Download Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

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A schema is a network of knowledge, beliefs, or
expectations about specific aspects of the
world. Schema theory is the idea that humans
try to categorize new knowledge into existing
schema in order to better understand it in the
context of the world.
The underlying assumption of this theory is that
humans are active processors of information,
and that distortion (mistakes in memory) occurs
when an individual incorrectly fills in the blanks.
There are multiple types of schemas.
A few notable ones include:
a) cognitive schema- expectations as to what
will happen because of preconceived notions
b) social schema- a framework that helps
explain stereotyping and prejudice
c) gender schema- a child's expectations for
how to behave according to his or her gender
What goes into each particular schema is largely
dependent on culture.
As stated in principle 3 of the CLOA, social and
cultural factors influence cognitive processes
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Schemas are used to organize our knowledge,
to assist recall, to guide our behavior, to predict
likely happenings, and to help us make sense of
current experiences. They simplify reality.
For example, we may have “schemas” for a
good teacher and bad teacher. When we see
behavior similar to our schema of a good
teacher we may then label the teacher as a
good teacher.
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Experience can also change schemas.
For example, when you were younger, you may
have thought that a “good teacher” was
someone who gave little to no work and had a
relatively “easy” class.
Your schema for a “good teacher” may now
be someone who prepares you for college and
or helps you to understand the material.
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Support for the influence of schemas on
cognitive processes is widespread. Bartlett (1932)
demonstrated how schema, specifically cultural
schema, can influence memory in his classic
study.
He gave participants a complex and unusual
story called ‘The War of the Ghosts' which
contained unfamiliar concepts and an odd,
causal structure to Western participants.
He purposefully did this so the information would
not fit into their pre-existing schemas.
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There are many research studies to support the idea
that schemas affect cognitive processes such as
memory (Barlett, Brewer, etc.). This theory seems
quite useful for understanding how people
categorize information, interpret stories and make
inferences.
Schema theory has also contributed to our
understanding of how cognition develops in
children (Piaget) and also how memories can
become distorted. Furthermore, social psychologists
often refer to “social schemas” when they are trying
to explain stereotyping and prejudice.
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Schema theory helps to understand cultural
and gender differences, since different genders
& cultures may have different schemas which
influence the way they interpret the world.
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Though the schema theory has been
demonstrated in numerous studies, it has several
flaws as well.
One of the most criticized aspects of the
Schema theory is its susceptibility to distortions.
According to Brewer and Treyen, people tend
to experience schematic gap filling, meaning
that they use their knowledge of similar
schemas to draw conclusions about certain
situations.
Look at the following picture of an office
Identify all of the items that you recall seeing…
In the original study:
1. Participants were asked to stay in an office
2. The person who created this experiment told the
participants to stay there while the previous
participants finish
3. 35 seconds later, participants were taken to
another office and were asked to remember all
the things they could
4. People used the technique of 'office schema' to
remember things
Findings:
1. Almost all participants remembered the desk
and the chair
2. Eight out of the thirty remembered the skull
3. Just a few participants remembered the bottle
of wine or the coffee pot
4. Only one remembered the picnic basket
5. 9 participants recalled objects that weren't even
there such as books (These are new items
consistent with the schema)
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However, there are some methodological flaws
with the research, for example, Bartletts' choice
of material meant that the stories he chose may
not have been meaningful to other people, but
he had no objective measure of
'meaningfulness'.
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Cohen (1993) states that schema theory is
rather vague and the theory fails to offer
detailed explanations of how the schemas are
acquired in the first place. Cohen believes the
theory is overly simplistic (reductionist) and does
not account for complexity of human cognition.
According to the second principle of the cognitive level
of analysis:
 Models of mental processes can be proposed and
investigated scientifically
Research have looked at models for various cognitive
processes:
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Decision Making (availability heuristics, representative
heuristics, etc.)
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Language (rote-memory model, abilities model,
critical age model)
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Learning (social learning, operant conditioning, etc.)
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Learning is a basic cognitive process for understanding
behavior. Learning may be defined as a relatively
permanent change in behavior that occurs as the result
of prior experience.
According to principle 1, models of mental processes
can be proposed and investigated scientifically. Thus, it
should be no surprise that models exist to better
understand the cognitive process of learning.
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Psychologists have long studied the various
methods by which animals and humans learn.
These methods can be conscious or subconscious,
and influenced by both outside factors and selfinterest.
Currently, three learning models are most widely
recognized and used: classical conditioning,
operant conditioning and social learning.
For this objective, we will explore operant
conditioning and social learning.
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Coined by Behaviorist B.F. Skinner,
Operant conditioning is a model of
learning that occurs through rewards
and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a
behavior and a consequence for that
behavior.
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As a behaviorist, Skinner believed
that internal thoughts and
motivations could not be used to
explain behavior.
Instead, he suggested, we should
look only at the external,
observable causes of human
behavior.
Skinner identified three types of responses or operant
that can follow behavior.
 Neutral operants: responses from the environment
that neither increase nor decrease the probability of
a behavior being repeated.
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Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or
negative.
Punishers: Response from the environment that
decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
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According to Skinner, we learn what behaviors
to demonstrate by causes (reward and
punishment).
Thus, we behave kindly to seek approval from
others and or to avoid punishment.
http://www.cleanvideosearch.com/media/act
ion/yt/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
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Would you still attend school, seek high grades,
or take challenging course without reward or
with no fear of punishment?
Can you think of any behavior that does not
seem to satisfy an internal or external reward?
Wide range of application:
 We see Operant Conditioning
studied and applied in many
different aspects of life (school,
work, parenting, relationships, etc.)
Large empirical evidence
 The scientific study of operant
conditioning dates from the
beginning of the twentieth century
with the work of Edward L.
Thorndike in the U.S
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Edward Thorndike put forward a
“Law of effect” which stated that
any behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to
be repeated, and any behavior
followed by unpleasant
consequences is likely to be
stopped.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/e
dward-thorndike.html
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Thorndike’s research is an example of the
strong empirical support for this model.
More specifically, it showed how rewards and
punishments play a role in shaping our
behaviors (which is the basis of the model)
Rejection of role of cognitive factors
 Skinner himself rejected the idea that cognitive factors
influence behavior. Through large bodies of research,
we know that internal cognitions influence our
schemas, our decision making, and our actions.
Evidence of cognitive processing in learning
 Evidence of cognitive processing have come from
studying rats in mazes. Various research studies have
supported the assumption that cognitive maps
(mental representations) play an important role in
learning.
Proof of Latent Learning
 The type of learning that is not exhibited until there is
some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it.
 It is important to understand that there is a difference
between learning and performance.
 For example, if you are in a car going to school with a
friend every day, but your friend is driving all the time,
you may learn the way to get to school, but have no
reason to demonstrate this knowledge. Unless your
friend is sick and you have to drive.
Biological predispositions
 Research has found that an animal’s natural
predispositions constrain its capacity for operant
conditioning. This also points to internal factors that
influence learning.
 As we have learned from the Biological level of
analysis, physiological processes play an important
role in human behavior, specifically with learning.
 That is, ones chemical and physical processes may
limit or increase ones capacity for learning.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to
mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on
the effects of their own actions to inform them on
what to do.
Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing
others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors
are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action.“
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977
Social learning refers to the
acquisition of mental representations
that happens exclusively or primarily
by interactions in a social group.
Social learning theory focuses on the
learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learn
from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning,
imitation, and modeling.
Among others Albert Bandura is
considered the leading proponent of
this theory.
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Social learning theorists share many assumptions
with operant conditioning, particularly the belief
that people are shaped in fundamental ways by
their environment through learning processes.
Social learning theorists also acknowledge that
operant conditioning is an important influence
on human behavior.
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However, they add to these learning processes a
third: observational learning.
They believe people learn by observing others
and therefore social situations are particularly
important of an influence on behavior.
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There are three core concepts at the heart of social
learning theory.
First is the idea that people can learn through
observation.
Next is the idea that internal mental states are an
essential part of this process. Meaning that the ability
to form memories from what you observe are key to
learning. Thus, biological factors can interfere with
social learning
Finally, this theory recognizes that just because
something has been learned, it does not mean that it
will result in a change in behavior.
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Higher animals, especially
humans, learn through
observing and imitating
others.
Example: The monkey on the
right imitates the monkey on
the left in touching the
pictures in a certain order to
obtain a reward. Hence the
phrase monkey see monkey
do.
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As previously discussed, mirror neurons in the brains of
animals and humans are active during observational
learning.
Thus, we can create a schema of how to behave in
social situations simply by observing a behavior
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According to the theory, learning
by observation begins early in
life. This 14-month-old child
imitates the adult on TV in
pulling a toy apart.
This would suggest that we can
create memory models of how
to act, respond, and adapt to our
environment simply by seeing
something occur. How can this
positively and negatively influence
our behavior from a cognitive
perspective?
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Albert Bandura’s research in the 1970’s
laid the foundation for social learning.
In his famous "Bobo doll" studies,
Bandura demonstrated that children
learn and imitate behaviors they have
observed in other people.
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Video on Bandura’s original study
http://blip.tv/bball4/albert-bandurabobo-doll-experiment-4027582
Original Study:
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandur
a/bobo.htm
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Its commitment to scientific methods is a
strength of the social learning approach as its
research studies are reliable and allow
inferences about cause and effect to be
drawn.
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However, this does give rise to the criticism that it
relies heavily on research conducted in rather
artificial settings.
For example, some critics argue that the behavior of
the children in Bandura’s studies was significantly
influenced by demand characteristics and that they
were, in effect, deliberately producing the behavior
they thought the experimenters wanted to see.
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Because the social learning approach takes into
account the cognitive factors that mediate
between stimuli and responses, it addresses one of
the most important criticisms of operant
conditioning; its neglect of thinking processes.
Consequently, social learning theory can explain a
range of processes that operant conditioning has
difficulties with.
It has contributed significantly to our understanding
of processes like aggression and gender
development and has also formed the basis of a
range of treatments for problems like phobias.
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What do we already know about the
relationship between physiology and cognition
that can help us to answer this question?
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 In other words, specific parts of the brain can
directly correlate to cognitive processes.
 Damage to the frontal lobe can directly
affect the cognitive process of decision
making
 Damage to Broca’s area can directly affect
the cognitive process of language
production
 Damage to the hippocampus can directly
affect the cognitive process of short term
memory
◦ In summation, all of our mental processes are
physiological based. Thus, we can better understand
cognitive processes by understanding the
physiological processes that give rise to cognitive
processes.
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The hippocampus is a
brain structure which lies
under the medial
temporal lobe, one on
each side of the brain.
It is sometimes grouped
with other nearby
structures including the
dentate gyrus and called
the "hippocampal
formation."
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The hippocampus is critical
for the formation of new
autobiographical and fact
memories.
It may function as a
memory "gateway" through
which new memories must
pass before entering
permanent storage in the
brain.
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Hippocampal damage can result in anterograde
amnesia: loss of ability to form new memories,
although older memories may be safe.
Thus, someone who sustains an injury to the
hippocampus may have good memory of his
childhood and the years before the injury, but
relatively little memory for anything that happened
since (i.e. Clive Wearing, etc.).
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Hippocampal damage can result in anterograde
amnesia: loss of ability to form new memories,
although older memories may be safe.
Thus, someone who sustains an injury to the
hippocampus may have good memory of his
childhood and the years before the injury, but
relatively little memory for anything that happened
since (i.e. Clive Wearing, etc.).
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The hippocampus is especially sensitive to reductions
in oxygen level in the body.
Thus, periods of oxygen deprivation (hypoxia) which
are not fatal may nonetheless result in particular
damage to the hippocampus which have been
shown to correlate to mild cognitive impairments.
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This why we see cognitive systems with certain
biological issues as a heart attack, respiratory failure,
sleep apnea, carbon monoxide poisoning, neardrowning, etc.
The hippocampus is also a common focus site in
epilepsy, and can be damaged through chronic
seizures. It is also sometimes damaged in diseases
such as herpes encephalitis (as seen with Clive
Wearing), and is one of the first brain areas to show
damage in Alzheimer's disease.
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Researchers have found a link between sleep
deprivation (a biological factor causing lower
oxygenation to the brain) and cognitive impairment.
Watch for yourself!
◦ 60 minutes special “The Science of Sleep”
http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=4181992n
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Hippocampus damage and amnesia (i.e. Clive
Wearing and deficits in memory).
Low Dopamine Levels and deficits in multiple
cognitive functions.
Sex Hormonal Levels and cognitive decline.
Sleep deprivation negatively impacting our
mood, our ability to focus, and our ability to
access higher-level cognitive functions
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The earliest scientific evidence of a link between
sleep and performance dates back to the early
1930’s, when Nathaniel Kleitman, one of most
significant figures in the field of sleep medicine,
discovered a daily pattern in the speed and
accuracy of cognitive performance.
He showed that even in well-rested individuals
there was a decrease in the level of individual
performance that occurred in the early morning
and again late at night.
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Thus, even when we are getting the amount of
sleep we need, we can still expect normal
fluctuations in our ability to function.
Many students study “early in the morning” or
“late at night”. From this research, how can this
impact your cognitive performance?
Epinephrine, an excitatory neurotransmitter, is
naturally at lower levels in the morning and late
at night.
Low levels have been can result in lack of focus,
and low levels of motivation. This is why we often
feel less motivated in the morning time.
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In addition to these normal fluctuations, not getting
enough sleep—whether for just one night or over the
course of days to weeks—has a significant effects on
our ability to function.
Sleep deprivation negatively impacts our mood, our
ability to focus, and our ability to access higher-level
cognitive functions.
The combination of these factors is what we
generally refer to as cognitive performance. In the
laboratory, researchers use scientific studies to
determine just how significantly varying levels of
sleep disturbance impact various types of cognitive
processes.
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In addition to these normal fluctuations, not getting
enough sleep—whether for just one night or over the
course of days to weeks—has a significant effects on
our ability to function.
Sleep deprivation negatively impacts our mood, our
ability to focus, and our ability to access higher-level
cognitive functions.
The combination of these factors is what we
generally refer to as cognitive performance. In the
laboratory, researchers use scientific studies to
determine just how significantly varying levels of
sleep disturbance impact various types of cognitive
processes.
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In addition to the feeling of mental fatigue and
changes in brain activity that accompany a
night without sleep, other measures of
performance are noticeably altered.
Concentration, working memory, mathematical
capacity, and logical reasoning are all aspects
of cognitive function compromised by sleep
deprivation.
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However, not all of these functions rely on the
same regions of the brain, nor are they
impacted by sleep deprivation to the same
degree.
For example, the region of the brain known as
the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is responsible for
many higher-level cognitive functions and is
particularly vulnerable to a lack of sleep. As a
result, people who are sleep deprived will begin
to show deficits in many tasks that require logical
reasoning or complex thought.
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However, not all of these functions rely on the
same regions of the brain, nor are they
impacted by sleep deprivation to the same
degree.
For example, the region of the brain known as
the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is responsible for
many higher-level cognitive functions and is
particularly vulnerable to a lack of sleep. As a
result, people who are sleep deprived will begin
to show deficits in many tasks that require logical
reasoning or complex thought.
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Research suggest that a loss of REM, or rapid eye
movement sleep (a period of intense sleep ) can
result in increased irritability (correlated with
lower norepinephrine levels) anxiety and
depression (correlated with lower serotonin
levels), decreased socialization, reduced
concentration and decreased ability to handle
complex tasks (due to low levels of PEA) and to
be creative (due to lower dopamine levels).
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Research suggest that a loss of REM, or rapid eye
movement sleep (a period of intense sleep ) can
result in increased irritability (correlated with
lower norepinephrine levels) anxiety and
depression (correlated with lower serotonin
levels), decreased socialization, reduced
concentration and decreased ability to handle
complex tasks (due to low levels of PEA) and to
be creative (due to lower dopamine levels).
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Determining just how much performance is
affected by sleep loss is difficult, in part because
of factors such as individual differences in
sensitivity to sleep deprivation, as well as
individual differences in motivation to stay alert
despite sleep loss. Even so, the evidence is clear
that a lack of sleep leads to poor performance.
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Research suggests that the nerve connections
that make our memories are strengthened
during sleep. ‘
“Sleep embeds the things that we have learned
and experienced over the course of the day into
our short-term memory,” says Avelino Verceles,
MD, assistant professor at the University of
Maryland School of Medicine and director of the
school’s sleep medicine fellowship.
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It appears that different phases of sleep play
different roles in consolidating new information into
memories. If your sleep is cut short or disrupted, it
interferes with these cycles.
When you’re sleepy, you may forget and misplace
things often. The inability to focus and concentrate
caused by sleepiness further weakens memory.
“If you’re not able to concentrate on what’s at
hand, it’s not going to make it into your short-term
memory and then long-term memory,” says Allison T.
Siebern, PhD, a Fellow in the Insomnia and
Behavioral Sleep Medicine Program at the Stanford
University Sleep Medicine Center.