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The Endocrine System Chapter 46 Types of Chemical Messengers A hormone is a chemical that is secreted into extracellular fluid and carried by the blood -Can therefore act at a distance from source -Only targets with receptor can respond Paracrine regulators do not travel in blood -Allow cells of organ to regulate each other Pheromones are chemicals released into the environment to communicate among individuals of a single species 2 Types of Chemical Messengers Some neurotransmitters are distributed by the blood and act as neurohormones -Norepinephrine coordinates the activity of heart, liver and blood vessels during stress Hormone production and release is often regulated directly or indirectly by the nervous system 3 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hormones carried by blood Neurotransmitters Axon Glands Target cell Extracellular space Receptor proteins Paracrine secretion 4 Endocrine System The endocrine system includes all the organs and tissues that produce hormones -Includes endocrine glands, which are specialized to secrete hormones -Also organs, like the liver, that secrete hormones in addition to other functions Exocrine glands secrete their products, such as saliva or milk, into a duct for transport to the outside 5 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hypothalamus Pineal gland Neurohypophysis Adenohypophysis Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands (behind thyroid) Thymus Adrenal glands Pancreas Testes (in males) Ovaries (in females) 6 Classes of Hormones Molecules that function as hormones must exhibit two basic characteristics 1. Must be sufficiently complex to convey regulatory information to their target cells 2. Must be adequately stable to resist destruction before reaching their target cells Three chemical classes meet these requirements 7 Classes of Hormones 1. Peptides and proteins -Glycoproteins 2. Amino acid derivatives -Catecholamines -Thyroid hormones -Melatonin 3. Steroids -Sex steroids -Corticosteroids 8 Classes of Hormones Hormones may be categorized as: -Lipophilic (nonpolar) = fat-soluble -Steroid hormones and thyroid hormones -Bind to intracellular receptors -Hydrophilic (polar) = water-soluble -All other hormones -Bind to extracellular receptors 9 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hydrophilic 1. Hormones Lipophilic Transport proteins Secretory vesicles Hormones Hormones 1 secreted into extracellular fluid and diffuse into 1 Blood vessels 2. Hormones distributed by blood to all cells. Diffuse from blood to extracellular fluid. Endocrine gland A Endocrine gland B 3. Nontarget 2 Extracellular fluid Extracellular fluid Nontarget cells Nontarget cells 3 3 4. Target cells possess receptors, and are activated by hormones. Membrane receptors Activated cells lack receptors, and cell stimulation does not occur. 4 4 Activated Target cell Nuclear receptor Target cell 5 5. Unused, deactivated hormones are removed by the liver and kidney. 10 Paracrine Regulators Paracrine regulation occurs in most organs -Growth factors are proteins that promote growth and cell division in specific organs -Epidermal growth factor = Skin -Nerve growth factor = Neurons -Insulin-like growth factor = Bone -Cytokines = Immune system 11 Paracrine Regulators The endothelium of blood vessels is a rich source of paracrine regulators -Nitric oxide (NO) which promotes vasodilation -Endothelin which stimulates vasoconstriction -Bradykinin which promotes vasodilation 12 Paracrine Regulators Prostaglandins -A diverse group of fatty acids that are produced in almost every organ -Regulate a variety of functions including: -Smooth muscle contraction, lung function, labor, and inflammation -Synthesis is inhibited by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin and ibuprofen 13 Lipophilic Hormones Lipophilic hormones include the steroid hormones (derived from cholesterol) and the thyroid hormones (tyrosine + iodine) -As well as the retinoids, or vitamin A Testosterone Cortisol (Hydrocortisone) CH2OH HO H3C C O H3C OH H3C H3C Thyroxine OH I HO COOH CH2 CH O I O I I NH2 O 14 Lipophilic Hormones These hormones circulate in the blood bound to transport proteins -Dissociate from carrier at target cells -Pass through the cell membrane and bind to an intracellular receptor, either in the cytoplasm or the nucleus -Hormone-receptor complex binds to hormone response elements in DNA -Regulate gene expression 15 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1. Hormone passes Blood plasma through plasma membrane Lipophilic hormones Plasma membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus 2. Inside target Receptor cell the hormone binds to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm or nucleus 3. Hormone-receptor complex binds to hormone response element on DNA, regulating gene transcription 5. Change in protein synthesis is cellular response mRNA Protein DNA 4. Protein synthesis Hormone response element 16 Hydrophilic Hormones Hydrophilic hormones include the peptide, protein and catecholamine hormones -Too large or polar to cross cell membrane Hormones bind to extracellular receptors -Initiate signal transduction pathways 1. Activation of protein kinases 2. Production of second messengers 17 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1. Receptors Function as Kinase Enzymes 2. Receptors Activate G Proteins Hormones Hormone GPCR Second messengergenerating enzyme GPCR Receptor b g GDP a GTP Inactive G protein Inactive GTP Active G protein Second messenger Active kinase domain ATP Target protein ADP Phosphorylated protein Cellular response Active Protein kinase Inactive protein kinase Target proteins Cellular response 18 Hydrophilic Hormones Receptor kinases -For some peptide hormones (like insulin) the receptor itself is a kinase -Can directly phosphorylate intracellular proteins that alter cellular activity -For other peptide hormones (like growth hormone) the receptor itself is not a kinase -Rather, it activates intracellular kinases 19 Hydrophilic Hormones Second-messenger systems -Many hydrophilic hormones work through second messenger systems -Two have been described: -One involving cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) -One that generates 2 lipid messengers: inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacyl glycerol (DAG) 20 Hydrophilic Hormones Second-messenger systems -Receptors are linked to a secondmessenger-generating enzyme via membrane proteins called G proteins -Are thus called G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCP) -When the G protein activates the enzyme, the second-messenger molecules increase 21 The Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is also known as the hypophysis -It hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus The pituitary gland consists of two parts: -Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) -Appears glandular -Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) -Appears fibrous 22 The Posterior Pituitary The posterior pituitary develops from growth of the brain -It remains directly connected to the hypothalamus by a tract of axons It stores and releases two hormones, that are actually produced by neuron cell bodies in the hypothalamus -Neuroendocrine reflex 23 The Posterior Pituitary Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) -A peptide hormone that stimulates water reabsorption by the kidney, and thus inhibits diuresis (urine production) Oxytocin -Like ADH, it is composed of 9 amino acids -In mammals, it stimulates the milk ejection reflex and uterine contractions during labor, and it regulates reproductive behavior 24 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 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Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus Osmotic concentration of blood increases Dehydration Lowers blood volume and pressure Sensor Sensor Baroreceptors in aorta monitor pressure Osmoreceptors in CNS monitor concentration (–) Negative feedback Response Water returned to blood Effector • ADH reduces urine volume (–) Integrating Center ADH synthesized by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus is released from neurohypophysis into blood Negative feedback Response Increases blood pressure Effector • ADH increases vasoconstriction 25 The Anterior Pituitary The anterior pituitary develops from a pouch of epithelial tissue of the embryo’s mouth It produces at least seven essential hormones -Collectively called tropic hormones or tropins -Can be categorized into three families -Peptide hormones, protein hormones and glycoprotein hormones 26 The Anterior Pituitary Peptide hormones -Fewer than 40 amino acids in size -Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) -Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) Protein hormones -A single chain of about 200 amino acid -Growth hormone (GH) -Prolactin (PRL) 27 The Anterior Pituitary Glycoprotein hormones -Dimers, containing alpha (a) and beta (b) subunits, each around 100 amino acids -Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) -Luteinizing hormone (LH) -Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) 28 The Anterior Pituitary The activity of the anterior pituitary is controlled by hormones of the hypothalamus -Neurons secrete releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones, which diffuse into blood capillaries at the hypothalamus’ base -Each hormone delivered by the hypothalamohypophysial portal system regulates a specific anterior pituitary hormone 29 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hypothalamus Neuron cell bodies Axons to primary capillaries Primary capillaries Portal veins Adenohypophysis Secondary capillaries Neurohypophysis Axons to primary capillaries Hormones Primary capillaries Portal veins 30 The Anterior Pituitary The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary are partially controlled by the very hormones whose secretion they stimulate -This is termed negative feedback or feedback inhibition Positive feedback is uncommon because it causes deviations from homeostasis -One example is the control of ovulation 31 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. (–) Hypothalamus Releasing hormones (TRH, CRH, GnRH) (+) Adenohypophysis (–) Tropic hormones (TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH) (+) Target Glands Thyroid, adrenal cortex, gonads Target ( + ) cells Hormones Negative feedback 32 The Anterior Pituitary The anterior pituitary is sometimes referred to as the “master gland” -Its effects may be direct or indirect -Direct: activation of nonendocrine targets -Indirect: activation of other endocrine glands Hypophysectomy is the surgical removal of the pituitary 33 Anterior Pituitary Disorders Growth hormone stimulates growth of muscles and connective tissue -It also promotes the production of insulinlike growth factors -Stimulate cell division in the epiphyseal growth plates, and thus bone elongation Gigantism is caused by an excessive secretion of growth hormone in a child 34 Anterior Pituitary Disorders 35 Anterior Pituitary Disorders In contrast, pituitary dwarfism is caused by a deficiency in GH secretion during childhood GH can no longer cause an increase in height in adults because human skeletal plates transform from cartilage into bone at puberty -Excessive GH secretion in an adult results in acromegaly 36 The Thyroid Gland In humans, the thyroid gland is shaped like a bow tie, and lies just below the Adam’s apple in the front of the neck -It secretes: -Thyroid hormones -Thyroxine -Triiodothyronine -Calcitonin 37 The Thyroid Gland Thyroid hormones bind to nuclear receptors -Regulate carbohydrate & lipid metabolism -Adults with hypothyroidism have low production of thyroxine -Reduced metabolism and overweight -Adults with hyperthyroidism have high production of thyroxine -High metabolism and weight loss 38 -Trigger metamorphosis in amphibians Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Thyroxine production Premetamorphosis Hypothalamus stimulates adenohypophysis to secrete TSH. –35 –30 –25 Prometamorphosis Climax TSH stimulates thyroid to produce thyroxine. Forelimbs emerge. Tail is reabsorbed . –20 –15 –10 –5 0 +5 +10 +20 Days from emergence of forelimb Hypothalamus stimulation Receptor stimulation Rapid growth Reduced growth, rapid differentiation Rapid differentiation 39 The Thyroid Gland Calcitonin -A peptide hormone -Stimulates the uptake of calcium (Ca2+) into bones -Thus, lowering its levels in the blood 40 The Parathyroid Glands The parathyroid glands are four small glands attached to the thyroid -Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to falling levels of Ca2+ in blood -Stimulates osteoclasts to dissolve calcium phosphate crystals in the bone matrix and release Ca2+ into blood -Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb Ca2+ from the urine 41 The Parathyroid Glands PTH also indirectly leads to the absorption of Ca2+ from food in the intestines by its activation of vitamin D -Vitamin D is produced in the skin from a cholesterol derivative in response to UV light -It diffuses into blood in an inactive form -Activated by an enzyme that is stimulated by PTH 42 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 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Stimulus Low blood Ca2+ Parathyroid glands (–) Parathyroid Negative feedback Secretes PTH (+) Effector (+) Effector (+) Effector Increased Osteoclasts absorption of Ca2+ Reabsorption of 2+, excretion Ca dissolve Ca(PO4)2 from intestine (due 3– of PO4 crystals in bone, to PTH activation releasing Ca2+ of vitamin D) Response Increased blood Ca2+ 43 The Adrenal Glands The adrenal glands are located just above each kidney -Medulla = Inner portion -Stimulated by the sympathetic division of the autonomous nervous system -Cortex = Outer portion -Stimulated by the anterior pituitary, through the hormone ACTH 44 The Adrenal Glands The medulla secretes the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine -These trigger “alarm” responses helping the body prepare for extreme efforts -Lead to an increase in: heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose level, and blood flow to heart and muscle 45 The Adrenal Glands The cortex secretes steroid hormones called corticosteroids -Glucocorticoids (such as cortisol) maintain glucose homeostasis and modulate some aspects of the immune response -Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) regulate mineral balance by stimulating the kidneys to reabsorb Na+ and excrete K+ 46 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 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Stimulus Stress Adenohypophysis (–) Sympathetic nervous system Sympathetic axons ACTH secreted from the adenohypophysis Negative feedback (+) Adrenal cortex Effector Glucocorticoids Adrenal medulla Effector Catecholamine Hormones • Longer term stress • Short term stress response. response. • Effects on lipid and • Effects on cardiovascular carbohydrate metabolsystem, carbohydrate and ism, immune system, lipid metabolism, central and damage repair. nervous system. 47 The Pancreas The pancreas is located adjacent to stomach -Connected to the duodenum of the small intestine by the pancreatic duct The islets of Langerhans are scattered clusters of cells throughout the pancreas -These govern blood glucose levels through two hormones with antagonistic functions 48 The Pancreas Insulin -Secreted by beta (b) cells of the islets -Stimulates cellular uptake of blood glucose and its storage as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells or as fat in fat cells Glucagon -Secreted by alpha (a) cells of the islets -Promotes the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and fat in adipose tissue 49 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 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(–) Stimulus After a Meal Stimulus Between Meals Blood glucose increased Blood glucose decreased (+) (–) (+) Sensor Effector Effector Increased insulin production by b cells Increased glucagon production by a cells Response Response Glucose moves from blood into cells, reducing blood glucose Glycogen hydrolyzed to glucose, then secreted into blood, increasing blood glucose Negative Feedback Negative Feedback Pancreatic Islets 50 Diabetes Mellitus Diabetics cannot take up glucose from blood -Type I (insulin-dependent diabetes) -Individuals lack insulin-secreting b cells -Treated by daily injections of insulin -Type II (noninsulin-dependent diabetes) -Most patients have this form -Very low number of insulin receptors -Treated by diet and exercise 51 The Gonads The ovaries and testes in vertebrates -Produce sex steroids that regulate reproductive development -Estrogen and progesterone -“Female” hormones -Androgens -“Male” hormones -Testosterone and its derivatives 52 The Pineal Gland The pineal gland is located in the roof of the third ventricle of the brain -Functions as an endocrine gland by secreting the hormone melatonin -Reduces dispersal of melanin granules -Regulates biological clocks -Synchronizes various body processes to a circadian rhythm 53 Other Hormones Some hormones are secreted by organs that are not exclusively endocrine glands -Atrial natriuretic hormone is secreted by the right atrium of the heart -Promotes salt and water excretion -Erythropoietin is secreted by the kidney -Stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells 54 Insect Hormones Insects undergo two types of transformations during post-embryonic development -Molting = Shedding of old exoskeleton and secretion of a new larger one -Metamorphosis = Radical transformation from the larval to the adult form 55 Insect Hormones Hormonal secretions influence both molting and metamorphosis -Brain hormone stimulates prothoracic gland to produce ecdysone, or molting hormone -High levels cause molting -The corpora allata produce a hormone called the juvenile hormone -Low levels result in metamorphosis 56 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Neurosecretory cells Corpora allata Brain hormone Juvenile hormone Prothoracic gland Low amounts Ecdysone Larval molt Pupal molt Adult molt 57