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Introduction
• Human skeleton initially cartilages and fibrous membranes
• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage
• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened
• 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body
mass)
• 80 bones of the axial skeleton
• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton
1
Bone Classification
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• Bone Classification:
• Long Bones
(b)
• Short Bones
• Sesamoid Bones
• Flat Bones
• Irregular Bones
• Wormian Bones
(sutural)
(c)
(d)
2
(a)
(e)
Classification of Bones
 Long bones
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.4a
Classification of Bones
 Short bones
 Generally cube-shape
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Examples: Carpals, tarsals
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.4b
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape
Figure 5.1
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.4c
Classification of Bones
 Flat bones
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved
 Thin layers of compact bone around a layer
of spongy bone
 Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.5a
Classification of Bones
 Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
 Example: Vertebrae and hip
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.5b
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape
Figure 5.1
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.5c
Parts of a Long Bone
• Epiphysis
• Distal
• Proximal
• Diaphysis
• Metaphysis
• Compact bone
• Spongy bone
• Articular cartilage
• Periosteum
• Endosteum
• Medullary cavity
• Trabeculae
• Bone marrow
• Red marrow and yellow marrow
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Epiphyseal plates
Articular cartilage
Proximal
epiphysis
Spongy bone
Space containing
red marrow
Endosteum
Compact bone
Medullary cavity
Yellow marrow
Diaphysis
Periosteum
Distal
epiphysis
Femur
9
Microscopic Structure
• Bone cells are called osteocytes
• in a lacuna
• Osteocytes transport nutrients and wastes by
cellular processes in canaliculi
• The extracellular matrix of bone is largely collagen
and inorganic salts
• Collagen gives bone resilience & strength
• Inorganic salts make bone hard
10
Compact Bone
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• Osteon
aka Haversian System
• Central canal
• Perforating canal aka
Volkmann’s canal
• Osteocytes
• Lamellae
• Lacunae
• Bone matrix
• Canaliculi
Osteon
Central canal
containing blood
vessels and nerves
Endosteum
Periosteum
Nerve
Blood
vessels
Pores
Central
canal
Perforating
canal
Compact
bone
Nerve
Blood
vessels
Nerve
Trabeculae
Bone matrix
Canaliculus
Osteocyte
Lacuna
(space)
11
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Figure 5.3
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Lacunae
 Cavities containing
bone cells
(osteocytes)
 Arranged in
concentric rings
 Lamellae
 Rings around the
central canal
 Sites of lacunae
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 5.3
Slide
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Canaliculi
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the
central canal to
lacunae
 Form a transport
system
Figure 5.3
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide
Spongy Bone
• Spongy bone is aka cancellous bone
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Spongy
bone
Compact
bone
(a)
Remnant of
epiphyseal plate
Spongy bone
Compact bone
(b)
(c)
Spongy
bone
Compact
bone
a: © Ed Reschke; b,c: Courtesy of John W. Hole, Jr.
15
Bone Development
and Growth
• Parts of the skeletal system begin to develop
during the first few weeks of prenatal development
• Bones replace existing connective tissue in one of
two ways:
• As intramembranous bones
• As endchondral bones
16
Intramembranous Bones
• Intramembranous Bones
• These bones originate within sheetlike layers of
connective tissues
• They are the broad, flat bones
• Skull bones (except mandible)
• Are known as intramembranous bones
17
Endochondral Bones
• Endochondral Bones
• Bones begin as hyaline cartilage
• Form models for future bones
• These are most bones of the skeleton
• Are known as endochondral bones
18
Endochondral Ossification
• Hyaline cartilage model
• Epiphyseal plate
• Primary ossification center
• Osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts
• Secondary ossification centers
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Cartilaginous
model
Developing
periosteum
Remnants of
epiphyseal
plates
Secondary
ossification
center
Compact bone
developing
Spongy
bone
Epiphyseal
plates
Blood
vessel
Calcified
cartilage
(a)
(b)
Medullary
cavity
(c)
Medullary
cavity
Compact
bone
Medullary
cavity
Remnant of
epiphyseal
plate
Epiphyseal
plate
Primary
ossification
center
Secondary
ossification
center
(d)
Articular
cartilage
Spongy
bone
Articular
cartilage
(e)
(f)
19
Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate
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• First layer of cells
Bone tissue
of epiphysis
• Closest to the end of
epiphysis
• Resting cells
• Anchors epiphyseal plate
to epiphysis
• Zone of resting cartilage
1 Zone of
resting
cartilage
2 Zone of
proliferating
cartilage
3 Zone of
hypertrophic
cartilage
• Second layer of cells
4 Zone of
calcified
cartilage
• Many rows of young
Ossified
bone of
diaphysis
cells
• Undergoing mitosis
• zone of proliferating
cartilage
(a)
(b)
b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer
20
Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate
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• Third layer of cells
Bone tissue
of epiphysis
• Older cells
• Left behind when new
cells appear
• Cells enlarging and
becoming calcified
• zone of hypertrophic
cartilage
1 Zone of
resting
cartilage
2 Zone of
proliferating
cartilage
3 Zone of
hypertrophic
cartilage
• Fourth layer of cells
4 Zone of
calcified
cartilage
• Thin
Ossified
bone of
diaphysis
• Dead cells
• Calcified extracellular
matrix
• zone of calcified
cartilage
(a)
(b)
b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer
21
Homeostasis of Bone Tissue
• Bone Resorption – action of osteoclasts and parathyroid
hormone aka parathormone aka PTH
• Bone Deposition – action of osteoblasts and calcitonin
• Occurs by direction of the thyroid and parathyroid glands
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Developing
medullary
cavity
Osteoclast
22
© Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Factors Affecting Bone
Development, Growth and Repair
• Deficiency of Vitamin A – retards bone development
• Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile bones
• Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets, osteomalacia
• Insufficient Growth Hormone – dwarfism
• Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism, acromegaly
• Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth
• Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate ossification
of epiphyseal plates
• Physical Stress – stimulates bone growth
23
Bone Function
• Bones shape, support, and protect body structures
24
Support, Protection,
and Movement
• Support, Movement & Protection
• Gives shape to head, etc.
• Supports body’s weight
• Protects lungs, etc.
• Bones and muscles interact
• When limbs or body parts move
25
Blood Cell Formation
• Blood Cell Formation
• Also known as hematopoiesis
• Occurs in the red bone marrow
26
Inorganic Salt Storage
• Inorganic Salt Storage
• Calcium
• Phosphate
• Magnesium
• Sodium
• Potassium
27
Skeletal Organization
• The actual number of bones in the human skeleton
varies from person to person
• Typically there are about 206 bones
• For convenience the skeleton is divided into the:
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton
28
Divisions of the Skeleton
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• Axial Skeleton
• Skull
• Spine
• Rib cage
Cranium
Skull
Face
Hyoid
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Humerus
Ribs
Vertebral
column
• Appendicular Skeleton
• Upper limbs
• Lower limbs
• Shoulder girdle
• Pelvic girdle
Vertebral
column
Hip
bone
Carpals
Sacrum
Radius
Coccyx
Ulna
Femur
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
29
Phalanges
(a)
(b)
Skull
• Is composed of the cranium (brain case) and the
facial bones
30
Cranium
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• Frontal Bone (1)
• Forehead
• Roof of nasal cavity
• Roofs of orbits
• Frontal sinuses
• Supraorbital foramen
• Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Coronal suture
Lacrimal bone
Ethmoid bone
Squamous suture
Supraorbital foramen
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone
Perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid bone
Infraorbital foramen
Vomer bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone
Middle nasal concha
of the ethmoid bone
Zygomatic bone
Inferior nasal concha
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental foramen
31
Cranium
• Parietal Bones (2)
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• Side walls of cranium
• Roof of cranium Parietal bone
• Sagittal suture
Coronal suture
Frontal bone
Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone
Lambdoid suture
Ethmoid bone
Occipital bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Temporal bone
Zygomatic bone
External acoustic meatus
Temporal process
of zygomatic bone
Mastoid process
Maxilla
Mandibular condyle
Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone
Mandible
Coronoid process
32
Cranium
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• Occipital Bone (1)
• Back of skull
• Base of cranium
• Foramen magnum
• Occipital condyles
• Lambdoidal suture
Incisive foramen
Palatine process of maxilla
Zygomatic bone
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Zygomatic arch
Median palatine suture
Palatine bone
Greater palatine foramen
Vomer bone
Foramen lacerum
Mandibular fossa
Styloid process
External acoustic meatus
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Carotid canal
Jugular foramen
Stylomastoid foramen
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Mastoid foramen
Lambdoid suture
Temporal bone
Condylar canal
Occipital bone
33
Cranium
• Temporal Bones (2)
• Side walls of cranium
• Floor of cranium
• Floors and sides of orbits
• Squamous suture
• External acoustic meatus
• Mandibular fossa
• Mastoid process
• Styloid process
• Zygomatic process
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Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone
Lambdoid suture
Ethmoid bone
Occipital bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Temporal bone
Zygomatic bone
Temporal process
of zygomatic bone
External acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Maxilla
Mandibular condyle
Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone
Mandible
Coronoid process
34
Cranium
• Sphenoid Bone (1)
• Base of cranium
• Sides of skull
• Floors and sides
of orbits
• Sella turcica
• Sphenoid sinuses
Lesser wing
Optic canal
Greater
wing
Foramen rotundum
Foramen spinosum
(a)
Sella turcica
Foramen ovale
Transverse section
Lesser wing
Greater wing
Superior
orbital fissure
Foramen
rotundum
Lateral pterygoid plate
(b)
Medial pterygoid plate
35
Cranium
• Ethmoid Bone (1)
• Roof and walls of nasal cavity
• Floor of cranium
• Wall of orbits
• Cribiform plates
• Perpendicular plate
• Superior and middle
nasal conchae
• Ethmoid sinuses
• Crista galli
Perpendicular
plate
Crista galli
Crista galli
Superior
nasal concha
Cribriform
plate
Ethmoidal
sinuses
Transverse section
Middle nasal
concha
Orbital
surface
(a)
Perpendicular
plate
(b)
36
Facial Skeleton
• Maxillary Bones (2)
• Upper jaw
• Anterior roof of mouth
• Floors of orbits
• Sides of nasal cavity
• Floors of nasal cavity
• Alveolar processes
• Maxillary sinuses
• Palatine process
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Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone
Lambdoid suture
Ethmoid bone
Occipital bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Temporal bone
Zygomatic bone
Temporal process
of zygomatic bone
External acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Maxilla
Mandibular condyle
Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone
Mandible
Coronoid process
37
Facial Skeleton
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Frontal sinus
Ethmoidal sinuses
Sphenoidal sinus
Maxillary sinus
38
Facial Skeleton
• Palatine Bones (2)
• ‘L’ shaped bones located
behind the maxillae
• Posterior section of hard
palate
• Floor of nasal cavity
• Lateral walls of
nasal cavity
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Perpendicular
portion
Coronal section
Horizontal portion
39
Facial Skeleton
• Zygomatic Bones (2)
• Prominences of cheeks
• Lateral walls of orbits
• Floors of orbits
• Temporal process
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Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone
Lambdoid suture
Ethmoid bone
Occipital bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Temporal bone
Zygomatic bone
Temporal process
of zygomatic bone
External acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Maxilla
Mandibular condyle
Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone
Mandible
Coronoid process
40
Facial Skeleton
• Lacrimal Bones (2)
• Medial walls of orbits
• Groove from orbit to nasal
cavity
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Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone
• Nasal Bones (2)
• Bridge of nose
Lambdoid suture
Ethmoid bone
Occipital bone
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Temporal bone
Zygomatic bone
Temporal process
of zygomatic bone
External acoustic meatus
Mastoid process
Maxilla
Mandibular condyle
Styloid process
Mental foramen
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone
Mandible
Coronoid process
41
Facial Skeleton
• Vomer Bone (1)
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• Inferior portion of nasal
septum
Coronal suture
Temporal bone
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone
Frontal sinus
Lambdoid suture
Nasal bone
Occipital bone
Crista galli
Ethmoid
bone
Internal acoustic meatus
Cribriform plate
Perpendicular plate
(nasal septum)
Jugular foramen
Sella turcica
Inferior nasal concha
Palatine process
of maxilla
Maxilla
Hypoglossal canal
Styloid process
Foramen magnum
Sphenoidal sinus
Mastoid process
Palatine bone
Vomer bone
Mandible
Alveolar processes
42
Facial Skeleton
• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)
• Extend from lateral
walls of nasal cavity
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Coronal suture
Temporal bone
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Squamous suture
Sphenoid bone
Frontal sinus
Lambdoid suture
Nasal bone
Occipital bone
Crista galli
Ethmoid
bone
Internal acoustic meatus
Cribriform plate
Perpendicular plate
(nasal septum)
Jugular foramen
Sella turcica
Inferior nasal concha
Palatine process
of maxilla
Maxilla
Hypoglossal canal
Styloid process
Foramen magnum
Sphenoidal sinus
Mastoid process
Palatine bone
Vomer bone
Mandible
Alveolar processes
43
Facial Skeleton
• Mandible Bone (1)
• Lower jaw
• Body
• Ramus
• Mandibular condyle
• Coronoid process
• Alveolar process
• Mandibular foramen
• Mental foramen
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Coronoid
process
Coronoid process
Mandibular
foramen
Mandibular condyle
Ramus
Alveolar
border
Mandibular
foramen
Body
Mental foramen
Body
(a)
(b)
Alveolar
arch
44
Infantile Skull
• Fontanels – fibrous membranes
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Frontal suture
(metopic suture)
Frontal bone
Anterior fontanel
Sagittal suture
Posterior fontanel
(b)
45
Vertebral Column
• The vertebral column, or spinal column, consists of
many vertebrae separated by cartilaginous intervertebral
discs.
46
Vertebral Column
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• Cervical vertebrae (7)
• Thoracic vertebrae (12)
• Lumbar vertebrae (5)
• Sacral (4-5 fused segments)
• Sacrum is fused bone
• Coccygeal (3-4 fused segments)
• Coccyx is fused bone
Cervical
vertebrae
Cervical
curvature
Vertebra
prominens
Rib facet
Thoracic
vertebrae
Thoracic
curvature
Intervertebral
Intervertebral
foramina
Lumbar
curvature
Lumbar
vertebrae
Sacrum
Sacral
curvature
47
Coccyx
(a)
(b)
Vertebral Column
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Cervical curvature
• Thoracic curvature
• Lumbar curvature
• Sacral curvature
• Rib facets
• Vertebral prominens
• Intervertebral discs (IVD)
• Intervertebral foramina (IVF)
Cervical
vertebrae
Cervical
curvature
Vertebra
prominens
Rib facet
Thoracic
vertebrae
Thoracic
curvature
Intervertebral
Intervertebral
foramina
Lumbar
curvature
Lumbar
vertebrae
Sacrum
Sacral
curvature
48
Coccyx
(a)
(b)
Typical Vertebrae
• Includes the following parts:
• Vertebral body
• Pedicles
• Lamina
• Spinous process
• Transverse processes
• Vertebral foramen
• Facets
49
Cervical Vertebrae
• Atlas –
supports head
• Axis – 2nd; dens pivots to turn
head
• Transverse foramina
• Bifid spinous processes
• Vertebral prominens – useful
landmark
1st;
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Posterior
Facet that articulates
with occipital condyle
Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process
Anterior
Facet that articulates
with dens (odontoid process)
of axis
Atlas
(a)
Transverse
foramen
Anterior articular
facet for atlas
Spinous
process
Spinous process
Dens
Superior
articular facet
Transverse
foramen
Body
Inferior articular
process
(b)
Transverse
process
(c)
Axis
Dens (odontoid
process)
50
Thoracic Vertebrae
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Superior
articular
process
Transverse
process
• Long spinous processes
• Rib facets
Pedicle
Facet for
tubercle of rib
Superior
articular
process
Body
Intervertebral notch
Body
Spinous
process
Transverse
process
Inferior articular
process
(a)
Spinous process
Inferior articular
process
Lamina
Intervertebral
disc
Transverse process
Facet for tubercle of rib
Superior articular process
Vertebral foramen
Anterior
Spinous
process
Pedicle
Body
51
(b)
Posterior
(c)
Lumbar Vertebrae
• Large bodies
• Thick, short spinous
processes
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Spinous process
Lamina
Superior articular
process
Transverse process
Pedicle
Vertebral foramen
Body
(c) Lumbar vertebra
52
Sacrum
• 4-5 fused segments
• Median sacral crest
• Posterior sacral
foramina
• Posterior wall of pelvic
cavity
• Sacral promontory aka
base
• Area toward coccyx is
the apex
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Sacral promontory
Superior articular process
Sacral canal
Auricular
surface
Tubercle
of median
sacral crest
Sacrum
Posterior sacral
foramen
Sacral hiatus
Anterior sacral
foramen
Coccyx
(a)
(b)
53
Coccyx
• Aka tailbone
• 3-4 fused segments
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Sacral promontory
Superior articular process
Sacral canal
Auricular
surface
Tubercle
of median
sacral crest
Sacrum
Posterior sacral
foramen
Sacral hiatus
Anterior sacral
foramen
Coccyx
(a)
(b)
54
Thoracic Cage
• The thoracic cage includes the ribs, the thoracic
vertebrae, the sternum, and the costal cartilages that attach
the ribs to the sternum.
55
Thoracic Cage
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• Ribs (12)
• Sternum
• Thoracic vertebrae (12)
• Costal cartilages
• Supports shoulder girdle
and upper limbs
• Protects viscera
• Role in breathing
Jugular notch
(suprasternal notch)
Thoracic vertebra
Sternal angle
Clavicular notch
1
2
Manubrium
3
True ribs
(vertebrosternal
ribs)
4
5
Sternum
Body
6
7
Xiphoid process
8
False
ribs
Vertebrochondral
ribs
Ribs
9
Costal
cartilage
10
11
Floating ribs
(vertebral ribs)
12
(a)
56
(b)
b: © Victor B. Eichler, PhD
Ribs
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Jugular notch
(suprasternal notch)
• Humans have 12 pairs of ribs:
• True ribs (7)
• False ribs (5), of which:
Thoracic vertebra
Sternal angle
Clavicular notch
1
2
Manubrium
3
True ribs
(vertebrosternal
ribs)
• Floating (2)
4
5
6
7
Xiphoid process
8
• There are some anomalies:
• Cervical ribs
• Lumbar ribs
Sternum
Body
False
ribs
Vertebrochondral
ribs
Ribs
9
Costal
cartilage
10
11
Floating ribs
(vertebral ribs)
12
(a)
57
(b)
b: © Victor B. Eichler, PhD
Rib Structure
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• Shaft
• Head – posterior end;
articulates with vertebrae
• Tubercle – articulates with
vertebrae
• Costal cartilage – hyaline
cartilage
Neck
Head
Tubercle
Anterior end
Shaft
Costal groove
(a)
Spinous process
Facet
Tubercle
Neck
Head
Facet
Shaft
(b)
Anterior end
(sternal end)
58
Sternum
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Jugular notch
(suprasternal notch)
• Three (3) parts of the
sternum:
• Manubrium
• Body
• Xiphoid process
Thoracic vertebra
Sternal angle
Clavicular notch
1
2
Manubrium
3
True ribs
(vertebrosternal
ribs)
4
5
Sternum
Body
6
7
Xiphoid process
8
False
ribs
Vertebrochondral
ribs
Ribs
9
Costal
cartilage
10
11
Floating ribs
(vertebral ribs)
12
(a)
59
(b)
b: © Victor B. Eichler, PhD
Pectoral Girdle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Also known as the
shoulder girdle
• Clavicles
• Scapulae
• Supports upper limbs
• True shoulder joint is
simply the articulation of
the humerus and scapula
Acromial end
Sternal end
Acromion
process
Clavicle
Head of
humerus
Coracoid
process
Sternum
Scapula Rib
Costal
cartilage
Humerus
Ulna
Radius
(a)
60
Clavicles
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Articulate with manubrium
• Articulate with scapulae
(acromion process)
• A-C joint
Acromial end
Sternal end
Acromion
process
Clavicle
Head of
humerus
Coracoid
process
Sternum
Scapula Rib
Costal
cartilage
Humerus
Ulna
Radius
(a)
61
Scapulae
• Spine
• Supraspinous fossa
• Infraspinous fossa
• Acromion process
• Coracoid process
• Glenoid fossa or cavity
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Superior
border
Coracoid
process
Suprascapular
notch
Acromion
process
Acromion
process
Coracoid
process
Supraglenoid
tubercle
Spine
Glenoid
cavity
Infraglenoid
tubercle
Supraspinous
fossa
Infraspinous
fossa
(a)
Glenoid
cavity
Subscapular
fossa
Lateral
(axillary) border
Medial
(vertebral)
border
(b)
(c)
62
Upper Limb
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Humerus
• Radius
• Ulna
(Interosseous membrane)
• Carpals
• Metacarpals
• Phalanges
Humerus
Humerus
Olecranon
process
Olecranon
fossa
Head of radius
Neck of radius
Ulna
(c)
Radius
Ulna
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
(a) Hand (palm anterior)
(b) Hand (palm posterior)
(d)
d: © Martin Rotker
63
Humerus
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Head
• Greater tubercle
• Lesser tubercle
• Anatomical neck
• Surgical neck
• Deltoid tuberosity
• Capitulum
• Trochlea
• Coronoid fossa
• Olecranon fossa
Greater tubercle
Head
Intertubercular
groove
Anatomical
neck
Lesser tubercle
Surgical
neck
Greater tubercle
Deltoid tuberosity
Coronoid
fossa
Lateral
epicondyle
Olecranon
fossa
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Capitulum
Trochlea
(a)
64
(b)
Radius
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Lateral forearm bone
• Head
• Radial tuberosity
• Styloid process
Trochlear notch
Olecranon
process
Coronoid process
Head of radius
Olecranon
process
Trochlear
notch
Radial tuberosity
Coronoid
process
Radial
notch
Radius
(b)
Ulna
Head of ulna
Styloid process
(a)
Styloid process
Ulnar notch of radius
65
Ulna
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Medial forearm bone
• Trochlear notch
• Olecranon process
• Coronoid process
• Styloid process
Trochlear notch
Olecranon
process
Coronoid process
Head of radius
Olecranon
process
Trochlear
notch
Radial tuberosity
Coronoid
process
Radial
notch
Radius
(b)
Ulna
Head of ulna
Styloid process
(a)
Styloid process
Ulnar notch of radius
66
Wrist and Hand
• Carpal Bones (16 total bones)
• Scaphoid
• Lunate
• Triquetral
• Pisiform
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Trapezoid
• Trapezium
Radius
Ulna
Lunate
Hamate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Scaphoid
Capitate
Trapezoid
Trapezium
Scaphoid
Capitate
Trapezoid
Trapezium
Carpals
(carpus)
1
1
Metacarpals
(metacarpus)
• Metacarpal Bones (10)
• Phalangeal Bones (28)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2
5
5
3
4
4
3
2
Proximal
phalanx
Phalanges
• Proximal phalanx
Middle
phalanx
Distal
phalanx
• Middle phalanx
• Distal phalanx
(a)
(b)
67
Pelvic Girdle
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Coxal Bones (2)
• Supports trunk of body
• Protects viscera
• Forms pelvic cavity
Sacral canal
Ilium
Sacrum
Sacral hiatus
Coccyx
Ischium
(b)
Pubis
Obturator foramen
Sacroiliac joint
Ilium
Sacral promontory
Sacrum
Acetabulum
Pubis
Symphysis
pubis
Pubic tubercle
Ischium
68
Pubic arch
(a)
c: © Martin Rotker
(c)
Hip Bones
• Also known as the coxae:
• Acetabulum
• There are three (3)
bones:
1. Ilium
• Iliac crest
• Iliac spines
• Greater sciatic notch
2. Ischium
• Ischial spines
• Lesser sciatic notch
• Ischial tuberosity
3. Pubis
• Obturator foramen
• Symphysis pubis
• Pubic arch
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Iliac crest
Iliac fossa
Iliac crest
Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Posterior
superior
iliac spine
Ilium
Anterior
inferior
iliac spine
Ilium
Posterior
inferior
iliac spine
Obturator
foramen
Greater
sciatic notch
Acetabulum
Obturator foramen
Pubis
Ischium
Ischial spine
Lesser
sciatic notch
Pubic crest
Ischium
Pubis
Pubic tubercle
Ischial
tuberosity
(a)
(b)
69
Greater and Lesser Pelves
• Greater Pelvis
• Lumbar vertebrae
posteriorly
• Iliac bones laterally
• Abdominal wall
anteriorly
• Lesser Pelvis
• Sacrum and coccyx
posteriorly
• Lower ilium, ischium, and
pubic bones laterally and
anteriorly
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Flared ilium
Sacral promontory
Pelvic brim
Symphysis pubis
(a) Female pelvis
Pubic arch
Sacral promontory
Sacral curvature
70
(b) Male pelvis
Pubic arch
Differences Between
Male Female Pelves
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Female pelvis
• Iliac bones more flared
• Broader hips
• Pubic arch angle greater
• More distance between ischial
spines and ischial tuberosities
• Sacral curvature shorter and
flatter
• Lighter bones
• Why?
Flared ilium
Sacral promontory
Pelvic brim
Symphysis pubis
(a) Female pelvis
Pubic arch
Sacral promontory
Sacral curvature
71
(b) Male pelvis
Pubic arch
Lower Limb
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Femur
• Patella
• Tibia
• Fibula
• Tarsals
• Metatarsals
• Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Femur
Fibula
Tibia
(c) Lateral view
Patella
Fibula
Femur
Tibia
Lateral
condyle
Medial
condyle
Fibula
Tibia
Tarsals
Metatarsals
(d) Posterior view
72
Phalanges
(b)
Femur
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Longest bone of body
• Head
• Fovea capitis
• Neck
• Greater trochanter
• Lesser trochanter
• Linea aspera
• Condyles
• Epicondyles
Fovea capitis
Neck
Head
Greater
trochanter
Gluteal
tuberosity
Lesser
trochanter
Linea
aspera
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Medial
condyle
Lateral
condyle
Intercondylar
fossa
(a)
Patellar
surface
(b)
73
Patella
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Aka kneecap
• Anterior surface of the knee
joint
• Flat sesamoid bone located
in the quadriceps tendon
Femur
Patella
Femur
Fibula
Tibia
(c) Lateral view
Patella
Fibula
Femur
Tibia
Lateral
condyle
Medial
condyle
Fibula
Tibia
Tarsals
Metatarsals
(d) Posterior view
74
Phalanges
(b)
Tibia
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Aka shin bone
• Medial to fibula
• Condyles
• Tibial tuberosity
• Anterior crest
• Makes the medial malleolus
Lateral
condyle
Head of
fibula
Intercondylar
eminence
Medial
condyle
Tibial
tuberosity
Anterior
crest
Fibula
Tibia
Lateral
malleolus
Medial
malleolus
75
Fibula
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Lateral to tibia
• Long, slender
• Head
• Makes the lateral malleolus
• Non-weight bearing
Lateral
condyle
Head of
fibula
Intercondylar
eminence
Medial
condyle
Tibial
tuberosity
Anterior
crest
Fibula
Tibia
Lateral
malleolus
Medial
malleolus
76
Foot
• Tarsal Bones (14)
• Calcaneus
• Talus
• Navicular
• Cuboid
• Lateral (3rd) cuneiform
• Intermediate (2nd) cuneiform
• Medial (1st) cuneiform
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Fibula
Tibia
Talus
Medial
cuneiformNavicular
Metatarsals
(metatarsus)
• Metatarsal Bones (10)
• Phalanges (28)
Calcaneus
Phalanges
Calcaneal
tuberosity
(b)
Tarsals
(tarsus)
• Proximal
• Middle
• Distal
77
Foot
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Calcaneus
Talus
Tarsals
(tarsus)
Navicular
Cuboid
Lateral cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Medial cuneiform
5
4
3
2
1
Metatarsals
(metatarsus)
Proximal phalanx
Middle phalanx
Distal phalanx
Phalanges
78
(a)
Lifespan Changes
• Decrease in height at about age 30
• Calcium levels fall
• Bones become brittle
• Osteoclasts outnumber osteoblasts
• Spongy bone weakens before compact bone
• Bone loss rapid in menopausal women
• Hip fractures common
• Vertebral compression fractures common
79
80
Joints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together
 Allow for mobility
 Ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.43
Functional Classification of Joints
 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable
joints
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.44
Structural Classification of Joints
 Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly moveable
 Synovial joints
 Freely moveable
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.45
Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue –
synarthrosis or largely immovable.
Figure 5.27d, e
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.46
Cartilaginous Joints – mostly
amphiarthrosis
 Bones connected by cartilage
 Examples
 Pubic
symphysis
 Intervertebral
joints
Figure 5.27b, c
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.47
Synovial Joints
 Articulating
bones are
separated by a
joint cavity
 Synovial fluid
is found in the
joint cavity
Figure 5.27f–h
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.48
Features of Synovial JointsDiarthroses
 Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)
covers the ends of bones
 Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous
articular capsule
 Have a joint cavity filled with synovial
fluid
 Ligaments reinforce the joint
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.49
Structures Associated with the
Synovial Joint
 Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint
 Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.50
The Synovial Joint
Figure 5.28
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.51
Types of Synovial Joints Based on
Shape
Figure 5.29a–c
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide
Types of Synovial Joints Based on
Shape
Figure 5.29d–f
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide
Inflammatory Conditions
Associated with Joints
 Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually
caused by a blow or friction
 Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
 Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative
diseases of joints
 Over 100 different types
 The most widespread crippling disease in the
United States
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide 5.53
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
 Osteoarthritis
 Most common chronic arthritis
 Probably related to normal aging processes
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 An autoimmune disease – the immune system
attacks the joints
 Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joints
 Often leads to deformities
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
 Gouty Arthritis
 Inflammation of joints is caused by a
deposition of urate crystals from the blood
 Can usually be controlled with diet
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slide