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Chapter Two:
Understanding Human Sexuality:
Theory and Research
Agenda
 Distinguish Between Theory and Research
 Summarize Main Points of Influential
Theories
 Discuss Significant Research Projects
 Review Research Methodologies
Distinction Between Theory and Research
 Theories are the intellectual structure
(assumptions, principles, methods) for
understanding sexuality
 Research helps answer questions about
human sexuality
 Many disciplines conduct research in
sexuality, varying in the questions asked and
scientific approaches taken
Theories of Human
Sexuality
Theories About Sexuality
 Many theories guide our thoughts about
human sexuality
Psychological
Biological
Evolutionary
Sociological
Feminist
Queer
 Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives
Psychological Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory
Behavioral Theory
Social Learning Theory
Cognitive Theory
Humanistic Theory
Psychological: Psychoanalytic Theory
 Freud (1856-1939)
 Most influential psychological theory of
sexuality
 Sex drive is a very important life force
 Two controversial concepts:
Personality Formation
Psychosexual Development
Fact that Might Only Interest Me
 Karen Horney was a psychoanalytic therapist
who trained with Freud.
 In response to Freud’s assertion that women
demonstrated “penis envy”, she suggested
that men had “womb envy” because they are
preoccupied with sexual intercourse.
Psychological: Behavioral Theory
 Only study overt behavior; ignore internal
states
 Operant conditioning (Skinner)
reinforcement
punishment
 Behavior modification – tool to change
unwanted behavior
Aversion therapy
Psychological: Social Learning Theory
 Bandura
 Basis in operant conditioning
 Also consider internal events in affecting
behavior
 Identification and imitation of same-sex
parent in development of our gender identity
 Peer pressure influence on our sexuality
Psychological: Cognitive Theory
 Individual differences in processing
information
 Behavior is a result of our perceptions and
conceptualizations of our environment
 Largest sex organ – the brain
 We are sexually aroused by what we think is
sexually arousing
Psychological: Humanistic Theory
 Self-actualization – we try to be the best we
can become
 Unconditional positive regard allows us to
become self-actualized
Biological Theory
 Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology,
genetics
Evolutionary Theory
 Combination of evolution and sociology
 Sexuality serves to reproduce
 Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes
 Double standard
Sociological Theory
 Sexual expression varies across societies
 Institutions influence rules societies hold
regarding the expression of sexuality
Family
Religion
Economy
Medicine
Law
Media
Feminist Theory
 Sexology is dominated by white, middleclass, heterosexist attitudes
 Sexuality research is based on male sexuality
 Social construction of sexuality based on
power, historically held by men
 Women as passive and submissive
 Sexuality used by men to maintain power
over women
 Lack research on female orgasm, satisfaction
Queer Theory
 Heterosexism and homophobia should be
resisted
 Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else
deviant
 Sexual categories are cultural constructions
that limit and restrain
Class Exercise
 Choose any topic associated with human sexuality.
 How would the topic be explained from the
Psychological perspective (choose one
psychological theory)?
Biological perspective?
Evolutionary perspective?
Sociological perspective?
Feminist Perspective?
Queer Perspective?
 Discuss points of
Agreement
Disagreement
Sexuality Research
Recent Sexuality Research
 Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality
research
 Prompted by HIV/AIDS
 Primarily “problem-driven” research, not
healthy sexuality
 Pressure from conservative groups
 Multiple disciplines studying sex has
fragmented research
Recent Sexuality Research
 Popular media sensationalizes and distorts
information
 Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician
specializing in sexuality; usually PhD
 Researchers feel pressure to research select
topics and avoid others
 Academic programs specializing in human
sexuality; need steady funding
Landmark Research
Kinsey
Masters & Johnson
The Janus Report
National Health and Social Life Survey
Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality
Research Begins in the U.S.
 Most influential modern sexuality researcher
 Atheoretical in the beginning because data on
sexuality was lacking
 He and 3 colleagues interviewed 18,000
subjects to obtain sexual life histories
 Preferred use of 100% sampling
 1947, established the Institute for Sex
Research
Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality
Research Begins in the U.S.
 1948: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male
 1953: Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
 Found many unacceptable activities to be
widely practiced
 Controversial work; had funding sources
taken away
Sexuality Research in the United
States
 Masters & Johnson: In 1954, began to study
the anatomy and physiology of intercourse in
the laboratory
Electrocardiograph
Electromyograph
Penile strain gauges
Photoplethysmographs
Sexuality Research in the United
States
 Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual
Response (1966)
Four stage model
Women may have multiple orgasms
Sexuality stays with us as we age
 Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual
Inadequacy (1970)
Vaginal orgasms from clitoral stimulation
Sexuality Research in the United
States: Homosexuality
 Few large-scale studies
 Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not
differentiate gay and straight males
 Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978)
majority of homosexual men and women
do not conform to stereotypes
aren’t sexual predators
homosexuals and heterosexuals are
similar in intimate relationships
Sexuality Research in the United
States
 The Janus Report (1993): large survey on
sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out
regions in the U.S.; not a random sample
 National Health and Social Life Survey,
Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels
(1994): Surveyed a representative sample of
the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes
Class Exercise
 Earlier, I noted that research is primarily
“problem-driven” research, noting that there
has been limited research about healthy
sexuality.
Why do you think there has been more
attention to problems than healthy
sexuality?
Identify research topics that would be
associated with “healthy sexuality.”
Research Methodology
Sex Research Methods and
Considerations
 Validity – measuring what it is designed to
 Reliability – consistency
 Generalizability/Random Samples
Sex Research Methods and
Considerations
 Case study – individual cases explored to
form hypotheses
 Questionnaire – self-report attitudes,
behavior, knowledge
anonymity
 Interview – researcher records attitudes,
behavior, knowledge
rapport, flexibility, expensive
Sex Research Methods and
Considerations
 Direct Observation – focus on behaviors
difficult to find subjects in sexuality
research; expensive
 Participant Observation – researchers
monitor within a natural environment
much sexual behavior is in private
Sex Research Methods and
Considerations
 Experimental Method – establish cause and
effect due to increased control
Random assignment
Independent variable – manipulated
Dependent variable – measured
Costly, artificial, results may not relate to
the real world; ethical constraints
Sex Research Methods and
Considerations
 Correlations – describes a relationship
between variables
Used when experiments are not possible
Cannot establish cause and effect
Problems and Issues in Sex Research
 Ethical Issues – informed consent,
confidentiality
 Volunteer Bias – there are differences
between volunteers and nonvolunteers; can’t
generalize
 Sampling Problems – samples of
convenience (college students);
generalizability questioned
 Reliability – changes over time; memory
Class Exercise
 Earlier you identified topics associated with
healthy sexuality.
 What methodology (or multiple
methodologies) would you use to study this
topic?
 Are there ethical problems?
 How would you recruit participants?
Sex Research in the Future: Beyond
Problem-Driven Research
 Need for financial support
 Congressional and religious opposition
 Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for
funding
 “Scientific underground”
 Many unexplored topics within human
sexuality
 Future direction to understand emotional and
relational aspects