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PERSIAN EMPIRE
The Persian Empire was actually a series of imperial systems that ruled modern­day Iran for more than 1,000
years. Its cities, legendary for their immense wealth, beauty, and style, made the empire a highly sought­after
prize for conquerors throughout the region.
Relief of Persian guards on walls of Persepolis
Settlement of Region
Aryan tribes from the Caspian Sea region were the people who eventually became known as the Persians, and they settled the Persian plateau approximately
4,000 years ago. Surrounded by vast mountain ranges and stifling deserts, the valleys of the plateau were immensely fertile, allowing the Persians to establish
themselves in the region known as Fars (from which the name Pars, or Persia, derives). By creating large agricultural surpluses, the people of Fars were able
to build urban centers, as well as live in smaller rural communities, and a sophisticated culture began to develop.
The tribes of Fars were ruled by the Achaemenid dynasty, but the Persians as a whole were forced to swear allegiance to the Medes, a neighboring people
whose authority was despised by the Persians. After many decades of threatened revolt against the rulers of Media, the establishment of the first Persian
Empire came in 550 BCE, when Cyrus the Great, a half­Persian and half­Median Achaemenid king, took power. With collaboration from defecting Median
generals, Cyrus invaded Media, conquered its leaders, and established freedom for the Achaemenids. He also took control of the Medes' colonies in the
Mediterranean and conquered Mesopotamia, establishing the first Persian Empire. Cyrus became the shah, or king, of Persia.
Achaemenid Rule
Darius I
After Cyrus united all of the Persians—and even the Medes—under his rule, the Achaemenids continued to build their empire. Cyrus's son,
Cambyses II, conquered Egypt, while the next king, Darius I, became another legendary ruler of Persia due to his successes. A strong leader with
acclaimed vision for his land, he built an amazing capital at Persepolis, conquered western India, established a reliable postal service, and standardized all
weights and measures. These accomplishments were important, for it allowed merchants throughout the empire to guarantee their shipments, as well as
allowing the government to standardize taxation and therefore increase revenues.
Darius also expanded the Persian Empire west into Europe with his invasion of Greece in 513 BCE during the Persian Wars of Expansion. Although he met with
fierce resistance by some of the city­states, Darius and his troops were able to successfully conquer Thrace. Moreover, his son, Xerxes I, sent troops to take
even more of the Hellenic world and brutally conquered the Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae during the Persian Wars. However, the rest of Greece
remained forever out of reach for the Persians. Nonetheless, during the Achaemenid era, the Persians could claim imperial holdings in Asia, Africa, and
Europe, making their empire vast and extremely wealthy.
The riches of the Persians became legendary, as people from throughout their territories paid huge amounts of tribute to the Achaemenid kings. Persian cities
were renowned for their stunning architecture, well­watered gardens, and abundant merchant districts. However, the wealth of the Persians carried a burden,
for it tempted foreign invaders who wished to take the riches for themselves. Although others may have dreamed of taking Persia, it was up to a dramatic
historical figure from Macedonia to actually do it: Alexander the Great.
Rule by Greeks and Parthian Era
Alexander the Great defeats Darius III at Issus
As part of his famous sweep east, Alexander successfully conquered the Persians at their capital, Persepolis,
in 330 BCE, bringing an end to Achaemenid rule over Persia. Now the Persians were ruled by the Greeks,
their old enemies, until 171 BCE. It was in that year that a new Persian force, the Parthians, began to defeat the Greeks and rebuild Persian rule over their
land. Famous for their excellent horsemanship and archery skills, the Parthians became the new leaders of Persia, but their rule was not an easy one.
It took the Parthians several decades to fully extricate the Greeks from their land, and by the time they did so, the Romans were beginning their great imperial
expansions. Thus, for the next centuries, the Parthians were forced to battle their western neighbors for control of their country, particularly as the two empires
shared a border at the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia.
This was the region where most of the fighting between the two powers occurred. Most famous of all of their encounters was the Battle of Carrhae in 53 CE. It
was here that the Parthians introduced their new, incredible horses into battle, brutally defeating the Romans in their attempt to take Persia. Indeed, more than
10,000 Romans were taken prisoner by the Parthians at the end of the battle, a loss that made the government back in Rome wary about attempting to
conquer the Parthians.
Sassanid Control and Muslim Conquest
Sassanid Palace, Ctesiphon
Battling the Romans wore down the Parthians, however, and by 226 CE, a new family, the Sassanids, were able to take control
of the Persian royal throne. Claiming descent from the ancient Achaemenids, the Sassanids maintained their authority over
Persia for more than 400 years. They also implemented a rigid social hierarchy in their lands, often described as an actual caste system. The royal family was
at the top of the system, followed by Zoroastrian priests, military officers and their soldiers, scribes, and then commoners.
Under the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism was declared the official religion of Persia, and other faiths were persecuted, sometimes intensely. Moreover, the
Sassanids reinstituted battle with the Romans, even capturing the Roman emperor Valerian in 260. However, initial victories against Rome would eventually be
disastrous for the Sassanids, as invaders from the north (known as the "White Huns") and continued fighting with the Byzantines in the west led to a breakdown
of Sassanid authority. Civil war broke out by the seventh century. Finally, in 642, the Muslims conquered the Sassanians, the shah was executed, and the
Persian Empire was no more.
Despite its eventual conquest by the Muslims, the Persian Empire continued to live on in the rich cultural traditions of its population. Indeed, the magnificent
Under the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism was declared the official religion of Persia, and other faiths were persecuted, sometimes intensely. Moreover, the
Sassanids reinstituted battle with the Romans, even capturing the Roman emperor Valerian in 260. However, initial victories against Rome would eventually be
disastrous for the Sassanids, as invaders from the north (known as the "White Huns") and continued fighting with the Byzantines in the west led to a breakdown
of Sassanid authority. Civil war broke out by the seventh century. Finally, in 642, the Muslims conquered the Sassanians, the shah was executed, and the
Persian Empire was no more.
Despite its eventual conquest by the Muslims, the Persian Empire continued to live on in the rich cultural traditions of its population. Indeed, the magnificent
buildings, gardens, handicrafts, and artistic traditions of the Persians continued to inspire their Muslim conquerors for many centuries.
Nancy L. Stockdale
Further Reading
Cook, J. M. The Persian Empire. London: Dent, 1983; Curtis, John, ed. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. Berkeley: University of California Press,
2005; Green, Peter. Xerxes at Salamis. New York: Praeger, 1970; Sykes, Percy Molesworth. History of Persia. New York: Routledge, 2003.
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Image Credits
Sassanid Palace, Ctesiphon: Art Directors.co.uk/Ark Religion.com/StockphotoPro
Alexander the Great defeats Darius III at Issus: Jupiterimages
Darius I: Corbis
Relief of Persian guards on walls of Persepolis: Corel
MLA Citation
Stockdale, Nancy L. "Persian Empire." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras, ABC­CLIO, 2016, ancienthistory.abc­clio.com/Search/Display/574753.
Accessed 22 Sept. 2016.
http://ancienthistory.abc­clio.com/Search/Display/574753?sid=574753&cid=0&oid=0&view=search&lang=&citeId=2&useConcept=False
Entry ID: 574753