiaria species increased from 3 to 16% in the above two subregions, and
were the main species (56%) in the very humid tropical forest subregion. Forage conservation (hay and
silage) was practiced by 54, 41 and 10% of the farms respectively, with stocking rates increasing from
0.6 to over 1 AU/ha in the same order. The previous set of characteristics and patterns apply with some
modifications to the rest of Venezuela as well. Although in general over 50–60% of farmers live on-farm,
frequently farmers in relatively less favoured areas (e.g., parts of the Llanos) may work off-farm as well
(in some areas > 40%), frequently in the oil industries. The importance of family labour in these dual
purpose systems varies between regions, ranging between 50 and 100%.
The early evolution of the agricultural development of the Llanos was discussed by Crist (1983, 1984
and references therein).
Beef production systems, essentially cow-calf systems selling yearlings and with limited fattening of
steers, tend to concentrate on the poorly drained savannas of the alluvial overflow plains of the southwest,
and on the high mesas and plains of the north-eastern Llanos (see section 5 for descriptions). In both
cases, systems are extensive in the use of land, and a large portion of the capital invested is represented
by cattle. Beef systems on the high mesas were studied in detail in the early 1980s and little further, up to
date information is available. Plessow (1985) collected detailed information on 15 representative ranches
located in the States of Monagas and Anzoátegui, averaging 1 533 ha each (range 516-4,664) that
included 57% of the area in high savanna (well drained year round), 33% of lowland savannas partially
flooded in peak rainy season and 10% of forests, mostly gallery forests along water courses. Close to
80% of the area as covered by native pasture, and the rest with sown species (Brachiaria decumbens and
Digitaria decumbens, the latter frequently fertilized at a time when subsidies were substantial) with very
small areas of sorghum in some cases. Since then there has been a major, but unquantified replacement
of the above sown pastures with Brachiaria humidicola and to a lesser degree Brachiaria brizantha. On
average these farms carried 610 AU, 90% of which were the breeding herd, heifers and yearlings. But
even in these systems, out of the 263 cows present on average, 60-80 depending upon the season, were
milked, thus constituting a hybrid system between a purely beef system and a dual purpose one. The
availability of pastures averaged 3.12 ha per AU, including 2.77 ha of native savanna and 0.4 ha of sown
pastures. Average production parameters are shown in Table 9.
The study concluded that nutrition, and therefore the quantity and quality of the forage, was the main
biological constraint of these systems, a view that is supported by the widely recognized low nutritional
value of these savannas. Thus, improvements in biological performance would have to rely much more
on the improvement of forage resources, via sown pastures, than on the limited scope for improved
savanna management.
Sheep production systems are far less important in Venezuela than cattle systems, and there is limited
information about them. Rondón et al. (2000) summarize results of 74 farms owning more than 15 sheep
each and located across the central and western parts of the Llanos with annual rainfall ranging from
728 mm to 1 325 mm. These farms averaged 260 ha each, and
Table 9. Average production
19% of the surface area was allocated to sheep production. parameters for cow-calf system in
Tropical meat breeds predominate, including West African, the high Llanos of Venezuela
Barbados, Barriga Negra, Persa Cabeza Negra and numerous Parameter
0.32
crosses among them. Animals of the wool breeds Bergamasca Stocking rate, AU/ha
and Dorset were far less common. In the smaller farms, sheep Weight of heifers at 36 m of age, kg 290
38
were for household consumption, whereas larger properties had Age at 1st conception, m
Weaning,%
52
a commercial orientation. Forage resources across these farms
Yearly weight gain:
were very variable, including 22% that used only pastures, 16%
per animal, kg/AU
50
that supplemented pastures with concentrates, and 19% that
per animal, kg/ha
32
Source: Plessow et al. (1985)
supplemented with agroindustrial residues.
12
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
The Andean region has peculiar production systems. Until the arrival of the Spanish colonization,
the Andes were used for agricultural production up to an altitude of 3 000 m (Monasterio and Molinillo,
2001), but subsequently their use extended above that height. Three altitudinal levels are distinguished,
but farming systems may frequently occupy the two lower levels. The Andean region between 2 000 and
3 000 m concentrates on the production of tubers, horticulture and floriculture in the most fertile, flat
areas that are irrigated thanks to re-routing of watercourses. The slopes are covered with communities of
shrub-rosettes to pure shrubs, which extend into the second level, the High Andes (3 000–4 000 m which
constitutes the upper limit for agricultural production. Here crops such as potato are rotated with fallows
utilized by cattle a proportion of which is used for animal traction. The native grasslands are constituted
by shrubs such as Espeletia schultzii, Hypericum laricifolium and Acaena elongata, and a herbaceous
layer of Festuca myurus, Stipa mexicana, Luzula sp. Poa sp., Calamagrostis sp., Geranium sp, and Rumex
sp. (Molinillo and Farji-Brener, 1993; Molinillo and Monasterio, 1997). In this area a type of extensive,
and very variable pastoralism is practiced which combines intensive use of gramineous grasslands in
the valley floors with extensive use of the rosette-shrub communities on the slopes. Fallows and crop
residues are used during the dry season when native forage is scarce. It is considered that improved animal
and grazing management, rather than elimination of pastoralism, is essential to the preservation of the
ecosystem.
Lastly, goats are concentrated in the arid regions of Venezuela, and are raised in extensive systems
that make free use of arid rangelands. They constitute the main source of income, which is complemented
with subsistence agriculture and handicrafts. The use of native vegetation by humans and goats for fuel,
construction and grazing has provoked considerable desertification of some of these areas.
5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
As indicated in section 3, Venezuela has a rich flora. This includes grasses and particularly herbaceous
legumes that have been amply collected for characterization and eventually, breeding improved forages
in a variety of tropical countries. An ample list of native species that have potential as forages is available
(Venezuela, 1995).
Venezuela has an estimated 11 000 000 ha of native pastures (52% in the well drained Llanos, and
48% in the poorly drained savannas) and 6 000 000 ha of sown pastures, 75% of which are distributed
between the Andean region and the Maracaibo basin and neighbouring areas (States of Zulia, Falcón
and Portuguesa).
The Llanos
The Llanos of Venezuela are part of the 50 000 000 ha of savannas found in the basin of the Orinoco
River. Sarmiento (1994) has traced their development through geological eras. The Venezuelan Llanos
are amongst the better-studied neotropical savannas, and an extensive literature is available which,
among others, has been reviewed by Sarmiento (1983, 1994, 1996). Numerous vegetation communities
have been classified and mapped, but for the purpose of this profile, the classification of the Llanos into
four main subregions by Sarmiento is appropriate.
The first subregion is that of the Piedmont Savannas, which consists of large alluvial areas and terraces
covered originally by semi deciduous tropical forests and savannas, though the latter predominates. As
indicated by their name, they are located S.E. of the Andes and gradually descend into the plains. They
are characterized by a rich flora of trees (e.g., Acrocomia sclerocarpa, Bowdichia sp., Byrsonima sp.,
Casearia sylvestris, Curatella americana among others), shrubs (e.g., Clitoria guianensis, Desmodium
pachyrrhiza, Galactia jussieana, etc.) and numerous grass species most of which are common also to
the other types of savanna. These include Andropogon selloanus, Andropogon semiberbis, Axonopus
canescens, Axonopus purpusii, Bulbostylis spp., Elyonurus adustus, Leptocoryphium lanatum, Panicum
olyroides, Paspalum plicatulum, Paspalum gardnerianum, Trachypogon plumosus, Trachypogon
vestitus and Trachypogon montufari. On average, the maximum aboveground stand of savanna reaches
seven tonnes/ha/yr, with about twice that amount below ground (to 2 m).
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
13
The savannas of the High Plains or Mesas are located immediately north of the Orinoco River at
150–270 m, descending into a lower portion identified as “Llanos de Monagas”. The relief varies from
gently undulating to dissected hills. It is covered by a seasonal tree savanna where the herbaceous
layer predominates. The latter is dominated by Trachypogon plumosus or T. vestitus, (thus the name
“Trachypogon savannas”) with Andropogon selloanus, Axonopus canescens and Leptocoryphium.
lanatum as subdominant grasses. Overall, 95 species of 29 families have been identified (Berroterán,
1988), but the Poaceae constitute the largest group with 33 species. Although Papillionaceae are
the second largest group of species (Centrosema angustifolium, Desmodium incanum, Desmodium
pachyrhizum, Stylosanthes spp., Zornia spp.), their presence is low. The scarce layer of trees is composed
of Curatella americana (possibly the most characteristic species), Byrsonima crassifolia and Bowdichia
virgiloides. Primary above-ground production of the grass layer peaks at 3 200–4 200 kg/ha when burnt,
whereas yields are 30% lower if protected from fire. Fire is the only economically feasible management
tool available. Burning, even in mid dry season, induces a regrowth if water reserves allow, which is
faster than if mown (Medina and Bilbao, 1996)
The Alluvial Overflow Plains occupy a vast depression of 3 800 000 ha (Flores and Argenti, 1987)
in the central part of the Llanos between the piedmont and the high plains. It is a very flat area which
shows differences of only 1–2 m between the highest and lowest points. The upper part constitute natural
levees where the soil is a sandy alluvium, whereas the lower parts (basins or cuvettes) settle the clay
particles and have therefore slow drainage. Consequently, rainfall drains very slowly, the lower parts
remaining flooded during most of the rainy season, but have a high carrying capacity during the dry
season. The area is used exclusively for extensive cattle and buffalo grazing (96% of the area for cattle,
4% under forests; Tejos, Schargel and Berrade, 1990), although frequently free ranging, wild, capybara
(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) are raised together with cattle.
The botanical composition of levees and basins is different but in general this type of savanna
has more palatable species than the rest, and it has been modified somewhat by human intervention.
Intervention has been most pronounced in an area of approximately 250 000 ha which have been
enclosed by low dikes and floodgates to regulate water levels in sections of 3 000 to 6 000 ha each (these
sections are known as “módulos”; Torres et al., 1987; Tejos, Schargel and Berrade, 1990). Average soil
chemical compositions ranges between 4.6-4.7 for pH, 1.4-2% OM, 6-8 ppm P, 36-62 ppm K and 36-69
ppm Ca. The sections of the microrelief permanently above water are colonized by Axonopus purpusii,
Axonopus affinis and Leptocoryphium lanatum; sections moderately flooded contain Panicum laxum,
and Leersia hexandra as dominant species, and the strongly flooded areas are dominated by Hymenachne
amplexicaulus, Reimarochloa acuta and Leersia hexandra, together with cattle. Cyperaceae are also
abundant. Aboveground yields vary between the 5 tonnes DM/ha of the levees to 2–3 tonnes in the
basins. According to some estimates (Torres et al., 1987) regulation of water level in the Modulos can
increase carrying capacity up to five fold.
The Aeolian Plains are an area that extends north-east from the Colombian Andean Piedmont into
Southern Venezuela. It is characterized by extensive dunes covered by a sparse vegetation, almost treeless,
and dominated by Trachypogon ligularis and Paspalum carinatum whereas the inter-dunal depressions
are occupied by a Mesosetum savanna. Both formations are low yielding and of low palatability.
Maracaibo Lake and the Coro System
As indicated in section 3 the original vegetation of these two regions varies from dry to very humid
tropical forest, with few herbaceous species. Nevertheless, much of the area has been heavily deforested
due to the existence of valuable timber. Subsequently, adventitious grasslands developed in areas where
pastures were not purposefully established. Recent collections of grass species along the subhumid to
very humid areas have identified grasses that are common throughout the humid lowlands of tropical
America. González and Piña (1995) collected grass species across a gradient of rainfall from 1 300 mm
to well over 1 800 mm, and found that Paspalum virgatum is very widely distributed. Another well
known tropical species, Homolepsis aturensis (found in most of the Amazon basin as well) was also
widely distributed on acid, well-drained soils, and Imperata contracta was found in more infertile
soils with even lower pH. Reputedly good quality species such as Leersia hexandra and Hymenachne
amplexicaulus were limited to the better soils. Nevertheless, it was found that 82% of the farmers
14
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
surveyed in the region attempted to replace native species with introduced grasses. Fire and overgrazing
constitute the first step in this process.
Sown species vary according to climate and soil conditions. On well drained, relatively fertile soils
which generally coincide with lesser amounts of rainfall, Panicum maximum is generally the preferred
species, distantly followed by Echinochloa polystachya, Digitaria spp. and Brachiaria spp. Mixtures of
two or more of these species are very common. In the wettest areas, Brachiaria spp. (B. humidicola, B.
decumbens and B. brizantha, possibly in that order) dominate sown pastures, sometimes in mixtures as
well. Legumes are very rarely used, although in the early 1990s it was clearly shown that Desmodium
ovalifolium was a valuable forage in this environment.
Research on improved forages for the arid parts of this ecozone, along the coast, has been limited.
Forages such as Stylosanthes hamata, Leucaena leucocephala, Macroptilium lathyroides, Pennisetum
typhoides, Cajanus cajan and Cenchrus ciliaris have given promising experimental results. Buffel
grass for example, has been shown (Matteucci and Colma, 1997) to support 10 goats/ha.year, which
can potentially be complemented with some of the native leguminous trees (Prosopis juliflora, Acacia
tortuosa, Caesalpinia coriaria).
6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES
In the late 1980s and early 1990s over a thousand accessions of forage grasses and legumes were
introduced to Venezuela, largely for agronomic evaluation (Chacón, 2000). A few of these, most notably
Brachiaria humidicola and Andropogon gayanus were rapidly and widely adopted by farmers and
ranchers, whereas the eventual use of herbaceous and tree legumes remains a major challenge across
all ecozones. Improved management of the above species, as well as of existing forages appear to offer
considerable scope for increasing ruminant production, as shown by demonstrations carried out on-farm
(Betancourt et al., 2001), based on intensive rotational grazing, and summarized in Table10.
Sylvopastoral systems have been widely promoted for improving forage resources, particularly in
dual purpose systems, and have demonstrated considerable potential. For example, Ojeda and Escobar
(1997) reported that in the association Cynodon nlemfuensis-Gliricidia sepium, the legume successfully
replaced most of the soybean offered in the concentrate supplement consumed by cows yielding 9 kg
saleable milk per day. Similarly, in the drier areas and where soils allow (e.g., on alfisols with little free
Al, otherwise of low to moderate fertility) Leucaena leucocephala has provided high biomass yields
of equally high quality. Nevertheless, if cows in dual purpose systems have moderate milk potential (<
10 kg/day) and if grass paddocks are constituted by high quality, well managed species such as Cynodon
sp., Digitaria decumbens and Panicum maximum, the effects of supplementation with the legume tree
have not been significant in many cases. These variable results point to the existence of considerable
interactions in terms of expected results between the grass, the forage trees and animal genotype, issues
that are still poorly documented. Also, adoption of these, or similar systems, in situations in which the
legume tree(s) have to be established, is questionable as opposed to systems where there is already a
natural stand of the trees.
There is some evidence that successful improvement of at least some grassland-based dual purpose
systems may depend relatively Table 10. Grassland-based animal productivity realized in
more on improved management and on-farm demonstrations
organization of existing resources Location Pasture species
Management
Animal productivity
rather than on the adoption of new, Andes
Kikuyu grass
3.5-4 AU/ha
Holstein crossbred
cows, 17 l/cow.day
hard, pasture technologies. Thus,
Apure
Echinochloa
2 and 1.7 AU/ha in
Zebu bulls, 0.883 and
in at least some cases, appropriate
polystachya
rainy and dry season 0.749 kg/head.day
seasonal adjustment of rest and Falcón
B. humidicola
2.34 AU/ha, rainy
Steers, 0.863 kg/head.
season
day
grazing periods of existing pasture
Carabobo B. decumbens +
Dry season, irrigation, Steers, 0.871 kg/head.
resources appear to be critical to
concentrates
2 AU/ha
day
superior performance.
Source: Betancourt et al. (2001).
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
15
In the high Andes (from 1 000 to 3 500 m), where moisture permits or where irrigation is available,
species such as kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) and various Lolium spp and hybrids have been
tested. Kikuyu in particular is regularly used by farmers, particularly for dairy cows.
7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND
PERSONNEL
Institutionalized agricultural research in Venezuela is a relatively recent development. It is traced back
to 1936 when the first experiment station was created, which in 1961 gave rise to the national research
institute FONAIAP (now INIA). It is interesting to note that the first survey of native grasses was
undertaken in 1940 by the famous American agrostologist Agnes Chase.
Given the importance of ruminants and grasslands in Venezuela, research is carried out by a wide
constellation of institutions. Nevertheless, in the late 1990s research on all aspects of forage production
declined significantly relative to the 1980s and early 1990s when considerable resources were available
(Tejos, 2000).
In 2000, 12 of the 18 experiment stations of INIA carried out research on dual purpose, beef and milk
productions systems, and the institute’s strategic plan for 2001-2006 (Chacón, 2000) includes research
subprogrammes on cattle, and on sheep and goat systems, each of which includes forage research. INIA
also has a well equipped central research institute, CENIAP, which provides leadership and centralized
services.
Several large, national and regional, universities carry out relevant and active research on forage
resources, livestock production systems, disciplinary areas and veterinary sciences. Among these, the
following are noted: Universidad Central de Venezuela, UCV, in Maracay, focuses research on the
Llanos; Universidad de los Andes, in Mérida, concentrates on research in the Andes and Piedmont;
Universidad Nacional Experimental de los Llanos Ezequiel Zamora, UNELLEZ, focused on the western,
most productive Llanos, and Universidad del Zulia (LUZ), located in Maracaibo and specializing on
research around the lake. In the late 1990s these and other universities have taken a leading role in
carrying out research on grassland-based systems, in parallel with re-organization, and reduced funding
of INIA.
The national science council (Consejo Naconal de Investigación, Ciencia y Tecnología, CONICIT)
supports basic research on a competitive basis:
Fondo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, FONACIT (CONICIT)
Ministerio de Ciencias y Tecnologia
Caracas, Venezuela
http://www.fonacit.gov.ve/
The Venezuelan institute for scientific research, IVIC, houses an international centre for tropical
ecology, sponsored jointly by the Government and UNESCO, which has conducted a substantial amount
of ecological research in the Llanos and elsewhere:
Centro Internacional de Ecología Tropical
Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, IVIC
http://www.ivic.ve/
A number of private foundations and institutes either provide financial support and/or carry out
research, including:
Fundación Polar
Caracas, Venezuela
www.fpolar.org.ve
This foundation, in addition to financing research, maintains a very complete agricultural library
online
Fundación para la Investigación Agrícola, DANAC
Guaratero, Yaracuy, Venezuela
16
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
www.danac.org.ve
Fundación Servicios para el Agricultor
Av. Fco. De Miranda, Edificio Centro Plaza
Maracay, Venezuela
[email protected]
The Ministerio de Agricultura y Cría is the ministry involved in formulating policies, and surveying
the development of agriculture. The Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables
is the environmental executive branch, and it is active among other things, in mapping, surveying and
prioritising the use of natural resources. It has a wealth of relevant information regarding soils, climate,
vegetation, and others.
Important financial and manpower resources have been allocated at the national level to research
on an important syndrome causing severe losses and limiting the productivity of cattle in the Llanos
(“síndrome paraplégico”), associated with undernutrition, mineral deficiencies and possibly other causes.
Technology transfer and extension have undergone many changes and remains underdeveloped at
the national level. Nevertheless most universities, particularly the regional universities, have effective
on-farm research and cooperation with ranchers and farmers organizations.
Lastly, a large number of NGOs are active at the national and regional levels, with particular emphasis
on the protection of natural resources. A most important one is FUDENA:
Fundación para la Defensa de la Naturaleza, FUDENA
Ave. Principal de los Cortijos
Centro Empresarial Senderos, Piso 6, Ofic. 611
Caracas, Venezuela
[email protected]
www.fudena.org.ve
8. REFERENCES
Berroterán, J. L. (1988) Paisajes ecológicos de sabanas en Llanos Altos Centrales de Venezuela. Ecotrópicos
1: 92-107
Betancourt, R., M. Ortega and A. Bustamante (2001) Unidades de manejo intensivo de forrajes. Venezuela
Bovina 47: 11. www.ppca.com.ve/vb/
Carrizales, H., L.B. Paredes and M. E. Capriles (2000) Estudio de funcionalidad tecnológica en ganadería de
doble propósito en la Zona de Santa Bárbara, Municipio Colón, Estado Zulia (Estudio de casos). Zootecnia
Tropical 18: 59-78.
Casanova, E., R. Goitia, P. Pereira, J. Comerma and C. Aguilar (1992) Necesidades y perspectivas agronómicas
de fertilizantes y enmiendas en Venezuela. Venesuelos 1: 17-23.
CATIE/FAO (2000) Bibliografía Comentada. Cambios en la Cobertura Forestal. Rome: FAO Programa de
Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales, Documento de Trabajo 39.
CEPAL (2001) Anuario estadístico de América Latina y el Caribe 2001. Santiago: CEPAL
Chacón, P. (2000) La investigación zootécnica hacia el futuro desde la perspectiva del Instituto de
Investigaciones Agrícolas. X Congreso Venezolano de Zootecnia.
www.avpa.ula.ve/docuPDFs/xcongreso/LaInvestigacionZootecnica.pdf
Crist, R. E. (1983) Westward thrusts the pioneer zone in Venezuela. Amer. J. Econ. Sociology 42: 451-462
Crist, R. E. (1984) Development and agrarian land reform in Venezuela’s pioneer zone. Amer, J. Econ.
Sociology 43: 149-158.
de Rojas, I. L., de Brito, J. G. and E. García (1992) Características de acidez de los suelos venezolanos, vista
a través de los resúmenes de análisis rutinarios. FONAIAP Divulga Enero-Marzo 1992. http://www.ceniap.
gov.ve/publica/divulga/fd39/texto/caracteristicas.htm
Delahaye, O. (1996) Renta y mercado de la tierra agrícola: Algunas indicaciones de los casos venezolano y
chileno (Primera parte). In Reforma Agraria. Colonizacion y Cooperativas Rome: FAO http://www.fao.org/
sd/LTdirect/LR96/LANDRF.htm
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17
FAO Databases 2006 (website http://faostat.fao.org/)
FAO (1999) Notas sobre tendencias y perspectivas de la ganadería de la región en la globalización de la
economia. VI Reunión de la Comsión para el Desarrollo Ganadero de América Latina y el Caribe. RLC:
LDAC/99/40. Santiago: FAO
Flores, A. J. and P. M. Argenti (1987) Apuntes sobre la situación pecuaria en Venezuela. In La Investigación
en Pastos dentro del Contexto Científico y Socioeconómico de los Países. David, Panamá: RIEPT, p. 571600.
FUDENA (2001) Asi es Venezuela. Regiones naturales y ecoregiones. http://www.fudena.org.ve/ecorregiones1.htm
González, B. and M. E. Piña (1995) Colección y caracterización de gramíneas naturales forrajeras de la región
climáticaestacional subhúmeda y húmeda de la cuenca del Lago de Maracaibo. Rev. Fac.Agon. (LUZ) 12: 175-186
LatinFocus (2002) Venezuela Reference Information - Key Sectors-Agriculture. www.latin-focus.com
Matteucci, S. D. and A. Colma (1997) Agricultura sostenible y ecosistemas áridos y semiáridos de Venezuela.
Interciencia 22: 123-130. www.interciencia.org
Medina, E. and B. Bilbao (1996) Relaciones nutricionales e impacto de incnedios sobre la producción de
materia orgánica de pastizales naturales y cultivados. In G. Sarmiento and M. Cabido, eds., Biodiversidad
y Funcionamiento de Pastizales y Sabans en América Latina, Mérida: CYTED and CIELAT. p. 245-260.
Molinillo, M. and M. Monasterio (1997) Pastoralism in Paramo environments. Mountain Research and
Development 17: 197-211.
Molinillo, M. F. and A. G. Farji-Brener (1993) Cattle as a dispersan agent of Acaena elongata (Rosaceae) in
the cordillera of Mérida, Venezuela. J. Range Manage. 46: 557-561.
Monasterio, M. and M. Molinillo (2001) Ecological and social sustainability of agricultural produciton in the
Cordillera of Merida: the flow of environmental services for potato crops in the high andean paramos. In
Integrated Management for Sustainable Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Workshop. Cali: CIAT
Ojeda, A. and A. Escobar (1997) Manejo de vacas doble-proposito en potreros con asociacion entre gramineas
y Gliricidia sepium. Rev. Fac. Agron (LUZ) 14: 641-648.
Paredes, L. B. (2002) Evolución de la producción de leche en Venezuela. www.avpa.ula.ve/articulos_libres/
EvolucionProduccionLecheI.pdf
Peña, M. E., F. Urdaneta, G. Arteaga and A. Casanova (1999) Relación del manejo de pastizales con las
zonas agroecológicas en los Municipios Rosario y Machiques de Perijá, Estado Zulia, Venezuela. Rev. Fac.
Agron. (LUZ) 16(Supl. 1): 213-219.
Pittevil, G. and M. T. Buroz (2001) Diagnóstico Socioeconómico. Proyecto “Conservación y Uso Sustentable
de la Biodiversidad en la Ecoregión de los Llanos de Venezuela”. Caracas: Fundación para la Defensa de
la Naturaleza. 43 p.
Plessow, C. (1985) Venezuela: Estudio técnico y análisis económico. In Vera, R. and C. Seré, eds., Sistemas
de Producción Pecuaria Extensiva. Brasil, Colombia, Venezuela. Cali: CIAT. p. 337-430.
Rondón, Z., J. de Combellas, L. Ríos, J. Saddy, M. Morantes, G. Perdomo, A. Osea and J. Pino (2000)
Análisis descriptivo de explotaciones ovinas en estados centrales y centro-occidentales de Venezuela. Zoot.
Trop. 19(Supl. 1): 229-241.
Sarmiento, G. (1983) The savannas of tropical America. In F. Bourliere, ed., Ecosystems of the World. 13.
Tropical Savannas. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 245-288. cited in text page 15
Sarmiento, G. (1994) Sabanas naturales, génesis y ecología. In Sabanas Naturales de Colombia. Cali: Banco
de Occidente, p. 17-56.
Sarmiento, G. (1996) Ecología de pastizales y sabanas en América Latina. In G. Sarmiento and M. Cabido,
eds., Biodiversidad y Funcionamiento de Pastizales y Sabans en América Latina, Mérida: CYTED and
CIELAT. p.15-24.
Tejos, R. (2000) Algunas limitantes y perspectivas de la investigación en pastos y forrajes en Venezuela. X
Congreso Venezolano de Zootecnia. www.avpa.ula.ve/docuPDFs/xcongreso/P256_PastosyForrajesVzla.pdf
Tejos, R., R. Schargel and F. Berrade (1990) Características y perspectivas de utilización de sabanas
inundables de Venezuela. In G. Sarmiento, ed., Las Sabanas Americanas. Mérida: CIELAT. p. 163-190.
Thornton, P. K. et al. (2002) Mapping Poverty and Livestock in the Developing World. Nairobi: ILRI.
Torres, R., E. Chacón, J. Berroterán, O. Rodríguez, M. Terán, N. Pérez and E. García (1987) Patrones
de utilización de la vegetación de sabanas moduladas por bovinos a pastoreo. I. Descripción del área
experimental. Zoot. Trop. 5: 95-112.
18
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
Vaccaro, L.P. de (1986) Sistemas de producción bovina predominantes en el trópico Latinoamericano. In
Arango-Nieto, L, A. Charry and R. R. Vera, eds., Panorama de la Ganadería de Doble Propósito en la
América Tropical. Bogotá: ICA and CIAT, p. 29-44.
Venezuela (1995) Informe Nacional para la Conferencia Técnica Internacional de la FAO sobre los Recursos
Fitogenéticos (Leipzig 1996). Caracas: Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables
UNDP (2001) Human Development Report 2001. N.Y.: UNDP, 274 p.
World Bank (2001) Venezuela, RB at a glance. www.worldbank.org
World Bank (2002) IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2002, Latin Business Chronicle. www.worldbank.
org
9. CONTACTS
Land use systems in the Andes, including cattle-potato systems:
Dra. Maximina Monasterio, and Dra. Lina Sarmiento
Facultad de Ciencias
Universidad de los Andes
Merida
Venezuela
[email protected]
[email protected]
National Research Institute:
INIA, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agricolas de Veneuzela
http://www.inia.gov.ve
and
CENIAP, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias
http://www.ceniap.gov.ve
Dual purpose systems, cattle management systems, genetics:
Dra. Lucia Vaccaro
Instituto de Produccion Animal, IPA
Facultad de Agronomia
Universidad Central de Venezuela
Apdo. Postal 4579
Maracay 2101
Venezuela
[email protected]
Sown tropical pastures, improvement, germplasm evaluation in the area of influence of Lake Maracaibo:
Jesús Faría Marmol
Facultad de Agronomia
La Universidad del Zulia
Apartado 15205
Maracaibo, ZU 4005
Venezuela
[email protected]
http://www.luz.ve
Pastures in the Llanos, germplasm testing, sown pastures
Rony Tejos
Programa Producción Animal
Universidad Ezequiel Zamora, UNELLEZ,
Guanare, Venezuela
[email protected]
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile
19
10. AUTHOR
Dr. Raul R. Vera is a former Senior Scientist and Leader of the Tropical Pastures Program, International
Center of Tropical Agriculture, CIAT, based in Cali, Colombia. He is currently a private consultant and
part-time researcher of the Catholic University in Santiago, Chile.
Raúl R. Vera
2 Norte 443 dpto. 52
Viña del Mar, CHILE 2534194
Fax (Chile) 56-2-552 9435
[email protected]
[The profile was prepared in January 2003 and lightly edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in
February, 2003 and slightly modified by S.G. Reynolds in May 2006.]