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Research with Nonreactive Measures Chapter 8 Analyzing Physical Evidence for Clues about Social Life • Non-reactive research = research techniques in which the people in the study are unaware that someone is gathering information or using it for research purposes. • Four types of non-reactive research: – Physical evidence analysis – Content analysis – Existing statistics analysis – Secondary data analysis Analyzing Physical Evidence for Clues about Social Life • Unobtrusive measures = non-reactive research measures that do not intrude or disturb a person, so they are unaware of them. – Limitations of Physical Evidence • physical evidence measures are indirect • possible privacy violation Revealing the Content Buried within Communication Messages • Content Analysis – Content analysis = A non-reactive technique for studying communication messages. – Text = In content analysis it means anything written, visual, or spoken in a communication medium. – Content analysis is useful for • Large volumes of text • Topics studied “at a distance” • Content difficult to see with casual observation Revealing the Content Buried within Communication Messages • How to Measure and Code in Content Analysis – Coding System = In content analysis a set of instructions or rules stating how text was systematically measured and converted into variables. Revealing the Content Buried within Communication Messages • How to Measure and Code in Content Analysis – What do you measure? • • • • • Direction Frequency Intensity Space Prominence Revealing the Content Buried within Communication Messages • How to Measure and Code in Content Analysis – Coding, Validity, and Reliability • Content Analysis with Visual Material – visual material communicates indirectly – visual images often contain mixed messages and operate at multiple levels of meaning Revealing the Content Buried within Communication Messages • How to Conduct Content Analysis Research – Step 1. Formulate a Research Question – Step 2. Identify the Text to Analyze – Step 3. Decide on Units of Analysis – Step 4. Draw a Sample Revealing the Content Buried within Communication Messages • How to Conduct Content Analysis Research (cont) – Step 5. Create a Coding System – Step 6. Construct and Refine Categories – Step 7. Code the Data onto Recording Sheets. – Step 8. Data Analysis Revealing the Content Buried within Communication Messages • Limitations of Content Analysis – content analysis cannot: • • • • • determine the truthfulness of an statement/claim evaluate aesthetic (visual/artistic) qualities interpret content significance reveal the intentions of the text’s creators determine the influence of a message on its receivers Mining Existing Statistical Sources to Answer New Questions • Social Indicator = Any measure of social conditions or well-being that can used be used in policy decisions. • Locating Data – many diverse sources • Statistical Abstract of the United States • Mining Existing Statistical Sources to Answer New Questions Verifying Data Quality – Existing statistics can be limited by 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Missing Data Reliability Validity Topic Knowledge Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness = when statistical information is reported in a way that gives a false impression of its precision. • Mining Existing Statistical Sources to Answer New Questions Verifying Data Quality (cont) – Existing statistics can be limited by 6. Ecological Fallacy = mistaken interpretations that occur when you use data for a higher or bigger unit of analysis to examine a relationship among units at a lower or small unit of analysis • • Creative Thinking About Variables of Interest Standardization of Data – Standardization = adjusting a measure by dividing it by a common base to make comparisons are possible. Answering New Questions Using Survey Data Collected by Others • Secondary Sources – General Social Survey = A large-scale survey with many questions of a large national sample of adult Americans conducted almost every year. Data from it are made available to researchers at low or no cost. – Limitations of Secondary Data Sources • May lack data for your research question • Validity • Topic knowledge Answering New Questions Using Survey Data Collected by Others Conducting Ethical NonReactive Research • Protect people’s privacy • Protect confidentiality of data