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The geography of religion
Sacred space &
spatialization of the sacred
Sacred Space
Questions about sacred spaces
• How do places come to be considered sacred?
• How do some places become sacred to civic religion or
popular culture?
• What motivates people to travel to sacred places (to
make pilgrimages)? What is the effect of such travel?
• What are the characteristic landscapes of sacred
places? How is nature seen to be sacred? How do
human societies create distinctive sacred spaces in
architecture, town-planning, and other constructions?
• How do some sacred places come to be contested
space (e.g. Jerusalem, holy sites in India)?
• How does perception of sacred places change over
time?
Geography of Religion
• What is Religion?
• Major Religions & Divisions
• Religious Landscapes
• Religious Conflict and Interaction
Religion
• A set of beliefs
– existence of a higher power, spirits or god
– an explanation of the origins and purpose
of humans and their role on earth
– Which involves rituals, festivals, rites of
passage and space (religious landscapes)
Key Terms
• Universalizing Religion: a faith that attempts
to appeal to all people, not just those living in
a particular location.
• Proselytize: to try to convert people to one’s
belief or opinion.
• Ethnic Religions: a faith with a concentrated
spatial distribution, often based on physical
characteristics of a particular location.
Key Terms
• Monotheism: belief in the existence of
only one god.
• Polytheism: belief in the existence of
many gods.
• Cosmogony: A set of religious beliefs
concerning the origin of the universe.
Religious Divisions
• Branch: A large and fundamental
division within a religion.
• Denomination: A division within a
branch of a religion.
• Sect: A relatively small denominational
group that has broken away from an
established church.
The Geography of Religion
Ethnic Religions
Universalizing Religions(proselytic)
Polytheism
Monotheism
Major World Religions
• Universalizing Religions
– Christianity
– Islam
– Buddhism
• Traced to actions and teaching of a man
• Diffused from specific hearths by
followers / missionaries
How do universalizing and ethnic
religions differ?
Universalizing
Ethnic
• Appeal to people everywhere
• Has meaning in particular
place only.
• Unknown source.
• Content focused on place
and landscape of origin.
• Followers highly clustered.
• Holidays based on local
climate and agricultural
practice.
• Individual founder (prophet)
• Message diffused widely
(missionaries)
• Followers distributed widely.
• Holidays based on events in
founder’s life.
Animism
Ancient and Enduring
Animism
Animism is defined as the belief that all of reality is
pervaded or inhabited by spirits or souls; the belief
that all of reality is in some sense animate. The term,
first introduced by Sir Edward B. Tylor, is often used
imprecisely for the religions of all the small, isolated,
technologically simple, preliterate societies of the
world -the societies which are sometimes pejoratively
and inaccurately called 'primitive.' Some form of
animism is a characteristic feature, often an
important one, of such religions, but it is also found
in some of the so-called 'higher' ones.
Animism, another view
“….A very misleading term often used to characterize African
and other non-literate religious systems. The term was first
introduced by … Tylor as a 'minimum definition' of religion...
Today the term animism has fallen into disuse among serious
scholars of religion.... The reason most academics have rejected
this term is because it fails to recognize the highly complex
nature of many non-literate religions which do not rely on
simplistic notions of the spiritual world. The idea behind
animism is in fact a racist one which assumes that non-literate
peoples lack the intellectual ability to develop complex
religions and philosophies. It is therefore best abandoned to
allow for the recognition of the complexity of religious
systems.
Hexham, Irving. (1994) Concise Dictionary of Religion. Carol Stream, USA: InterVarsity Press.
The Roots of Religion
Nigerian Shaman
Animism (Shamanism) - the belief
that all objects, animals, and beings
are “animated” or possess a spirit
and a conscious life. Also called
shamanism because of the
prominence of a Shaman.
Native American Animism
Humankind has not woven the web of life. We are but
one thread within it. Whatever we do to the web, we do
to ourselves. All things are bound together. All things
connect.
Chief Seattle
Bear Dance
Pantheism
• From the Greek: pan = all and theos = God, literally means "God
is All" and "All is God". It is the view that everything is of an allencompassing immanent God; or that the universe, or nature, and
God are equivalent. More detailed definitions tend to emphasize
the idea that natural law, existence and/or the universe (the sum
total of all that is was and shall be) is represented or personified in
the theological principle of 'God'.
• A key feature of pantheism is that each individual human, being
part of the universe or nature, is part of God.
• Hinduism is sometimes seen as pantheistic.
• Some Greek philosophers, among them Heraclites, debated
whether the entire substance of the universe was a force of logic
(logos), of thought in constant state of transformation.
Pantheism
• A religion old or new, that stressed the magnificence of the
universe as revealed by modern science, might be able to
draw forth reserves of reverence and awe hardly tapped by
the conventional faiths. Sooner or later, such a religion will
emerge. - Carl Sagan, Pale Blue Dot (1994)
• I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals Himself in the
orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns
himself with fates and actions of human beings. - Albert
Einstein
• To me, nature is sacred. Trees are my temples and forests are
my cathedrals. - Mikhail Gorbachev
Polytheism
• Derived from Greek words “poly” for 'many' and “theos”
meaning 'god', belief in many gods, who preside over
different departments of Nature and aspects of life.
• Most ancient religions -such as those in Mesopotamia,
Egypt, India, Mexico, Peru, Greece and later Rome- were
polytheistic, meaning that their followers believed in many
gods and goddesses, such as a god of the Sun, a goddess of
the Moon, etc.
• Polytheism is sometimes claimed to have originated with
Hinduism in about 2500 BCE. Hindu beliefs were recorded
in the Bhagavad Gita, which revealed that many gods were
subject to a supreme Brahman god.
Polytheism
• Ancient polytheistic belief systems viewed gods as being
in control of all natural events such as rainfall, harvests and
fertility.
• Generally, polytheistic cultures believed in sacrifices to
appease these gods. For instance, the Canaanites sacrificed
to the male god, Baal, and his female counterpart,
Ashteroth. Baal controlled the rain and the harvest, while
Ashteroth controlled fertility and reproduction.
• The Greeks and Romans developed polytheism to a highly
structured pantheon of gods and goddesses.
Monotheism
• Theists believe that reality's ultimate
principle is God — an omnipotent,
omniscient, goodness that is the creative
ground of everything other than itself.
• Monotheism is the view that there is only
one such God.
• Monotheism emerged in Egypt and the
Middle East about 5000 BP.
Deism
• Deism is a form of monotheism in which it is
believed that one god exists.
• A deist however, rejects the idea that this god
intervenes in the world. Hence any notion of
special revelation is impossible, and the nature of
god can only be known through reason and
observation from nature.
• A deist thus rejects the miraculous, and the claim to
knowledge made for religious groups and texts.
Deism
O Lord my God! When I in awesome wonder
Consider all the worlds Thy hands have made.
I see the stars, I hear the rolling thunder,
Thy power through-out the universe displayed.
When through the woods and forest glades I wander
And hear the birds sing sweetly in the trees;
When I look down from lofty mountain grandeur
And hear the brook and feel the gentle breeze:
Atheism
• Atheism rejects the notion of any divine or
supernatural force shaping or controlling the universe
and human destiny.
• For this reason, atheism is sometimes referred to as
materialism.
• Darwin’s theory of natural selection argues for
materialist forces as shaping the origins and evolution
of species.
• Communist nation states, among them the former
Soviet Union and the Peoples’ Republic of China,
frequently adopt a policy of official atheism, reflecting
Karl Marx’s idea of dialectical materialism.
Major World Religions
Hinduism
• 900 million + adherents
primarily in India
• Hinduism is an ancient term
for the complex and diverse set
of religious beliefs practiced
around the Indus River.
• Reincarnation - endless
cycles. Karma and Yoga.
• Coastlines and river banks
most sacred sites.
• Vishnu and Shiva most
common of hundreds of deities.
Hinduism
Lord Vishnu
Dancing Shiva/Nataraj
Ganesh
Hinduism
• Hinduism, like India, takes its name from
the Indus River.
• The origins of Hinduism lie in the Indus
Valley.
• Hinduism celebrates seven holy rivers, the
holiest of which is the Ganges.
Hinduism
• In Hindu theology Brahman is the ultimate, both
transcendent and immanent, the absolute infinite existence,
the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be.
• As the sun has rays of light which emanate from the same
source, the same holds true for the multifaceted aspects of
God emanating from Brahman, like many colours of the
same prism.
• This pantheistic concept of God is of one unity, with the
individual personal Gods being aspects of the One; thus,
different deities are seen by different adherents as
particularly well suited to their worship.
Buddhism
• 300 million+ adherents primarily
in China and S.E. Asia
• Originated near modern Nepal
around 530 BCE by prince
Siddhartha Guatama.
• Spread originally in India and Sri
Lanka by Magadhan Empire (250
BCE).
• Indian traders brought it to
China in 1st century CE.
• By 6th century it had lost its hold
on India, but was now in Korea
and Japan.
• Four Noble Truths:
Buddhism
• All living beings must endure
suffering.
• Suffering, which is caused by
desires (for life), leads to
reincarnation.
• The goal of existence is an escape
from suffering and the endless
cycle of reincarnation by means
of Nirvana.
• Nirvana is achieved by the
Eight-fold Path, which includes
rightness of understanding,
mindfulness, speech, action,
livelihood, effort, thought, and
concentration.
Karma - your past bad or good
actions determine your progress
toward Nirvana through
reincarnation. You are your own
God.
The Eightfold Path
1. Right View
Wisdom
2. Right Intention
3. Right Speech
Ethical Conduct
4. Right Action
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right Effort
Mental Development
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right Concentration
Two Paths in Buddhism
• Theravada - the older, more severe form which
requires the renouncing of all worldly goods and
desires.
• Located in S.E. Asia: Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma),
Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos.
• Mahayana - focusses on Buddha’s teachings and
compassion.
• Located throughout Asia: Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet,
Mongolia, China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, and
Japan.
Theravada Buddhism
• Theravada Buddhism is one of several schools of thought that
developed in India during the century following the death of
the Buddha. The name of the school means "Teachings of the
Elders" which implies that this was the most conservative
school of Buddhism, a school that has attempted to conserve
the original teachings of the Buddha. Adherents trace their
lineage back to the Sthaviras or "Elders" of the First Buddhist
Council when 500 monks chose a position of orthodoxy to
keep all the "lesser and minor" rules set by Gautama
Buddha.
• Theravada is the longest surviving of the twenty schools,
and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of
Sri Lanka and continental Southeast Asia (parts of southwest
China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand). It is also
gaining popularity in Singapore and Australia.
Mahayana Buddhism
• The way of the Mahayana, in contrast to the more
conservative and austere Theravada school of Buddhism,
can be characterized by:
• Universalism: Everyone will become a Buddha.
• Enlightened wisdom: as the main focus of realization.
• Compassion: through the transferal of merit.
• Salvation: supported by a rich cosmography, including
celestial realms and powers, with a spectrum of
Bodhisattvas, both human and seemingly godlike, who can
assist followers.
Mahayana Buddhism
Diffusion of Buddhism
Buddhist Cultural Landscapes (stupas)
Buddhist Cultural Landscapes (pagodas)
Buddhist Cultural Landscapes (wats)
Buddhist Cultural Landscapes (Tibet)
Judaism
• “A 4000 year old tradition with ideas about what it
means to be human and how to make the world a
holy place”
(Rabbi Harold Kushner, To Life)
• A “covenant relationship” between God and the
Hebrew people
• A celebration and sanctification of life
• A faith, a people, a way of life…
Judaism
• Three Patriarchs: Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob (“Israel”) – are
identified with the origins of
the Hebrew people (more
than 3800 years ago)
• According to tradition, they
were enslaved in ancient
Egypt and freed by Moses
(more than 3300 years ago)
• Hebrew monarchic rule in
the “Promised Land” (The
Land of Israel), ends 6th
century BCE
Judaism
As a faith, Jews believe:
• In one God, creator of the universe, personal but noncorporeal
• In the prophets of old – especially Moses, through whom
Torah was revealed to the Hebrew people
• In Torah (first five books of the Bible), containing religious,
moral and social law which guides the life of a Jew
– the Hebrew Bible does not include the New Testament
Judaism
Life cycle celebrations:
• Bris – ritual circumcision, sign of the covenant
• Bar/Bat Mitzvah – full adult status and responsibility
within the religion
• Marriage - "Be fruitful and multiply" (Gen. 1:22)
• Death – funerals, mourning (sitting Shiva), and memorials
(Yartzeits)
Judaism
As a people, Jews are…
• A nation in Diaspora (dispersed)
• 15 – 16 million in worldwide population
• United by a common heritage (an ethnic religion), divided
in contemporary practice:
– Orthodox:
• Modern
• Chasidic (Ultra Orthodox)
– Reformed (18th century Germany)
– Conservative – moderates, response to reform
– Reconstructionalism (20th century America)
Judaism
Judaism
Ethiopian synagogue, Acre, Israel
Judaism
Jewish settlements in the Roman Empire
Judaism
Judaism
Judaism
Old synagogue and cemetery,
Prague
Judaism
Synagogue, Avignon, France
Synagogue, Florence, Italy
Judaism
Interior, Synagogue, Avignon, France
Judaism
As a way of life, Judaism is based on…
• The 613 commandments found in Torah (“Written Law”)
• The Talmud (“Oral Law”) – commentary of ancient rabbis that
elaborates on how to apply God’s Law in everyday life
through:
– Dietary rules (Kashrut/Kosher)
– Dress and other symbols
– Prayer and devotion to the one God
– The Temple and Temple rites
– Observance of Holy days
– Proper social relations between male and female, in
business, judicial rulings, etc.
• Thus sanctifying life, blessing it in every way
Judaism
Jewish Holidays include:
• The High Holidays:
– Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year)
– Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement)
• Sukkot, the “Festival of Booths” (fall harvest festival)
• Simchat Torah – celebrating Torah
• Chanukah, the “Festival of Lights”
• Purim (“Lots”) – a carnival (commemorates events told in book
of Esther)
• Pesach (“Passover”) – commemorates the exodus from Egypt
(events told in Exodus)
• Shavuot (“weeks,” Pentecost) – commemorates receipt of Torah
at Sinai
• Other, minor festivals
• Shabbat (Sabbath, 7th day, on Saturday) – the “Day of Rest”
The Geography of the Holocaust
Christianity
Christianity encompasses numerous religious traditions
that widely vary by culture and place, as well as many
diverse beliefs and sects, comprising nearly two billion
nominal adherents. Since the Reformation, Christianity is
usually represented as being divided into three main
branches:
– Catholicism
– Eastern Christianity
– Protestantism
Other denominations and churches which self-identify as
Christian but which distance themselves from the above
classifications together claim around 275 million members.
Catholicism
With over 1 billion baptized members, this
category includes the Catholic Church (or Roman
Catholic Church), the largest single body—which
includes several Eastern Catholic communities—
as well as certain smaller communities (e.g., the
Old Catholic Church) not in full communion with
the (Roman) Catholic Church, many of whom
reject the primacy of the pope, hold that the
papacy is vacant, or recognize a different pope
Catholicism
Catholicism
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity includes the Eastern
Orthodox Churches, the Oriental Orthodox
Churches and the Assyrian Church of the
East, all with a combined membership of
over 240 million baptized members.
Eastern Christianity
Protestantism
This group includes numerous denominations and
schools of thought such as: Anglicanism,
Reformed, Lutheran, Methodist, Anabaptist,
Evangelicalism, Charismatics and Pentecostalism,
all of which are descended, directly or indirectly,
from the Roman Church via the Reformation of
the 16th century. Many identify themselves simply
as Christian. Worldwide total is just under 500
million.
Other Christian Sects
These include African Indigenous Churches with
up to 110 million members (estimates vary
widely), Jehovah's Witnesses with approximately
15 million members, the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter Day Saints (also called Mormons) with over
12 million members, and other groups. The early
leaders of most of these groups were originally
Protestant adherents.
Diffusion of Christianity
Diffusion of Christianity
Christianity in the U.S.
Islam
• Holy Text: Q’ran or Koran
• 1 billion + adherents
Reading the Koran, Brunei
• Originated in Saudi Arabia (Mecca and Medina)
around AD 600.
• Spread originally by Muslim armies and traders to N.
Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and the Near East.
• Sunni (83%) - throughout the Muslim world.
• Shiite - Iran (40%), Pakistan (15%), Iraq (10%)
Islam
Islam
Five Pillars of Islam
• There is only one God (Allah) ;
Muhammad is his messenger.
• Prayer five times daily, facing
Mecca.
• Giving alms(charity) to the poor.
• Fasting during Ramadan for
purification and submission.
• If body and income allow, a
Muslim must make a pilgrimage
(hajj) to Mecca in his lifetime.
Islamic Calendar
• Begins in 622 CE when
Muhammad was
commanded to Mecca
from Medina (Hijra).
• Lunar calendar makes
Ramadan move
through the seasons
(30 year cycle - 19
years with 354 days
and 11 with 355).
Islam : Sacred Space
Islam: Sacred Space
• Map of Mecca
– Note location of
cemetery – to be buried
in Mecca is important
– Many pilgrims die in
Mecca for various
reasons
Diffusion of Islam
Islam is considered the fastest growing religion in America. Only a small part
of this growth is from black Muslims and the Nation of Islam.
Key Terms
Syncretism - the mixing of
two or more religions that
creates unique rituals,
artwork, and beliefs.
Examples include
syncretism of Christianity
and indigenous beliefs in
the Americas, Africa, and
Asia.
Voodoo Dolls, Haiti
• Caribbean Voodoo (Haiti,
Louisiana)
• Christianity in Indigenous
Latin American
Shrine, Bangalore, India
Syncretism - the mixing of two or
more religions that creates unique
rituals, artwork, and beliefs.
Key Terms
Secularization - a process Fundamentalism - a process
that is leading to increasingly
large groups of people who
claim no allegiance to any
church.
that is leading to increasingly
large groups of people who
claim there is only one way to
interpret worship.
Some of these people are
atheists. Others simply do not
practice. Still others call
themselves spiritual, but not
religious.
Fundamentalists generally
envision a return to a more
perfect religion and ethics they
imagine existed in the past.
•Common in Europe and the
cities of the U.S.
•Common in former Soviet
Union and China.
•Common in the U.S. and in
some Islamic nations.
•Increasingly common amongst
some Hindu communities in
India.
The Big Question: Can secular society exist alongside
traditional and fundamentalist religious sects and states?
Religious Conflict
– We are quick to notice fundamentalism abroad (i.e. Salman
Rushdie’s death sentence by Shia clerics) and not so quick
to recognize it at home (abortion clinic bombings; Southern
Baptist Convention’s calls for women to submit to their
husbands’ authority).
– American evangelical Christianity and Islamic fundamentalism
are the two most influential fundamentalist movements in the
world.
– Fewer and fewer states are governed by an official church.
Political movements that are theocratic in nature, however,
can be found in North America, India, and the Islamic world.