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Chapter 8: Political
Geography
The Cultural Landscape:
An Introduction to Human
Geography
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Where Are States
Located?
Key Issue 1
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Problems of Defining States
Varying Size of States
Development of the State Concept
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Problems of defining states
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A State is an area organized into a political unit and under the rule of
an established , sovereign government
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Almost all habitable land belongs to a country today
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Has control over the internal and foreign relations
Occupies a defined territory
Contains a permanent population
Good example of a uniform region
In 1940, there were about 50 countries
Today, there are 192 countries (as evidenced by United Nations
membership)
Some places are difficult to classify
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Korea: One state or two?
China and Taiwan: Two states or One?
Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic): Does Morocco own it? Open to debate
Claims to polar regions : Open to scientific study and research stations from
many states, but political and military activity is prohibited. Antarctic
Treaty signed in 1959 by 47 states.
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United Nations established in 1945
Original members: 49 States
As of 2006: 192 sovereign states
Greatest increase has occurred in Africa: In 1945 only 4 sovereign states
from Africa
Break up of the Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia stimulated the
formation of new states
United Nations Members
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FigureEducation,
8-2 Inc.
Claims to the Polar Regions
Figure 8-5
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Varying sizes of states
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State size varies considerably
 Largest state = Russia
 11 percent of the world’s land area
 Smallest state = Monaco
 Microstate = states with very small
land areas
 About two dozen microstates
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Development of the state concept
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Prior to the 1800s Earth’s surface was organized in ways different from
the state concept. Much of the Earth’s surface was unorganized
Ancient states
 The Fertile Crescent formed an arc between the Persian Gulf and the
Mediterranean Sea. The eastern end was centered in the valley
formed by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Nile River Valley is
sometimes considered the western end of the Fertile Crescent. Early
societal organizations in this region were:
 Tribes
 Empires
 Political unity achieved in the Ancient world though the
growth of the Roman Empire
 City-state
 Concept originated in Mesopotamia
 Area or region controlled by a centralized town or city
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Development of the state concept
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(cont.)
Early European states
 After the collapse of the Roman Empire by tribes of people
living in the boarder lands, Europe devolved into small estates
ruled by competing rulers and kings
 The organization of the small estates into larger states became
the basis for the development of modern Europe
Colonial Era began in the 1400s when European explorers sailed
westward for Asia but landed instead in the Western Hemisphere
and established colonies
 Three motives: “God, gold, and glory”
 European Colonization of Africa and Asia often referred to as
Imperialism, which is control of a territory already occupied
by an indigenous society
 Today = some remaining colonies
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Colonial Possessions, 1914, onset of WWI
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Colonial Possessions, 2006
The U.S. Department of State lists 43 colonies with indigenous populations
remaining
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Why Do Boundaries of
States Cause Problems?
Key Issue 2
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Shapes of States
Types of Boundaries
Boundaries inside states
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Shapes of States
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Territorial morphology: study of states’ shapes and their
effects
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Shape controls the length of its boundaries
The shape affects the potential for communication and conflict with
other states
The shape of a state is part of its unique identity
The shape can influence the ease or difficulty of internal
administration
The shape affects social unity
Five basic shapes
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Compact = efficient
Elongated = potential isolation
Prorupted = access or disruption
Perforated = South Africa
Fragmented = problematic
Landlocked states
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COMPACT
A compact state with a
circular shape is the easiest
to manage.
Belgium is an excellent
example because of the
cultural division between
Flanders and Wallonia
within Belgium. The
compact form of Belgium
has helped to keep the
country together.
Compact states are also
easier to defend than states
of other shapes.
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A state that is separated by
a physical or human barrier.
Nations such as Indonesia,
which is composed of more
than 13,000 islands, are
known as fragmented states.
It is difficult to govern such
a country composed of island
(and more than 200 million
people).
FRAGMENTED
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An exclave is part of a
country that is almost
completely separated from the
main part of the country
Which of the areas at right is
an exclave?
EXCLAVES
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This state is long and
narrow
Ex: Chile
An elongated state for
difficult governance of
peripheral areas in the north
and south from the central
capital region
ELONGATED
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This state is completely
surrounded by another
South Africa is the classic
example of a perforated state,
which completely surrounds
Lesotho
The surrounded nation can
be reached by going through
one country.
If there is hostility between
the two nations, access to the
surrounded nation can be
difficult
PERFORATED
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A distinct territorial,
cultural, or social unit
enclosed within or as if
within a region
Which of the areas at right
is an enclave?
ENCLAVES
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A protruded or panhandle
country has an extended arm
of territory
For example, the state gets
easy access to the coast and
the local resources around it
In addition, prorupted
states are also able to prevent
a rival access.
Like an elongated state, the
panhandle complicates the
shape of the territory
PRORUPT
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Shapes of States in Southern Africa
Figure 8-10
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Get Ready for an
Activity!
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Quick! Pick a partner
The two of you have 10 minutes to
examine the world map on page 244-245
and record as many examples as you can
in each column.
*Try to find at least one on each
continent
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Boundary: an invisible, vertical plane that cuts
through the rocks below and the airspace above,
dividing one state territory from another.
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Establishing a Boundary
1)
Define
1)
2)
Delimit
1)
3)
Cartographers delimit the boundary by drawing it on a map
Demarcate
1)
4)
The boundary of the state is defined through treaty-like legal
document using points of longitude and latitude or
landscape
States might decide to demarcate the boundary using posts,
fences, walls, or other visible objects
Administrate
1)
States determine how the boundary will be maintained and
how goods and people will cross boundaries.
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Types of Boundaries
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Physical Boundaries: Following physical features in the geographic landscape
 Desert boundaries
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Mountain boundaries
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Andes Mountains between Chile and Argentina
Water boundaries
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Most common in Asia and Africa
Especially common in East Africa
Cultural
 Geometric boundaries
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Straight lines drawn on a map (U.S. and Canada)
Often when land is sparsely settled and geographic understanding is lacking
Human features
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Language
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Religion
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European Countries
Britain partitioned India into 2 states based on religion
Ireland and Northern Ireland
ethnicity
Frontiers:
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Historically countries were separated by “frontiers.” A zone where no state exercises
complete control, uninhabited or sparsely settled, an actual geographic space as opposed to a
boundary which is an imaginary line of demarcation.
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Cultural Boundary
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Mountain
Boundary
Boundaries Classified by Settlement
1.
Antecedent boundary- Drawn across an area before it is well
populated and before most cultural landscape features were put
in place (U.S. and Canada)
2.
Subsequent boundary – Drawn after the development of the
cultural landscape
1.
Consequent boundary – Drawn to accommodate existing
differences between countries (Ireland and Northern Ireland)
2.
Superimposed boundary –Forced, placed over and ignoring
existing cultural landscape and patterns (colonialism)
3.
Relic Boundary- a former boundary line that no longer
functions as such and is still marked by landscape features or
differences . (Great Wall of China)
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Types of Boundary Disputes
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Four Main Types of Disputes
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Definitional
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Focus on the legal language of the boundary agreement
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Positional/Locational
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Focus on the demarcation of the boundary
Definition is not in dispute but rather the interpretation
Boundary treaty is vague enough to allow mapmakers to delimit the line
 Colonialism in Africa: Great Britain specified its international boundaries with
France very clearly, but not the internal boundaries between what would become
independent countries
 Boundary between Chile and Argentina
Sometimes the dispute arises because no definition of the boundary exists
 Saudi Arabia and Yemen
Functional/Operational
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Median of a river: The river is in an asymmetrical valley and when the water changes so does the median
Focus on how the boundary should function. Avoided when countries agree on
similar policies; conflict when they don’t
 Immigration policies
Resource/Allocational
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Focus on the allocation of resources
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Germany and Netherlands – Natural Gas
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Kuwait and Iraq – oil
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U.S. and Canada –Fisheries
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Boundary Disputes at sea
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Water supplies when rivers cross international boundaries
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Civil Divisions – Boundaries inside States:
Why do they cause problems?
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Unitary states
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Example: France
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Ethnicities demanding more self determinism have brought about
restructuring: transfer of authority from national government to local
governments
Federal states; Globally, there is a trend toward federations
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Example: Poland
After control was wrested from the Communists, Poland moved from a unitary
state to a federal state with local governments exerting authority
Poland is one of many states struggling with new local governments due to lack of
experience
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Unitary States
Highly centralized government where the
capital city serves as a focus of power
 A country where the capital is associated with
the core, and all power is concentrated in a
single place, the capital
 Centralized governments, relatively few internal
contrasts and a strong sense of national identity,
little provincial power
Examples: France, China and newly
independent states developed out of former
colonies
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Federal States
A government where the state is organized into
territories, which have control over government
policies and funds
 Power is shared between a central government and the
governments of provinces
 Acknowledges and gives some powers to its constituent
parts; have strong regional government responsibilities
 Examples: the US, Canada, Germany, Australia.
 One result of federalism s to lesson public support for
something as radical as secession (as in Canada)
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The U.S. Federal Government- Allows states
within the state to determine the “moral” laws
such as death penalty, access to alcohol, and
concealed weapons
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Minnesota’s
concealed weapons
law requires the
posting of signs
such as this on
buildings that do
not allow concealed
weapons
{
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Electoral geography and Gerrymandering
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Boundaries within the
United States are used
to create legislative
districts
The Political Party in
control attempts to
redraw boundaries to
favor themselves
Gerrymandering
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Three types: of votes
Wasted: spreads votes
across many districts
but in minority
Excess: concentrates
opposition supporters
into a few districts
Stacked: links distant
areas of like-minded
voters through oddly
shaped boundaries
Illegal (1985 U.S.
Supreme Court
decision)
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Nigeria’s Federal GovernmentAllows states within the state to determine
whether to have Shari’a Laws
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Shari’a Laws
Legal systems based
on traditional
Islamic laws
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Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces
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Centripetal Forces: Richard Hartshorne, a leading political geographer
described Centripetal forces as things that bind or hold a nation
together and promote national unity:
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Strong leadership – charismatic leadership
External threat
Education
Ideology-fascism, Communism, or Democracy
Movement or circulation
Centrifugal Forces are things that divide or tear a state apart:
Also called Devolutionary Forces
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Ethnic or Cultural differences
Linguistic diversity
Economic diversity
Movement or circulation
Physical Geographical differences
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Devolution
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The process whereby regions within a state demand and gain
political strength and growing autonomy at the expense of the
central government
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Example: The Soviet Union
What causes devolutionary movements”
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Ethnocultural forces
Economic forces
Spatial forces
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Ethnocultural Devolutionary Movements
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Eastern Europe
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Devolutionary
forces since the fall
of Communism
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People used to think physical-political
boundaries were more stable than geometric
boundaries. Through many studies of many
places, political geographers have confirmed
this idea is false.
With your partner construct an argument
explaining why physical boundaries can
create as much instability as geometric
boundaries
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Key Issue 3:
Why Do States Cooperate
with Each Other?
and Military
{Political
cooperation
Economic Cooperation
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Political and Military Cooperation
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Global and regional peacekeeping
organizations
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The United Nations (est. 1945)
Regional military alliances
Balance of power
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A condition of roughly equal strength
between opposing alliances
(Democracy vs. Communist Bloc)
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Post–World War II: NATO or the
Warsaw Pact
Other regional organizations
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OSEC (est. 1965)
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Organization on Security and
Cooperation in Europe OAS (est. 1962)
AU (est. 1963)
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The African Union
The Commonwealth
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Includes UK and 52 other states that
were once British colonies
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Economic cooperation:
With the fall of the
soviet states balance of
power is now economic
The leading super
power is not a single
state but an Economic
union of states. The EU
The main task of the
EU is to promote
economic development
in the member states
through cooperation
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Economic and Military Alliances in Cold War Europe
Figure 8-21
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Regional Scale – The European Union
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Key Issue 4:
Why Has Terrorism
Increased?
Terrorism and
Individual
Organizations
State Support for
Terrorism
{
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Terrorism
 Systematic use of violence to intimidate a
population or to coerce a government
 From the Latin word meaning “to
frighten”
 Use of bombing, kidnapping, hijacking,
and murder to instill fear and anxiety in
a population
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Terrorism by individuals and organizations
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American terrorists
 Bombing of the Federal building in Oklahoma City (1995)
 Political Assassinations as acts of terrorism
 Lincoln (1865)
 Garfield (1881)
 McKinley (1901)
 Kennedy (1963)
Terrorism against Americans: Several attacks against
Americans took place in the late 20th Century around the globe,
but were largely ignored.
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September 11, 2001, attacks against the World Trade Center and
Pentagon drew immediate responses
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Al-Qaeda: Network of militant Islamists founded by Osama bin
Laden
Jihad: a holy war waged by Muslims against people perceived
as threatening to the Islamic life
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Aftermath of World Trade Center Attack
Figure 8-23
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State support for terrorism
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Three increasing levels of involvement
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Providing sanctuary
Supplying weapons, money, and intelligence to terrorists
Using terrorists to plan attacks
Examples
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Libya
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Iraq
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For years the state was controlled by the Taliban, an Islamic group imposing strict
fundamentalist rule over the country.
Iran
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The country is divided into 150 ethnic tribes, some of them working together, most
of them working against each other and vying for control
Afghanistan
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For many years under the leadership of Muammar el Qaddafi who sanctioned
terrorist activity against a variety of Western Powers
After the overthrowing of the Shah of Iran, Ayatollah Ruholiah Khomeini, a
fundamentalist Islamic Shite, stepped in and imposed a strict theocracy in the
country that had been previously moving toward a democratic model of
government
Pakistan
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Pakistan is a multiethnic state with a predominately Muslim population
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Ethnic Groups in Southwest Asia
Figure 8-25
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Major Tribes in Iraq
Figure 8-26
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The End.
Up next: Development
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