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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Barbara Heard, Atlantic Cape Community Ninth Edition College Human Anatomy & Physiology CHAPTER © Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization • Chemistry • Why review it? • Don t fear it © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Atoms and Atomic Structure • Matter • Is made up of atoms • ok…what makes up atoms? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-1 The Structure of Hydrogen Atoms Electron shell Hydrogen-1 mass number: 1 Hydrogen-2, deuterium Hydrogen-3, tritium mass number: 2 mass number: 3 Glucose-13C There can be different versions of an element -isotopes -so? who cares?... © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-2 The Arrangement of Electrons into Energy Levels Atoms have electron ‘layers’ called shells 1st Level: max of 2 electrons Hydrogen, H © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Helium, He Figure 2-2 The Arrangement of Electrons into Energy Levels 2nd Level: max of 8 electrons Can Li add more? Can Ne add more? Not if it can avoid it Yes Lithium, Li Neon, Ne Why does this matter? “give a little, take a little” © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Molecules and Compounds • Chemical Bonds Three major types of chemical bonds 1. Ionic bonds • like a ‘bad relationship” 2. Covalent bonds • like a ‘nice relationship” 3. Hydrogen bonds • like a ‘crazy, wild, many-partners relationship” :s © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-3a The Formation of Ionic Bonds Formation of ions Sodium atom Attraction between opposite charges Formation of an ionic compound Sodium ion (Na+) Sodium chloride (NaCl) Chlorine atom © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chloride ion (Cl-) Figure 2-3b The Formation of Ionic Bonds Chloride ions (Cl-) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Sodium ions (Na+) Molecules and Compounds • Covalent Bonds • sharing of electrons (2 types) • Nonpolar covalent bonds • equal sharing of electrons • Polar covalent bonds • unequal sharing of electrons • One atom pulls harder © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-5 Polar Covalent Bonds and the Structure of Water Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Oxygen atom + + – © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Molecules and Compounds • Hydrogen Bonds • Bonds between adjacent molecules, not atoms © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Molecules and Compounds Sugar: Phosphate Deoxyribose Base: Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Thymine nucleotide Adenine nucleotide Hydrogen bond Sugarphosphate backbone Deoxyribose sugar Phosphate Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) © 2012Pearson Pearson Education, Inc. Inc. © 2013 Education, Sugar Phosphate Chemical Reactions • SO…???? • Bonds important because??? • Break them? • energy! • Two types of Rxn can make/break bonds. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Reactions • Decomposition Reaction (Catabolism) • Breaks chemical bonds • AB → A + B • Hydrolysis • A-B + H2O → A-H + HO-B • Synthesis Reaction (Anabolism) • Forms chemical bonds • A + B → AB • Dehydration synthesis © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. • A-H + HO-B → A-B + H2O Chemical Reactions • Synthetic Rxn compounds Sucrose Glucose + Fructos Fructose Fructose e Glucose Two types of compounds can be made © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. O Fructose Organic and Inorganic Compounds • Inorganic Compounds • not based on carbon and hydrogen • CO2, O2, H2O, NaCl, etc. • Organic Compounds • based on carbon and hydrogen • life molecules © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Reactions • SO…???? • know about bonds • know about compounds • want to understand molecules of an organism • still need to understand how compounds interact in H20 • why? most of our body is H20 • still need pH © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. How do compounds interact with H20? • Hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds So, why ? • Hydrophilic • hydro- = water, philos = loving Cl- • Interacts with water • ions, polar molecules • Hydrophobic • phobos = fear CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 • Does NOT interact with water (No charge) • nonpolar molecules, fats, and oils © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. pH • pH • The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution • “Power of Hydrogen” • Neutral pH • A balance of H+ and OH• Pure water = 7.0 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-10 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration 1 mol/L hydrochloric acid Beer, vinegar, wine, Tomatoes, pickles grapes Stomach acid Extremely acidic pH 0 [H+] 100 (mol/L) 1 10-1 Urine Saliva, milk Increasing concentration of H+ 2 10-2 3 10-3 4 10-4 Acid A solute that adds hydrogen ions to a solution © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 5 10-5 6 10-6 1 mol/L sodium hydroxide Blood Ocean Household Pure Eggswater bleach water Neutral 7 10-7 Household ammonia Increasing concentration of OH- 8 10-8 9 10-9 10 10-10 11 10-11 12 10-12 Oven cleaner Extremely basic 13 10-13 14 10-14 Base A solute that removes hydrogen ions from a solution Life molecules: 4 Groups • In biology we speak of Macromolecules: • Carbohydrates • Lipids • Proteins (or amino acids) • Nucleic acids © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Carbohydrates © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Carbohydrates • Monosaccharides • Simple sugars • Glucose • Disaccharides • Two simple sugars linked • Sucrose • Polysaccharides • Many monosaccharides linked • Glycogen © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-12b The Formation and Breakdown of Complex Sugars HYDROLYSIS Sucrose © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Glucose Fructose Figure 2-12a The Formation and Breakdown of Complex Sugars DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS Glucose Fructose © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Sucrose Lipids • Lipids • Made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms • Include: • 5 groups © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipids • Fatty Acids • chains of carbon and hydrogen + carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipids • Fatty Acids • chains of carbon and hydrogen + carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end • +/-nonpolar, except the carboxyl group • Fatty acids may be: • Saturated with hydrogen (no double covalent bonds) • Unsaturated (one or more double bonds) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-14b Fatty Acids Saturated Unsaturated © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Hydrogenation: Trans Fatty Acids Eat less trans Pack tightly Lead to cholesterol buildup Unnatural Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipids • Eicosanoids • pro-inflammatory • Hormones (Ch. 18) = signaling • Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs inhibit these © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipids • Glycerides • Fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule • Triglycerides are the three fatty-acid tails • Have three important functions 1. Energy source 2. Insulation 3. Protection © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-16 Triglyceride Formation Glycerol Fatty acids DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. HYDROLYSIS Lipids • Phospholipids • Instead of three fatty acids, two fatty acids: © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-18a Phospholipids two fatty acids Phosphate group Glycerol phospholipid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-18a Phospholipids Cell membranes! © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lipids • Steroids • Four rings of carbon and hydrogen + • Types: • Cholesterol • Estrogens and testosterone © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-17 Steroids Cholesterol Estrogen © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Testosterone Nucleic Acids • Nucleic Acids • two types: • DNA • Determines inherited characteristics • Directs protein synthesis • RNA • Controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nucleic Acids • DNA and RNA are strings of nucleotides • Nucleotides • made of 3 parts © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Generic nucleotide The nitrogenous base may be a purine or a pyrimidine. Sugar Phosphate group © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nitrogenous base Purines Adenine Guanine © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Pyrimidines Cytosine Thymine (DNA only) Uracil (RNA only) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nucleic Acids • DNA • double stranded • RNA • RNA is single stranded • Complementary base pairs • DNA • Adenine (A) and thymine (T) • Cytosine (C) and guanine (G) • RNA • Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Phosphate group Deoxyribose Adenine Thymine Hydrogen bond DNA strand 1 DNA strand 2 RNA molecule. Cytosine DNA molecule. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Guanine Nucleic Acids • Types of RNA • mRNA • tRNA • rRNA © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Proteins • Proteins • Most abundant organic molecules • Made of amino acids (AA) • Let’s look at AA • central carbon with 4 things attached to it: © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Structure of an Amino Acid Amino group Central carbon Carboxyl group R group © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Peptide Bond Formation Glycine (gly) DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Alanine (ala) HYDROLYSIS Peptide bond Proteins • So, what do proteins look like? • Protein Shape • Primary structure • Secondary structure • Tertiary structure • Quaternary structure © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 2-21 Protein Structure 1˚ A1 A3 A2 A5 A4 A7 A6 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A1 A6 A3 A3 A4 Hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond A2 A2 A5 A5 A9 A8 A7 A6 A11 A12 A13 A14 A10 A7 A9 Alpha-helix OR Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein) Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A3 A2 A5 A4 A7 A6 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A1 A6 A3 A3 A4 Hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond A2 A2 A5 A5 A9 A8 A7 A6 A11 A12 A13 A14 2˚ A10 A7 A9 Alpha-helix OR Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein) Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A3 A2 A5 A4 A7 A6 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids Amyloid- β A1 A1 A6 A3 A3 A4 Hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond A2 A2 A5 A5 A9 A8 A7 A6 A11 A12 A13 A14 A10 A7 A9 Alpha-helix OR Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) Alzheimers © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein) Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A3 A2 A5 A4 A7 A6 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 2˚ A1 A6 A3 A3 A4 Hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond A2 A2 A5 A5 A9 A8 A7 A6 A11 A12 A13 A14 A10 A7 A9 Alpha-helix OR Pleated sheet OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein) Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A3 A2 A5 A4 A7 A6 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A1 A6 A3 A3 A4 Hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond A2 A2 A5 A5 A9 A8 A7 A6 A11 A12 A13 A14 A10 A7 A9 Alpha-helix OR Pleated sheet 3˚ OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein) Figure 2-21 Protein Structure A1 A3 A2 A5 A4 A7 A6 A8 A9 Linear chain of amino acids A1 A1 A6 A3 A3 A4 Hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond A2 A2 A5 A5 A9 A8 A7 A6 A11 A12 A13 A14 A10 A7 A9 Alpha-helix OR Pleated sheet 4˚ OR Heme units Hemoglobin (globular protein) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Keratin or collagen (fibrous protein) Proteins • A special type of protein: • Enzymes • Catalysts • VERY specific • Lower the activation energy • Not changed or used up in the reaction Enzymes work fast! 78 MY 25 ms © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Substrates bind to active site of enzyme S2 S1 Substrates ENZYM E Active site © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Once bound to the active site, the substrates are held together and their interaction facilitated S1 S2 ENZYM E Enzyme-substrate complex © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Substrate binding alters the shape of the enzyme, and this change promotes product formation PRO DUC ENZYM T E © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Product detaches from enzyme; entire process can now be repeated ENZYM E © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Proteins • Effects of Temperature and pH on Enzyme Function • Denaturation • Loss of shape and function due to heat or pH © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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