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Chapter Twelve Communicating in the Internet Age Chapter Objectives • Identify each major link in the communication process. • Explain the concept of media richness and the Lengel-Daft contingency model of media selection. • Identify the five communication strategies and specify guidelines for using them. • Discuss why it is important for managers to know about grapevine and nonverbal communication. • Explain ways in which management can encourage upward communication. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 2 Chapter Objectives (cont’d) • Identify and describe four barriers to communication. • List two practical tips for each of the three modern communication technologies (e-mail, cell phones, and videoconferences) and summarize the pros and cons of telecommuting. • List at least three practical tips for improving each of the following communication skills: listening, writing, and running a meeting. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 3 The Communication Process • Communication – The interpersonal transfer of information and understanding from one person to another • A linked social process of sender, encoding, medium, decoding, receiver, and feedback Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 4 Figure 12.1: The Basic Communication Process Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 5 Encoding • Translating internal thought patterns into a language or code the intended receiver of the message will likely understand and/or pay attention to – Choice of words, gestures, or other symbols for encoding depends on the nature of the message. • Technical or nontechnical • Emotional or factual • Visual or auditory – Cultural diversity can create encoding challenges. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 6 Selecting a Medium – Face-to-face conversations – Telephone calls – E-mails – Memorandums – Letters – Computer reports – Photographs Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. • Bulletin boards • Meetings • Organizational publications • News releases • Press conferences • Advertising Chapter Twelve | 7 Selecting a Medium (cont’d) • Moving between low- and high-context cultures can create appropriate media selection problems. – In low-context cultures, the verbal content of the message is more important than the medium through which it is delivered. – In high-context cultures, the context (setting) in which the message is delivered is more important than the literal words of the message. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 8 A Contingency Approach (Lengel and Daft) • Media richness: A given medium’s capacity to convey information and promote learning • Characteristics of rich mediums – Provide simultaneous multiple information cues – Facilitate immediate feedback – Have a personal focus • Characteristics of lean mediums – Convey limited information (few cues) – Provide no immediate feedback – Impersonal by nature Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 9 Figure 12.2: The Lengel-Daft Contingency Model of Media Selection Source: Robert H. Lengel and Richard L. Daft, “The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill,” Academy of Management Executive, 2 (August 1988): 226, 227, exhibits 1 and 2. Reprinted by permission. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 10 Decoding • Successful decoding depends on the receiver having: – A willingness to receive the message – Knowledge of the language and terminology used in the message – An understanding of the sender’s purpose and background situation Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 11 Feedback • The choice factors for the form to provide feedback are the same factors governing the encoding process. • Feedback affects the form and content of followup communication. • Effective feedback is timely, relevant, and personal. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 12 Noise • Noise is any interference with the normal flow of communication. • Understanding decreases as noise increases. • To deal with noise: – Make messages more understandable. – Minimize and neutralize sources of interference. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 13 Figure 12.3: Clampitt’s Communication Process Source: Philip G. Clampitt, Robert J. DeKoch, and Thomas Cashman, "A Strategy for Communicating about Uncertainty," ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT EXECUTIVE, 14 (November 2000): 48. Copyright 2000 by Academy of Management. Reproduced with permission of Academy of Management in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 14 Communication Strategies • Spray & Pray – Impersonal and one-way communications (lectures) • Tell & Sell – A restricted set of messages with explanations for their importance and relevance • Underscore & Explore – Information and issues that are keys to organizational success are discussed and explained. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 15 Communication Strategies (cont’d) • Identify & Reply – Responding to employee concerns about prior organizational communications • Withhold & Uphold – Telling employees only what they need to know when you think they need to know it Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 16 Communication Strategies (cont’d) • Seeking a Middle-Ground Communication Strategy – Avoid Spray & Pray and Withhold & Uphold. – Use Tell & Sell and Identify & Reply sparingly. – Use Underscore & Explore as much as possible. • Merging Communication Strategies and Media Richness – Managers need to select the richest medium possible when employing Tell & Sell, Identify & Reply, and Underscore & Explore strategies. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 17 The Grapevine • The grapevine is the unofficial and informal communication system in an organization. • Words of Caution About the E-Grapevine and “Blogs” – Web logs (“blogs,” or online diaries) vastly and instantly extend the reach of the grapevine. – Writers of blogs and senders of e-gossip leave electronic trails that may prove embarrassing or worse at a later date. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 18 The Grapevine (cont’d) • Managerial Attitudes Toward the Grapevine – Managers have predominately negative feelings about the grapevine. – The grapevine is more prevalent at lower levels of the managerial hierarchy. – The grapevine is likely to be more influential in larger organizations. – The grapevine can help managers learn how employees truly feel about policies and programs. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 19 The Grapevine (cont’d) • Coping with the Grapevine – The grapevine cannot be extinguished. – Attempts to stifle the grapevine are likely to stimulate it instead. – Monitoring and officially correcting grapevine information is perhaps the best strategy for coping with the grapevine. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 20 Nonverbal Communication • Body Language – Nonverbal communication based on facial expressions, posture, and appearance • Types of Body Language – Facial – Gestural – Postural • Receiving Nonverbal Communication – Awareness of nonverbal cues can give insight into deep-seated emotions. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 21 Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 22 Nonverbal Communication (cont’d) • Giving Nonverbal Feedback – Nonverbal feedback from authority figures significantly affects employee behavior. – Positive feedback builds good interpersonal relations. – Sensitivity and cross-cultural training can reduce nonverbal errors when working with individuals from other cultures. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 23 Upward Communication • Upward Communication – The process of encouraging employees to share their feelings and ideas with management. – Options for improving upward communication: • • • • • • • Formal grievance procedures Employee attitude and opinion surveys Suggestion systems Open-door policy Informal meetings Internet chat rooms Exit interviews Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 24 Barriers to Communication • Process Barriers – – – – – – Sender barrier Encoding barrier Medium barrier Decoding barrier Receiver barrier Feedback barrier • Physical Barriers – Devices and distance Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 25 Barriers to Communication (cont’d) • Semantic Barriers – Misinterpretation of the meaning of words and phrases by individuals • Specialized occupational languages can create communication problems with outsiders. • Psychosocial Barriers – Differing backgrounds, perceptions, values, biases, needs, and expectations of individuals can block communications. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 26 Barriers to Communication (cont’d) • Sexist and Racist Communication – Progressive and ethical managers are weeding sexist and racist language out of their vocabularies and correspondence to eliminate the demeaning of women and racial minorities. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 27 Communicating in the Online Workplace • Getting a Handle on E-Mail and Instant Messaging – Put short messages in the subject line. – Be sparse with graphics and attachments. • Hello! Can We Talk Cell Phone Etiquette? – Advantages = mobility and convenience – Disadvantages = distracted drivers and disturbing calls in public places, with the risk of disclosing private information Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 28 Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 29 Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 30 Communicating in the Online Workplace (cont’d) • Videoconferences – A live television exchange between people in different locations – Can reduce costly and possibly dangerous travel time • Telecommuting – Sending work to and from one’s office via a computer modem while working at home Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 31 Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 32 Becoming a Better Communicator • Effective Listening – Tolerate silence; keep listening. – Ask stimulating, open-ended questions. – Encourage the speaker with attentive eye contact, alert posture, and verbal encouragers. – Paraphrase what you have just heard. – Show emotion to show your sympathy with the speaker. – Know your biases and prejudices. – Avoid premature judgments. – Summarize by reiterating what the speaker said. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 33 Becoming a Better Communicator (cont’d) • Effective Writing – – – – Keep words simple. Don’t sacrifice communication to rules of composition. Write concisely. Be specific. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 34 Becoming a Better Communicator (cont’d) • Purposes of Meetings – Find facts. – Solve problems. – Pass along information. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. • Categories of Meetings – – – – Daily check-in Weekly tactical Monthly strategic Quarterly off-site Chapter Twelve | 35 Becoming a Better Communicator (cont’d) • Conducting Meetings – – – – – – – – – Meet for a specific purpose. Distribute the agenda in advance of the meeting. Communicate preparation expectations to attendees. Limit attendance to essential personnel. Open with a brief overview; review important items first. Encourage participation but keep to the agenda. Limit use of visual aids. Clarify after-meeting action items. Follow a specific start and end time and follow up. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Chapter Twelve | 36 Terms to Understand • • • • • Communication Media richness Noise Grapevine Body language Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. • Upward communication • Exit interview • Semantics • Videoconference • Telecommuting Chapter Twelve | 37