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AP European History
Review
Renaissance – French Revolution
Late Middle Ages
Black Death and Social Crisis
Famine and Population
Little Ice Age
•
Drop in temp and change in weather patterns
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

Resulted in crop failures and famine
Killed approx. 10% of European Population
Famine led to chronic malnutrition
 People were more susceptible to disease
The Black Death
Bubonic plague
•
•
Spread by rats carrying infected fleas
Pneumonic plague

Deadlier version which spread to the lungs
Spread of the Plague
* The plague originated in Asia
* Mongol troops came in contact with
European trade routes
* Flea infested rats came back to Italian port
cities on merchant ships (1347)
European Population declined by 25-50%
between 1347 and 1351
Life and Death: Reactions to the Plague
Surrounded with death, some people began
living for the moment
Others thought the plague was punishment
from God or the work of the Devil
Flagellants – whipped themselves to win
forgiveness from and angry God
Blamed Jews for the spread of the disease
• Pogroms – organized Jewish massacres
Noble Landlords and Peasants
The Plague caused a severe labor shortage
Led to a rise in wages (basic supply and demand)
Population declined and so did demand for
agriculture = drop in prices for agriculture
Standard of living for nobles decreased while peasants
increased
English Parliament passed Statute of Laborers
(1351)
Attempted to limit wages to pre-plague levels
Wage restrictions and government taxes angered the
peasants
To what extent were climate and disease
key factors in producing economic and
social changes in the Late Middle Ages?
Political Instability
Lord-serf relationship changed to wage
earners
Lord-vassal relationship changed from
military service (think of knights)
Paid scutage (money payments)
Allowed monarchy to hire professional soldiers
Created factions amongst nobles
Heirs to the French, English and German thrones
were not clear descendents
To gain support for their coronation, they had to offer
favors, land and money to noble factions for their
support
Paying for mercenary soldiers left the monarchies
strapped for cash
To generate money, they had to tax which required the
approval of parliament in most cases.
This opened the door for parliament to gain more power
and prestige
Decline of the Church
King Phillip IV of France tried to tax the French clergy
Pope Boniface VIII said a secular ruler had no right to tax the clergy
without the pope’s consent
Unam Sanctam (1302) papal bull
Statement of supremacy of the church over the state
Pope Boniface VIII also excommunicated Phillip IV
Phillip IV sent troops and captured Pope Boniface
Italian nobles rescued the pope but he died shortly after
King Phillip IV of France influenced the college of cardinals
Elected Clement V as pope
Clement V moved papal residence from Vatican City to Avignon
Papacy at Avignon
Remained there for 72 years
Created a specialized bureaucracy to obtain
new revenue for the church
Elected 134 new cardinals, 113 were French
Avignon papacy became a symbol of church
corruption
The Great Schism
Catherine of Siena (a mystic) seemed to have convinced Pope Gregory
XI to return to Rome
He died soon after his return
Italians pressured French cardinals to elect an Italian pope – Pope
Urban VI
French cardinals got home
Elected Clement VII as pope
Pope Clement VII returned to Avignon
Great Schism 1378-1417
Period with two popes
Two popes split Europe along alliances
England and her allies – Rome Pope Urban VI
France and her allies - Avignon Pope Clement VII
Both factions increased taxation and corruption to raise revenue
What were the main causes of the Great
Schism? What were the major results of
this great political and religious conflict?
Vernacular Literature
Latin was the language of the clergy and
educated nobility
Vernacular refers to the common regional
language
Dante - Divine Comedy
Story of the soul’s progression to salvation
3 act poem – hell, purgatory, and heaven
What was the significance of artists
writing in the vernacular language?
Renaissance
Meaning and Characteristics of
the Italian Renaissance
Renaissance = Rebirth
Rebirth of antiquity – Greco-Roman civilization
Jacob Burkhardt
Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860)
Portrayed Italy as the birthplace of the modern world
Urban Society
City-states dominated political, economic, & social life
Age of Recovery
Effects of Black Death, political disorder, economic recession
Emphasis on individual ability
New social ideal of a well rounded or universal person
Wealthy upper class, not a mass movement
Machiavelli and the New
Statecraft
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 – 1527)
The Prince (1513)
Realistic examination political rule
Acquisition, maintenance and expansion of political
power
Prince should act on behalf of the state, not his
conscience
Cesare Borgia
• Pope Alexander VI son
• Perfect model for the The Prince
How did Machiavelli deal with the issue of
political power?
The Italian States in the
Renaissance
Five Major Powers
Milan
• Francesco Sforza takes control
• Viscontis and Sforzas created a centralized state and collected large tax
revenues
Venice
• Ruled by an oligarchy of merchant aristocrats
• Maritime power which looked to expand to mainland to secure food sources
Florence
• Cosimo Medici (1434-1464) (made money in banking)
• Lorenzo the Magnificent (1469-1492)
• Republican form of Gov, but controlled by Medici family
The Papal States
• Weakened by the Great Schism
• Looked to regain control over Urbino, Bologna, & Ferrara
Kingdom of Naples
• Controlled by monarchy and a population of poor peasants
• Did not experience the Renaissance like the rest of Italy
What was the relation between art and
politics in Renaissance Italy?
Italian Renaissance Humanism
Classical Revival (Greco-Roman classics)
Individualism and Secularism were two characteristics of the Renaissance
• Renaissance was a movement of the elite, not the masses
Petrarch (1304 – 1374)
Characterized the Middle Ages as dark
Promoted studying the classics
Humanism in Fifteenth-Century Italy
Study of Ancient Greek and Roman writers
Leonardo Bruni (1370 – 1444)
• New Cicero
 Renaissance Ideal – duty of an intellectual to be active
for one’s state
Civic Humanism – fusion of political action and literary creation
Lorenzo Valla (1407 – 1457)
• Wrote Elegances of the Latin Language
 Wanted to restore Latin as proper language over the vernacular
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 – 1494), Oration on the
Dignity of Man – Human Potential (people could be whatever they
chose or willed)
Education, History, and the
Impact of Printing
Education in the Renaissance
Liberal Studies: history, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric),
letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy,
music, physical education (martial arts)
Purpose was to create individuals who followed a path of virtue
and wisdom & could influence others to do the same
Education of women
• Few women got an education
• Ones who did got an education focusing on religion and morals
Aim of education was to create a complete citizen
Humanism and History
Periodization of history (ancient world, dark ages, present time)
Secularization – took religious events out of history
Guicciardini (1483 – 1540), History of Italy, History of Florence
• Examined evidence supporting historical events
The Impact of Printing
Johannes Gutenberg
• Movable type (1445 – 1450)
• Gutenberg’s Bible (1455 or 1456)
The spread of printing
• By 1500, more than 1000 printers in Europe
• Became one of Europe’s largest industries
• Printing of books encouraged development of
research
• More laymen (regular people) became literate
How did the printing press change
European society?
Art in the Early Renaissance
Primary goal of artists was imitation of nature
Masaccio (1401 – 1428)
Took up where Giotto left off
Frescoes are regarded as first masterpieces of the Early Renaissance
Perspective and Organization (use of math in art)
Movement and Anatomical Structure (study of the human form)
Paolo Uccelo (1397 – 1475)
The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian
Sandro Botticelli (1445 – 1510)
Primavera
Donato di Donatello (1386 – 1466)
David
• First free standing nude bronze sculpture since antiquity
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – 1446)
The Cathedral of Florernce – finished the dome
Church of San Lorenzo
The Artistic High Renaissance
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519)
Last Supper
• Showed personality and relationship to Jesus through the apostles
reaction “one of you will betray me”
Raphael (1483 – 1520)
Known for his madonnas
School of Athens – imaginary gathering of ancient philosophers
Michelangelo (1475 – 1564)
The Sistine Chapel
• Told the story of the fall of man
David – marble sculpture
The Northern Artistic
Renaissance
Northern Renaissance artists
Less mastery of perspective
Emphasis on illuminated manuscripts & wooden panel
painting
Did not portray the human body like Italian
counterparts
Jan van Eyck (c. 1380 – 1441)
Most influential Northern Renaissance artist
Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride
Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528)
Adoration of the Magi
Reformation
Prelude to Reformation
Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism
Christian Humanists
• Northern Renaissance Goal-reform of Christianity
• Focus on sources of Christianity
 Holy Scriptures & writings of Church fathers
 Found early religion simpler
Desiderius Erasmus (1466 – 1536)
• Handbook of the Christian Knight (1503)-showed his preoccupation
with religion
• “The Philosophy of Christ”-stressed inner piety over external religion
such as sacraments, pilgrimages, fasts, veneration of saints, and relics
• The Praise of Folly (1511) – criticism of the church
• Wanted reform from within the church
 Understand the philosophy of Jesus
 Enlightened education in early Christianity
• “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched”
• Erasmus would eventually disapprove of Luther and the Protestant
reformers
• Erasmus wanted to reform the church from within rather than split it
up
What was Christian humanism and how
did it help prepare the way for the
Protestant Reformation?
Did Erasmus’ works pave the way for
Luther’s break with Rome and
Catholicism?
Thomas More (1478-1535)
Well educated – worked for English government as Lord
Chancellor
Friends with English humanists including Erasmus
Wrote Utopia (1516)
Greek for Nowhere, set in an imaginary island near the new world
Based on communal ownership rather than private property
Citizens enjoyed abundant leisure time
More saw corruption first hand serving King Henry VIII
Opposed Henry VIII’s divorce and break with the Catholic church
Thomas More was executed in 1535
Church and Religion on the Eve
of the Reformation
Corruption in the clergy
Pluralism – high church officials took over more than
one church office, which led to duties being ignored
Widespread desire for meaningful religious
expression
The masses wanted to insure their salvation
Church used relics and indulgences to generate money
and reduce a person’s time in purgatory
“Modern Devotion” popular mystical movement
Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ
• Downplayed religious dogma & stressed the teachings of Jesus
The Early Luther
Early Life
Education in law
Joins Augustinian Hermits (becomes a monk)
Struggled with assurances of salvation
Catholic Doctrine stressed faith and good work for salvation
Justification by faith & the Bible became pillars of the Protestant
Reformation
The Indulgence Controversy
Jubilee indulgence (1517)
• Raised money to finish St. Peter’s Basilica
• “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory
springs”
Ninety-Five Theses
• Luther’s indictment of church corruption
• Pope Leo X did nothing
• translated into German and thousands of copies were printed
Luther Cont’d
The Quickening Rebellion
1519: Leipzig Debate
• Johann Eck forced Luther to deny the authority of popes and
councils
1520: Luther moves toward break with Rome
• Wrote three pamphlets
• Address to the Nobility of the German Nation
 Called for German princes to overthrow the papacy in Germany
• The Babylonian Captivity of the Church
 Attacked the sacramental system
 Called for clergy to be able to marry
• On the Freedom of a Christian Man
 Salvation through faith alone rather than good works
1521: Diet of Worms
1521: Diet of Worms - Luther refuses to recant
Holy Roman Emperor Charles the V passes
Edict of Worms
• Excommunicates Luther
• His works are burned
• Luther becomes an outlaw within the Holy Roman
Empire
Church and State
Doctrinal Issues
Justification by faith
• Luther downplayed good works as a passage to salvation
Transubstantiation
• Luther denied the practice of the bread and wine consumed turning to
the blood and body of Jesus
Authority of Scripture
• The word of God in the Bible was sufficient authority in religious
affairs
“Priesthood of all believers”
• All Christians who followed the word of God were their own priests
State Churches & New Religious Services
• Luther replaced the mass with Bible readings and songs
What was Luther’s fundamental problem
with the Catholic Church?
Germany and the Reformation:
Religion and Politics
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519 – 1556)
Faced four major problems
French, papacy, Turks and Germany’s internal situation
Problems allowed Luther’s movement to grow and organize
Francis I of France (1515 – 1547)
Chief concern during the reign of Charles V
Habsburg – Valois Wars (1521 – 1544) (wars between France & Spain)
Pope Clement VII (1523 – 1534) sides with Francis I
• Charles V sacked Rome, took over Italy (1527)
Allowed time for the development of Lutheranism in Germany
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 – 1566) (Turks)
Killed King Louis of Hungary and moved into Vienna
Turks were pushed back in 1529
Charles V decided to deal with Luther
Germany’s fragmented political power had made
German states independent
Diet of Augsburg (1530)
Charles V demands that Lutherans return to the
Catholic Church
Schmalkaldic League – alliance of German
princes (8 princes & 11 imperial cities join)
New threats from the French and the Turks forced
Charles to compromise with the Lutherans
Schmalkaldic War
First Phase 1546-1547
Luther died in 1546
Charles invades German states and defeats the Lutherans at the Battle of
Muhlberg
Second Phase
German Princes allied with new French king Henry II
Although he was Catholic, he hated Charles more than the Lutherans
Charles V was forced to offer a truce
Charles abdicated (stepped down) as Holy Roman Emperor
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
Division of Christianity acknowledged
Lutheranism granted equal rights with Catholicism
German rulers could chose the religion of their subjects
The Spread of the Protestant
Reformation
Lutheranism in Scandinavia
Disintegration of Denmark, Norway, Sweden union
Development of Lutheran national churches
• By 1540, Scandinavia was a Lutheran stronghold
The Zwinglian Reformation
Swiss Confederation
• Loose association of 13 self-governing states called cantons
Ulrich Zwingli (1484 – 1531)
• Strongly influenced by Christian Humanism
• Unrest in Zurich
 Zwingli’s preaching vs. Catholic ideals in town hall debate
• Seeks alliance with German reformers
 For protection against imperial and conservative opposition
Marburg Colloquy – attempt to unite Swiss & German reformers
•
•
•
•
Stalled over interpretation of Lord’s Supper (Communion)
Zwingli believed it was symbolic
Luther believed it was literal
No alliance was formed
Swiss Civil War (Swiss Protestants vs. Catholic Cantons)
• Zurich’s army defeated – Zwingli found wounded on the battlefield
• Enemies cut up his body, burned pieces, and spread the ashes
The Reformation in England
Henry VIII (1509 – 1547)
Catherine of Aragón (First Wife)
Henry seeks to dissolve marriage
Charles the V was Catherine’s nephew, delayed process
Anne Boleyn (Second Wife)
Elizabeth I
Act of Supremacy (1534)
King was the head of the Church of England
Formal break with the church of Rome
Seized church land and sold it
How did the English Reformation differ
from the reformation in other countries?
John Calvin and the
Development of Calvinism
John Calvin (1509 – 1564)
Humanist education
Influenced by Luther
Institutes of Christian Religion (1536)
Synthesis of Protestant thought
Predestination
Some people were destined to be saved (the elect) and others were
destined to be damned (the reprobate)
Calvinism: militant form of Protestantism
Two Sacraments
Baptism – sign of remission of sin
The Lord’s Supper – believed in presence of Jesus in the sacrament
Geneva
Consistory – a special body for enforcing moral discipline
How was Calvinism similar and different
to Lutheranism?
The Catholic Reformation
Old and New
Emergence of new female mysticism
Regeneration of religious orders
• Did good works and preached the Gospel (combating spread of
Protestantism)
Creation of new religious orders
• New orders founded orphanages, hospitals, schools and other acts of
charity
The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
Ignatius of Loyola (1491 – 1556)
• The Spiritual Exercises – training manual for spiritual development
Jesuits recognized as a religious order (1540)
• Absolute obedience to the papacy
• Structured like the military
Three major objectives of Jesuits
• Education crucial to combating Protestantism
• Propagation of Catholic faith among non-Catholics (missionary work)
• Fight Protestantism – restored Catholicism to parts of Germany,
Poland and Eastern Europe
A Revived Papacy
Pope Paul III (1534 – 1549)
Reform Commission (1535 – 1537)
• Blamed the church’s problems on corrupt policies of popes and
cardinals
Recognized Jesuits & summoned the Council of Trent
Roman Inquisition (1542)
• No compromises with Protestantism
Pope Paul IV (1555 – 1559) (Cardinal Caraffa)
1st true pope of the Counter Reformation
Index of Forbidden Books – banned books
• Any Protestant others
The Council of Trent
Met intermittently from 1545 – 1563 (3 sessions)
Divisions between moderates and conservatives
(conservatives won)
Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings
Scripture and Tradition
• Reaffirmed as equal authorities
• Only the church could interpret Scripture
Faith and Good Works were declared necessary for salvation
7 Sacraments, transubstantiation and clerical celibacy were all
upheld
Purgatory & indulgences were affirmed
• (no more hawking indulgences)
Most important was the creation of theological seminaries for
training priests
What were the contributions of the papacy,
Council of Trent, and the Jesuits to the
revival of Catholicism?
Politics and the Wars of Religion
in the Sixteenth Century
The French Wars of Religion (1562 – 1598)
Huguenots
• 10% of pop but 40 – 50% of French nobility
The ultra-Catholics
• Led by the Guise family
• Favored strict opposition to the Huguenots
Revolts against the monarchy
• Nobility and townships became more loyal to religion than monarchy
The Politiques put government before religion
Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (August 24, 1572)
• Killed 3 thousand Huguenots in three days in Paris
• Huguenots rebuild – backfires against Valois dynasty
Henry IV of Navarre (1589 – 1610)
• Converts to Catholicism
• Edict of Nantes (1598) – acknowledges Catholicism as official religion of
France but guaranteed Huguenots certain rights to hold office and practice
religion
The England of Elizabeth
Queen Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603)
Act of Supremacy (1559) restored Protestantism to England and made Elizabeth
the supreme ruler
Elizabeth tried to make religion acceptable to Catholics
Puritans – wanted to eliminate all traces of Catholicism from Anglican church
Foreign Policy – tried to avoid alliances and wars
Encouraged English seamen to raid foreign ships
Secretly sent aid to French Huguenots & Dutch Calvinists to weaken
France & Spain
Avoided alliances that would bring England into war
Conflict with Spain
Philip II grew tired of England’s involvement in the Netherlands
The Spanish Armada (1588)
Set sail to invade England
Armada was routed
Exploration
Means
Centralization of political authority
Monarchies had the resources & authority to finance these
expenditures
Maps
Ptolemy’s Geography (printed editions 1477)
Written in 2nd Century A.D.
Depicted a round earth, 3 continents, two oceans
Circumference of Earth was dramatically undersized
Columbus and other explorers thought they could easily
circumnavigate the globe
Ships and Sailing
Previous sailors used the Pole Star for navigation
But it was useless south of the equator
Naval technology
• Axial rudder, lateen sails, compass, astrolabe
Knowledge of wind patterns
The Development of a
Portuguese Maritime Empire
Prince Henry the Navigator (1394 – 1460)
Founded a school for navigators
During his reign, Portuguese sailors explored the west
coast of Africa
The Portuguese in India
Bartholomeu Dias (c. 1450 – 1500)
• Rounded Cape of Good Hope
Vasco da Gama (c. 1460 – 1524)
• Reaches India by rounding Cape of Good Hope
• Returned with spices such as ginger and cinnamon
Alfonso d’Albuquerque (1462 – 1515)
• Commercial – Military bases (Goa)
In Search of Spices
Portuguese expansion
• Set up trading posts in India & China, established
spice trade
• Used military and naval advantage to seize control
of spice trade from Muslim traders
Reasons for Portuguese success
• Guns & Seamanship
Why were the Portuguese so well
positioned for overseas exploration?
Voyages to the New World
Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1506)
Knowledgeable Europeans knew the Earth was round
but it was smaller than it actually is
Tried to reach Asia by sailing west
Reached the Bahamas (Oct. 12, 1492)
Additional voyages (1493, 1498, and 1502)
Carried with him a copy of Marco Polo’s Travels
Additional Discoveries
John Cabot – explored New England coastline (Henry VII)
Pedro Cabral – (Portuguese) discovered South American coastline
Amerigo Vespucci – accompanied several voyages
• wrote letters describing new world
• Name “America” come from his name
Treaty of Tordesillas
1494 – divided up the newly discovered
world between the Spanish and the
Portuguese
Dividing line gave all of the New World to
Spain except Brazil.
The Portuguese got Brazil and everything
east
The Spanish Empire in the New
World
Early Civilizations in Mesoamerica
The Maya (300 A.D.-800 A.D.)
The Aztecs (1200 A.D.-1500s A.D.)
The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire
Hernan Cortés (1485 – 1547)
• Marched to Tenochtitlan making alliances
Moctezuma (Montezuma)
• Initially thought Cortes was a God
Aztec Empire overthrown
• Small pox and allies
Administration of the Spanish Empire
Encomienda – system of tribute and labor for
Spaniards
• Made the Indians basically slaves to the Spanish
Dominican friars began to voice their concern
over the harsh treatment of the Indians
• Bartolome de Las Casas was the most vocal
opponent of the encomienda system
Viceroys – King’s chief military & civil officer
The Church – mass conversions
Africa: The Slave Trade
New Rivals
European powers began establishing forts in Africa to dominate the trade
in gold
The Dutch Republic began to take over the spice trade from Portugal
Origins of the Slave Trade
Sugar cane and slavery
• Indian population was decimated by disease
African climate and soil weren’t suited to grow sugar cane
Growth of the Slave Trade
Up to 10,000,000 African slaves taken to the Americas between the
Sixteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
The Middle Passage (trip across the Atlantic): high death rate during
transit
• 300 to 450 slaves per ship (loose pack or tight pack)
• Trip took a little over 3 months
• Approx. 10% of slaves died on voyage
Prisoners of war (Slave trade increased wars between African tribes)
Triangle Trade – Europe to Africa to Americas, then back to Europe
• Europeans traded goods for slaves, sold the slaves, kept some profit, bought
more goods and started the cycle over again
What social and economic forces drove the
Slave Trade?
Mercantilism
Mercantilism is a set of economic principles that came to
dominate economic practices in the 17th century
Belief that the total volume of trade unchangeable
Economic activity = war through peaceful means
One nation could expand its trade at the expense of another nation
Importance of bullion (gold & silver) and favorable
balance of trade
Export valuable goods to New World
Import Bullion to European states
State Intervention in the economy was desirable for the
sake of the national good.
What economic changes occurred in
Europe as a result of Mercantilism and
Capitalism?
The Columbian Exchange
Reciprocal importation and exportation
(exchange) of plants and animals between
the New World and Europe
Europe exported Wheat, grapevines, olive
trees, horses, cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep
to the New World
Europe imported tomatoes, peanuts,
peppers, beans, squash, sweet potatoes, and
manioc from the New World
European States
The Witchcraft Craze
Witchcraft existed for centuries as a traditional
village culture
Medieval church connected witchcraft to the
devil, making it an act of heresy
Establishment of the Inquisition in the 13th
century, increased prosecutions and executions
Accusations against witches
• Allegiance to the devil
• Attended sabbats
• Use of evil incantations or potions
Reasons for witchcraft prosecutions
• Religious uncertainty (areas of strife between Protestants &
Catholics)
• Social conditions – old single women cut off from charity by
the new emphasis on capitalism over communal interests
became the scapegoats when problems arose
Women as primary victims
• Most theologians, lawyers, & philosophers believed women
were inferior to men & more susceptible to witchcraft
Begins to subside by mid-seventeenth century
• Fewer judges were willing to prosecute accused witches
• A more educated populous questioned the old view of a world
haunted by spirits
What does the witchcraft craze tell us
about European society and the place of
women in that society in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries?
The Thirty Years War
(1618 – 1648)
Background
Religious conflict (militant Catholicism & militant Calvinism)
Secular, dynastic-nationalist considerations were more important
Tensions in the Holy Roman Empire
• Most of the fighting took place in Germany, but it was a Europe wide
struggle
• Conflict for European leadership
• Between: Bourbon dynasty of France vs.
Habsburg dynasty of Spain & Holy Roman Empire
Posturing for war (think alliance system)
• Frederick IV of Palatinate (Calvinist) formed the Protestant Union
• Duke Maximilian of Bavaria (Catholic) formed the Catholic League
of German States
• Germany divided into two armed alliances along religious lines
• Holy Roman Emperors looked to relatives in Spain to help
consolidate their authority in the German States
• German princes looked to Spain’s enemy France for support
The Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)
Bohemian estates accepted Habsburg Archduke
Ferdinand as their king
Ferdinand set about re-catholicizing Bohemia
Protestants rebelled in 1618, deposing Ferdinand &
electing Protestant ruler Frederick V of Palatinate (head
of Protestant Union)
Ferdinand is elected Holy Roman Emperor & returned
with the help of Maximilian of Bavaria & the Catholic
League
Imperial forces & Spanish retook Bohemia & captured
Palatinate by 1622
The Danish Phase (1625 – 1629)
•King Christian IV of Denmark intervened on the
Protestant side
•Formed alliances with United Provinces & England
•Christian IV’s forces were defeated, ending Danish
supremacy in the Baltic Sea
•Emperor Ferdinand II issued the Edict of Restitution
(1629)
•Prohibited Calvinist worship
•Restored property to the Catholic church
The Swedish Phase (1630 – 1635)
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden enters the war
Gustavus’s army defeated imperial forces & moved into central
Germany
Imperial forces defeat the Swedes at the battle of Nordlingen, ensuring
that southern Germany would remain Catholic
The emperor tried to use this victory to make peace by annulling the
Edict of Restitution of 1629
The peace failed because the Swedes wished to continue fighting & the
French Catholics under Cardinal Richelieu were about to enter the war
on the Protestant side
The Franco-Swedish Phase (1635 –
1648)
• Battle of Rocroi (1643) French defeat Spanish troops,
ending Spain’s military greatness
• French defeat Bavarian & Imperialist armies in Southern
Germany
• War in Germany ends in 1648 but continues between the
French & Spanish until 1659
Outcomes of the 30 year war
Peace of Westphalia (1648)
•
•
•
•
All German states were free to determine their own religion
France & Sweden gained territory
Holy Roman emperor reduced to a figurehead
Made clear that religion & politics were now separate
Social and economic effects
• Decline in German Population
• Some areas of Germany were devastated, others were
untouched & experienced economic growth
• Most destructive European war to date
Outcomes continued
Peace of Pyrenees (1659)
Ends the conflict between France & Spain
Spain becomes a 2nd class power
France emerges as the dominant European nation
Some historians feel the 30 years (1618-1648) should
actually be called the 50 years war (1609-1659)
stretching from the formation of the Protestant Union &
Catholic League to the Peace of Pyrenees
A Military Revolution?
War and Politics in Seventeenth-Century Europe made it
essential that a ruler had a powerful military
New Tactics
Battalions of infantry armed with pikes became superior to cavalry
Gustavus Adolphus employed a standing army (conscripts) instead
of mercenaries
Mixed musketeers with pikemen effectively (volley of shots
followed by a rush)
Adolphus used a similar strategy with cavalry
New Technologies
Firearms, cannons, standing armies, mobile tactics
The Cost of a Modern Military
Heavier taxes making war an economic burden
State bureaucracy grew and so did the power of state government
What was the “military revolution” and
what effect did it have on warfare in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
Absolute Monarchy in France
Absolutism – sovereign power or ultimate
authority in the state rested in the hands of a king
who claimed to rule by divine right
Foundations of French Absolutism
Political Theorist Jean Bodin defined sovereign power
as authority to:
• Make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state &
determine foreign policy
Bishop Jacques Bossuet wrote:
Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture –
God established kings so their rule was divine
Cardinal Richelieu (1624 – 1642)
Cardinal Richelieu (1624 – 1642)
• Louis XIII’s chief advisor
• Initiated policies that strengthened the monarchy
• Eliminated political & military rights of Huguenots (French
Calvinists) but preserved their religious ones
• Transformed the Huguenots into more reliable subjects
• Eliminated noble threats to the crown
• Sent out royal officials (intendants) to reform & strengthen the
central government
• Richelieu ran the crown into debt
 Mismanagement of funds & 30 Years’ War expenditures
The Reign of Louis XIV (1643 – 1715)
Louis XIV took control of France at the age of 23
Administration of the Government
Domination and bribery
• Dominated the actions of ministers and secretaries
• Stacked the royal council with loyal followers from new
aristocratic families
• Issued bribes to control provinces and the people who ran
them
Religious Policy “One King, one law, one faith”
Edict of Fontainebleau (1685)
• Revoked the Edict of Nantes (1598)
• Destruction of Huguenot churches & closing of Protestant
schools
• Over 200k Huguenots left France, weakening the economy &
strengthening Protestant opposition to Louis in other countries
Palace at Versailles
Daily Life at Versailles
Purposes of Versailles
• Intended to overawe subjects & impress foreign dignitaries
• Housed royal officials & princes
Court life and etiquette
• Set the standard for European monarchies
• Princes & nobles were arranged according to seniority
 Real purpose was to exclude them from power by including them
in the life of the king at Versailles
The Wars of Louis XIV
The Wars of Louis XIV
Professional army: 100,000 men in peacetime; 400,000 in wartime
Louis XIV waged war to insure French dominance in Europe and
preserve the Bourbon dynasty
Four wars between 1667 – 1713
• Invasion of Spanish Netherlands (1667-1668)
 Triple Alliance (English, Dutch & Swedes) forced Louis to sue
for peace (received a few towns in the Spanish Netherlands)
• Dutch War (1672-1678)
 Louis invaded the United Provinces leading Brandenburg, Spain,
& the Holy Roman Empire to form a coalition to stop him
 Received Franche-Comte from Spain
• Annexation of Alsace and Lorraine, occupation of Strasbourg
(1679) led to new opposition.
Louis’s Wars
• War of the League of Augsburg (1689 – 1697)
 Spain, The Holy Roman Empire, the United
Provinces, Sweden, & England formed the
League of Augsburg
 Caused economic depression and famine in
France
 Treaty of Ryswick ended the war causing Louis
to give up most of the territory he had previously
gained
Louis’s Wars
• War of the Spanish Succession (1702 – 1713)
 Louis’s grandson was set to inherit the Spanish throne,
(Phillip V) scaring neighboring countries about a united
Spain & France
 Coalition of England, United Provinces, Habsburg Austria,
& the German states opposed France & Spain
 Peace of Utrecht (1713)
 Confirmed Phillip V as ruler of Spain
 Affirmed thrones would remain separate
 Coalition gained French & Spanish territory
 England emerges as a strong naval force, gaining
territory in America from France
 Louis XIV died 2 years later, leaving France broke
and surrounded by enemies.
Define absolutism and determine to what
extent France’s government in the
seventeenth century can be labeled an
absolute monarchy.
Absolutism in Central and
Eastern Europe
The German States
The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia
• The Hohenzollern Dynasty
• Frederick William the Great Elector (1640 – 1688)
 Army (standing army of 40K men)
 General War Commissariat to levy taxes
 Evolved into an agency for civil government
 Reinforced serfdom through concessions to the nobles
 Used Mercantilist Policies
 High tariffs, subsidies, & monopolies
• Frederick III (1688 – 1713)
 Aided Holy Roman Empire in the War of Spanish Succession
 In return, he was granted the title King of Prussia (1701)
The Reign of Peter the Great
(1689 – 1725)
Visits the West (1697 – 1698)
Seeks to modernize Russia
Mostly technical
Reorganizes armed forces
Modernized military – standing army of 210,000
Created a navy
Reorganizes central government
Divides Russia into provinces
Seeks control of the Russian Church
Introduces Western Customs
No spitting on floor or scratching oneself at dinner
Cutting off beards and coats
The Reign of Peter the Great
Positive Impact of Reforms on Women
Upper class women were encouraged to mingle with men
Women could choose who they wanted to marry
“Open a window to the West”
A port easily accessible to Europe
Attacks Sweden
Battle of Narva (1700)
• 8,000 Swedes defeat 40,000 Russians
Great Northern War (1701 – 1721)
Battle of Poltava (1709)
• Russian army defeats Swedish army
Peace of Nystadt (1721)
• Russia gains control of Estonia, Livonia and Karelia
St. Petersburg
“Window to the West” (port in the Baltic Sea)
New Russian capital
England & Constitutional Monarchy
James I (1603 – 1625) and the House of Stuart
Took over after Elizabeth’s death
Claimed he ruled by Divine Right of Kings
Parliament and the power of the purse
Religious policies
• The Puritans controlled most of the lower House of Commons
Charles I (1625 – 1649)
Petition of Right
• Prevented any taxation without Parliament’s consent
“Personal Rule” (1629 – 1640): Parliament does not meet
• Charles I tries to collect taxes without Parliament
• Forced to call Parliament to raise tax money to fight Scottish rebellion
Religious policy angers Puritans
• Charles I married a Catholic (Louis XIII’s sister Henrietta)
• Charles I calls Parliament and the members make changes to limit
royal authority
• Charles I arrests radical members of Parliament and Parliament rebels
starting the English Civil War
Civil War (1642 – 1648)
Oliver Cromwell
New Model Army – effective against Royalists
Extreme Puritans who believed they were fighting for God
1st phase
Charles I is captured after 1st Phase of Civil War (1646)
Charles I escaped and got the Scotts to help invade England
Charles I is captured, tried, & executed (Jan. 30, 1649)
Parliament abolishes the monarchy
Cromwell dissolves Parliament (April 1653)
Cromwell divides country into 11 regions ruled by military
Cromwell dies (1658)
Army reestablishes the monarchy, Charles II
Restoration & a Glorious Revolution
Charles II (1660 – 1685)
Reestablished Anglican church
Parliament suspected he was Catholic because his brother James
was
Charles II passed Declaration of Indulgence (1672)
Suspended laws passed by Parliament against Catholics and
Puritans
Parliament passed Test Act (1673) – Only Anglicans could
hold military and civil offices
James II (1685 – 1688)
Devout Catholic
Issued new Declaration of Indulgence (1687)
Protestant daughters: Mary and Anne
Catholic son born in 1688
Parliament invites Mary and her husband, William of Orange, to
invade England
James II, wife and son flee to France
Mary and William of Orange offered throne
(1689)
Bill of Rights
Affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws & tax
laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy
The Toleration Act of 1689
Granted Puritans right to free public worship
Ironically the Toleration Act still didn’t tolerate
Catholics
Responses to the Revolution
Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679)
Leviathan (1651)
People form a commonwealth for protection
People have no right to rebel
Believed in strong government to maintain social order
John Locke (1632 – 1704)
Two Treatises of Government
Inalienable Rights: Life, Liberty and Property
People form a government to protect their rights
If government does not fulfill their social contract with
the people, the people have the right to revolt
Scientific Revolution
Toward a New Heaven: A
Revolution in Astronomy
Greatest Achievements in the Scientific
Revolution of the 16th & 17th centuries came in the
fields dominated by the ideas of the Greeks
Astronomy, mechanics, & medicine
Aristotle, Claudius Ptolemy and Christian
Theology
Ptolemaic view – Geocentric model
Geocentric Universe
Motionless Earth was the center of the universe
Ten Spheres surrounded the Earth – Mercury, Venus,
the sun, Mars Jupiter, Saturn and the fixed stars
According to Aristotle, spheres moved in a circle
around Earth
Christianized Ptolemaic Universe
• Beyond the spheres was Empyrean Heaven – location of God
and all of the saved souls
• Christian Ptolemaic universe had a fixed outer boundary
What were the roots of the Scientific
Revolution?
Copernicus
Copernicus (1473-1543)
Studied mathematics & astronomy in his native Poland
& later Italy
Tried to create a simpler explanation but develops a
theory nearly as complicated as Ptolemy
On The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres
• Didn’t publish it until right before his death for fear of ridicule
Heliocentric Universe – sun centered universe
• Based on observations of earlier astronomers and his own
observations
• Everything seemed to rotate around Earth because Earth was
rotating
• Creates doubt about the Ptolemaic system & Aristotle’s
astronomy
• Copernicus and his theory were denounced by Protestant
leaders (Luther)
• Catholics did not denounce them until Galileo
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
Danish nobleman who built an observatory at
Uraniborg castle
Recorded astronomical data on positions &
movements of planets & stars
Rejected Aristelian-Ptolemaic system but was
unable to accept Copernicus’ model
Brahe thought the planets orbited the sun and the
sun orbited the earth
Took on an assistant in Prague, named Johannes
Kepler
A Revolution in Astronomy,
Continued
Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630)
Originally a student of theology
Interest in Hermetic thought and Mathematical
magic
• Believed mathematical relationships were the basis
for all nature not just on earth but the universe
• “Music of the Spheres”
 Harmony or mathematical concept of movement of
heavenly spheres
• Convinced that celestial bodies effected things on
earth
• The moon’s orbit effected the tides on earth
Laws of Planetary Motion
• Orbits of planets were not circular, but elliptical
• Speed of a planet differs depending on proximity to
the sun
• Planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower
average velocity
Discredits Aristotelian-Ptolemaic System
• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion gained
acceptance in the scientific community
Confirmed Copernicus’ heliocentric theory
Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)
Galileo
Mathematics professor
1st European to observe the heavens with a
Telescope
• Discovered 4 moons of Jupiter, mountains & craters
on moon, sunspots
Observed that celestial bodies were made up of
the same natural properties as Earth
The Starry Messenger – published his findings
• Did more to further the new picture of the universe
than Copernicus and Kepler’s mathematical theories
• Supported the heliocentric system
Galileo and the Church
Condemned by the Church
• Roman Inquisition condemned Copernicanism &
ordered Galileo to reject the Copernican thesis
• The church would allow Galileo to discuss
Copernicanism as long as he maintained it was a
mathematical supposition not a fact
• The Church attacked Copernican System
 The heavens were no longer a spiritual world but a world
of matter
 Humans were no longer the center of the universe
 God was no longer in a specific place
 The Copernican System raised so many uncertainties that
it was easier to condemn it than sort it out.
Galileo and the Church
Galileo does not accept the church’s condemnation
of his findings
In 1632, he publishes Dialogue on the Two Chief
World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican
Written in Italian rather than Latin
Book supports Copernican system & Galileo was called
before the Inquisition again in 1633
• Found guilty & forced to recant his errors and placed on house
arrest for the remaining 8 years of his life while he studied
mechanics
• Discovered the principle of inertia
Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727)
Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge University
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1684 –
1686): The Principia
Three Laws of Motions
Universal Law of Gravity – mathematical proof that could
explain all motion in the universe
World seen in mechanistic terms (world-machine) – the
universe was one giant machine that operated according to
natural laws
God – Newton believed God was everywhere and served
as the force that moved the bodies
Newton’s ideas were accepted in Great Britain
immediately, but not for another century in continental
Europe
What was the Newtonian world-machine
theory?
Toward a New Earth: Descartes,
Rationalism, and a New View of
Humankind
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)
Discourse on Method (1637)
“I think, therefore I am.”
• Justified his own existence
Separation of mind and matter
• “mind cannot be doubted, but the body and material world can, the
two must be radically different”
Cartesian Dualism – absolute duality between body and mind
• Using human reason (mathematics) humans can understand the
material world and its mechanisms
Father of modern rationalism (logic)
• Matter was dead or inert
Books will be banned by Catholics and Protestants
The Spread of Scientific
Knowledge
The Scientific Method
Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626)
•
•
•
•
•
Rejects Copernicus and Kepler; Misunderstands Galileo
The Great Instauration (The Great Restoration)
Correct Scientific Method built on inductive principles
Proceed from the particular to the general
Experimentation & Observation to support hypothesis
Descartes
• Deduction and mathematical logic (empiricism)
Newton
• Unites Bacon’s empiricism and Descartes rationalism
• Became the key figure in the Scientific Revolution
• Inspired search for natural laws in other fields
Compare the methods used by Bacon and
Descartes.
Science and Society
People recognized Science’s rational
superiority
Science offered new ways to make profit
and maintain social order.
Science became part of elite culture and carried
status in society
Science and Religion
Conflict between Science and Religion
Religion rejects scientific discoveries that contradict the
Christian view of the world
Scientific beliefs triumph and religious beliefs suffer
Leads to a growing secularization in European
intellectual life
Enlightenment
The Enlightenment
Enlightenment thinkers used the scientific
method to analyze & understand all aspects of
human life
• German philosopher Immanuel Kant came up with a
motto for the Englightenment
 “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own
intelligence!”
Popularization of Science
• Bernard de Fontenelle (1657 – 1757), Plurality of
Worlds
 He was a skeptic who portrayed the church as an enemy of
scientific progress
 Provided a link between scientists of the 17th century &
philosophes of the 18th century
The Legacy of Locke & Newton
Newton
Using Newtown’s Natural Reason to discover natural
laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion,
and the arts
Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Knowledge derived from the environment
Denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas
• Instead believed people were born with a tabula rasa (a blank
mind)
Both Thinkers provided inspiration for the
Enlightenment to use rational reasoning to discover
natural laws of society
What was the significance of John Locke
and Isaac Newton on the Enlightenment?
Montesquieu & Political Thought
Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu
(1689-1755)
Persian Letters, 1721
Attacks traditional religion, advocacy of religious
toleration, denunciation of slavery, French monarchy
The Spirit of the Laws, 1748; comparative study of
government
• Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the
social & political arena to develop natural laws governing
social relationships
• Advocated a separation of powers between branches of the
government (based on English model)
Voltaire and the Enlightenment
Francois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire (1694-1778)
Best known for his criticism of religious intolerance
Published a translation of Newton’s Principia with the
Marquise du Chatelet (his mistress)
Philosophic Letters on the English, 1733
Spoke of England’s freedoms (press, political, & religious)
Treatise on Toleration, 1763
Argued for religious toleration
Candide – (Optimism) satire on the philosophy of Leibniz
Deism – Religious outlook based on the Newtonian world
machine model
Viewed God as the master mechanic who built the universe but
allows it to operate under its own natural laws
Diderot and the Encyclopedia
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Encyclopedia, 28 volumes
Many of the contributors were philosophes
Attacked religious superstition and
advocated toleration
Lowered price helped to spread the ideas of
the Enlightenment
What specific contributions did
Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot make
to the age of the Enlightenment?
Adam Smith & Laissez-Faire
Economics
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
The Wealth of Nations, 1776
• Best statement on Laissez-Faire
Attack on mercantilism
• Condemned tariffs
• It is better to purchase a cheap product than produce an
expensive one
Advocate of free trade
A nations true wealth came from its labor
Government has only three basic functions
•
•
•
•
Protect society from invasion (army)
Defend individuals from injustice and oppression (police)
Keep up public works (roads, canals etc.)
Smith & Physiocrats laid the foundation for economic
liberalism
Rousseau and the Social Contract
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind;
preservation of private property had enslaved the mass
of society
• Government was a necessary evil
Social Contract, 1762; Tried to harmonize individual
liberty with governmental authority
Concept of General Will – social contract was an
agreement by an entire society to let someone govern
them
Emile, 1762; important work on education raising kids
• Education should foster children’s natural instincts rather than
restrict them
Major influence on the development of Romanticism
• Rousseau sought a balance between the heart & the mind
(sentiment & reason)
What were the major ideas of JeanJacques Rousseau?
The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century
High Culture vs Popular Culture
High Culture – literary & artistic world of educated & wealthy
Popular Culture – written & unwritten (oral) lore of the masses
Expansion of Publishing and Reading Public
Development of magazines & newspapers for the general public
• Enormous impact on European high culture
Newspapers were distributed free at coffeehouses
England was at the forefront of publishing and coffeehouse culture
aimed at the newly emerging literate middle class
Education and Universities
Secondary schools
Attended mostly by the elite of society
Did not promote social mobility
• Curriculum focused mainly on the classics
• Math, science, foreign language & accounting start to be included in
the late 18th century
What were the differences between “high
culture” and “popular culture?”
18th Century European States
The European States
18th Century Europe
Period between 1715-1789
End of the Reign of Louis XIV & start of French
Revolution
Rise of centralized governments, efficient taxation &
standing armies
Enlightened Absolutism?
Utilitarianism – ethical theory that actions should look
to attain the greatest happiness for the greatest number
of people
Natural Rights
• Equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom
of speech and press and the to right to assemble, hold property
& seek happiness
• Influenced writers of the Declaration of Independence
Enlightened Absolutism







How they were to rule?
Religious Toleration
Freedom of speech and press
Right to hold private Property
Must obey the laws and enforce them fairly
Foster the arts, science & education
Reforms should come from the rulers rather than the
masses
Rulers such as Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia,
and Joseph II of Austria are examples of rulers influenced by
Enlightenment Ideas
Idea of Divine Right was gradually replaced by enlightened absolutism
What does the phrase “enlightened
politics” mean?
The Atlantic Seaboard States
France: Problems of the French monarchs
• 18th Century France lost an empire & acquired debt
• Louis XIV left France with a huge debt, unhappy
people and an empire to large to run
• Louis XV (1715 – 1774)
 5 years old when he became king
 Duke of Orleans ruled for him until Cardinal Fleury
took over
 Fleury expanded trade, industry and balanced the
budget briefly until he died in 1743
 Louis XV decided he was ready to rule
 Louis XV was weak and easily influenced
 He lost territory in the Seven Years’ War, taxed to
much and spent to much
• Louis XVI (1774 – 1792)
 20 year old grandson of Louis XV and husband of Marie
Antoinette
 France’s financial burden worsened leading towards
revolution
 Concerned primarily with life in the court at Versailles
 People began to resent the royal attitude of Louis XVI and
his Austrian wife
Great Britain: King & Parliament
United Kingdom of Great Britain, 1707 (England & Scotland unite)
18th Century British Politics
Shared power between king and Parliament
• Parliament slowly gaining the upper hand
The King’s Ministers
Set policy and guided Parliament
Parliament
Makeup - Peers who sat for life in the House of Lords and landed
gentry who sat in the House of Commons and served as justices of
the peace in the counties
Power to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget
Parliamentary elections
• Deputies to the House of Commons were chosen from boroughs &
counties, not by popular vote
• “Pocket Boroughs” controlled by a single person
Hanoverians – George I (r. 1714 – 1727) and George II (r.
1727 – 1760) German kings took over after the Stuart line
failed to produce a male heir
Robert Walpole (prime minister, 1721 – 1742)
• More or less ran the country for the Hanoverian Kings
• Pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes
William Pitt, the Elder (prime minister, 1757 – 1761)
• Advocated expansion of trade and world empire
• Acquired Canada & India in the Seven Years’ War
• Replaced by King George III
King George III
Increased power of king’s ministers to issue patronage
Absolutism in Central and
Eastern Europe
Prussia: The Army and The Bureaucracy
Frederick William I, 1713-1740
General Directory (central government)
Highly efficient bureaucracy
Army
• Junkers (nobles)
 Monopoly over officer corps
 Nobles had a sense of service to the king
Junkers dominated social and military affairs in
Prussia during the 18th Century
Frederick II, the Great, 1740-1786
Well educated
• Enlightenment thought
• One of the most cultured European monarchs
Reforms: Law code, Civil liberties
Socially and politically conservative
• Did not interfere with serfdom, since he was to dependent on
the nobles
• Made Prussian society more aristocratic
Use of the army
• Expansion of Prussian territory
 Gained the Austrian province of Silesia
The Austrian Empire of the
Hapsburgs
Empress Maria Theresa, 1740-1780
Austria culturally divided
Practical but conservative reforms to strengthen the
Hapsburg state
Austrian empire became more centralized
Joseph II, 1780-1790
Reforms (influenced by the Enlightenment)
•
•
•
•
Abolishes serfdom
New penal code (no more death penalty)
Religious toleration
Radical reforms overwhelming for Austria
 6,000 decrees & 11,000 laws
 Alienated the nobles & the church
Russia Under Catherine the Great,
1762-1796
Reform (influenced by philosophes)
Instruction, 1767
• Questioned serfdom, torture, capital punishment & advocated
equal justice
• Accomplished little due to heavy opposition and were soon
forgotten.
Strengthens landholders at expense of serfs
Divided Russia into 50 provinces, which were
subdivided into districts controlled by nobles
Gentry had the right to trial by peers, & exemption
from personal taxation & corporal punishment
Rebellion of Emelyan Pugachev, 1773-1775
Conditions for peasants worsened leading to a revolt
Encouraged peasants to seize their landlords’ estates
Russian Cossack who launched a revolt
Encouraged peasants to rise up and overthrow their
landlords (1500 estate owners were killed)
Pugachev was betrayed, captured, tortured & killed
Peasants were repressed even more
Territorial Expansion
Westward into Poland and Southern expansion into the
Ottoman Empire
Expanded Russian territory at the expense of the Turks
Enlightened Absolutism Revisited
Only Joseph II sought radical changes based on
Enlightenment ideas
Catherine the Great & Frederick II liked the ideas of the
Enlightenment, but their reforms were limited
Political and Social Limits on Reform
Reforms were usually limited to changes in
administrative & judicial systems
Enlightened absolutism could not overcome the
political and social realities of the time.
Wars and Diplomacy
European Rivalries
The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 – 1748)
A world war?
• Balance of Power
• Pragmatic Sanction
 Charles VI had European powers agree to recognize his daughter
Maria Theresa as his legal heir
 Frederick II of Prussia took advantage of the Maria Theresa by
invading & taking Silesia
 Thought the fundamental rule of government was to expand
territory
 Maria Theresa made an alliance with Great Britain who feared
French domination of Europe
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle promised the return of all territories
except Silesia
 Prussia’s refusal to return Silesia guaranteed another war with
Austria
Seven Years’ War (1756 – 1763)
Diplomatic revolution
• Russia, France & Austria vs. Great Britain & Prussia
• Maria Theresa refuses to recognize the loss of Silesia
• Habsburgs (Austria) and Bourbons (France) making an alliance
European war
• Frederick II (The Great) of Prussia held off armies of France,
Russia, & Austria, but they gradually wore his troops down
• Peter III comes to power in Russia & withdraws his troops
from Prussia
• War ends in a stalemate
• Peace of Hubertusberg in 1763 – occupied territories returned
& Prussia officially gets Silesia
Economic Expansion & Social
Conditions (cont)
An Agricultural Revolution
Started in Great Britain
Increased food production
More farmland
• Stopped leaving fields fallow
• Planted crops to feed livestock & replenish nitrogen in the soil
Increased yield per acre
• Use of hoe to bring air & moisture to the soil
more livestock
• Extra crops kept them feed through the winter
• Provided manure to fertilize crops
better climate
• Little ice age was over
New methods and new crops
• Corn and potatoes brought from New World (Columbian Exchange)
Enclosure
• Fencing off farmland
New Methods of Finance
National debt
• Issued government bonds which yielded interest
• National debt was different than a monarchy’s debt
National Banks
• Circulation of paper bank notes that replaced gold
and silver as currency
European Industry
Cottage industry
Spinners and weavers worked in their own cottages
• Entrepreneurs bought raw materials and sent them out to
cottage industries to be sewed into garments
• Then the finished good was sold for a profit
New methods and new machines
• Flying shuttle
• Water frame
French Revolution
The American Revolution
French support
Aided colonists with money and troops
French army and navy helped the colonists defeat British General
Cornwallis at Yorktown
Forming a New Nation
Articles of Confederation, 1781-1789
Constitution, 1789
• Bill of Rights, 1791
• Checks and Balances
Impact of the American Revolution on Europe
Concept of freedom
Concept of rights
French army and navy officers brought American political and
moral ideas back to Europe
What impact did the American Revolution
have on Europe?
Background to the French Rev
Social Structure of the Old Regime
• First and Second Estates dominated society
 First Estate = clergy (130,000)
 Owned 10% of land
 Exempt from France’s chief tax
 Second Estate = nobility (350,000)
 Owned 25-30% of the land
 Exempt from taille or tax
French economy was growing in the 18th century, but
money was not distributed to equal segments of society.
The Third Estate
• Commoners
 Peasants = 75-80% of the population
 Peasants own 35-40% of the land
 Serfdom was over, but peasants still paid to use village
facilities such as flour mill, community oven,
 Paid taxes
• Skilled artisans, shopkeepers, and wage earners
• Bourgeoisie (middle class) (8% or 2.3 million)
 Own 20-25% of the land
 Merchants, industrialists, bankers, lawyers, doctors,
writers
 Similarities between wealthier bourgeoisie and nobility
Other Problems Facing the
French Monarchy
Bad Harvests (1787 and 1788)
Food shortages & rising price of food (bread)
Poverty
One-third of the population was poor
Ideas of the Philosophes
Criticism of privileges of the clergy and nobility
Enlightenment writers (especially Rouseau) were influential
Failure to Reform
Obstruction of reform by the French Parlements
Financial Crisis (immediate cause of French Revolution)
Mounting debt
Calonne’s “assembly of notables” (1787) (nobles, prelates,
magistrates)
• Refused to cooperate with the king
Summoning of the Estates General (1789)
• Virtually consenting that public approval was necessary to raise taxes
From Estates-General to a
National Assembly
300 delegates each to the First and Second Estate
Approx. 90 of the nobles were liberal minded (Enlightenment)
600 delegates to the Third Estate
Strong legal and urban presence
Cahiers de doléances (statements of local grievances)
Advocated a regular constitutional government that would abolish
fiscal privileges of the church and nobility
Estates General meets May 5, 1789
Question of voting by order or head
• Third Estate wanted to vote by head (double the
representatives)
• Third Estate wanted to make a single chamber legislature
Abbé Sieyès “What is the Third Estate? Everything.
What has it been thus far in the political order?
Nothing. What does it demand? To become
something.”
• Sieyes desired the Third Estate to have a voice in the Estates
General
Third Estate
June 17, 1789 – Declares itself a National Assembly and
decides to draw up a constitution
Doors were locked to the meeting place so they met at an indoor
Tennis Court
Tennis Court Oath, June 20
• Would continue to meet until they had a French Constitution
Intervention of the Common People
Attack on the Bastille, July 14 (arsenal & prison)
Peasant rebellions, July 19-August 3
Collapse of Royal Authority – saved the National Assembly
Great Fear - fear of invasion by foreign troops aided by an
aristocratic plot
• Led to formation of more citizen militias
French Revolutionary slogan “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity!”
How was France changed by the
revolutionary events of 1789-1792?
Foreign Crisis
Foreign Crisis
Informal coalition of Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain,
& the Dutch Republic were against France
Committee of Public Safety
• Given power to curb anarchy & counterrevolution at home
• Led by Danton and Robespierre
Military losses Mounted
A Nation in Arms
Universal mobilization of the nation
Rise of Nationalism
Raised the largest army in European history
The main accomplishment of the National Convention was
preserving the Revolution from being destroyed by foreign
enemies
The Reign of Terror & Its
Aftermath
Committee of Public Safety and Reign of Terror
July 1793-July 1794
Vendée – areas of rebellion had the highest death rate
Terror demonstrated no class prejudice
• Majority of the victims were from the peasant and laboring classes
• Went after Royalists, Girondins, Vendee
“Republic of Virtue”
Price controls
• Used goods requisitioned from the country for the cities
Women
• Although women contributed to the revolution, they were still limited
politically
Dechristianization and a New Calendar
New calendar
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•
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Word saint was removed from streets
Renamed months & Days (10 Day week)
Removed Christian holidays
Dechristianization failed because France was still a Catholic country
 Created more enemies than friends
Equality and Slavery
Revolt in Saint Dominigue (Haiti)
• Slave revolt was put down but started up again forming the first
independent state in Latin America – Haiti
• Inspired by the ideals of the Revolution
Decline of the Committee of Public Safety
Execution of Maximilien Robespierre, July 28, 1794
• Opposition grew out of fear that they were not safe while Robespierre
was free to act
• His death brought an end to the radical stage of the French Revolution
What role did the Reign of Terror play in
the Revolution?
Reaction and the Directory
Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory
Curtails much of the Terror’s policies
Shut down the Jacobin club and limits the power of the Committee
of Public Safety
Conservative turn of the Revolution
Churches reopened
Laissez-faire policies adopted
Constitution of 1795
Council of Elders (upper house) elects 5 members to act as
executive authority or Directory
Army was used to disperse an insurrection
• Showed that the Directory needed to rely on the military for survival
Rise of Napoleon
Born as both a child of Enlightenment thought and
of the French Revolution
Initially disliked by fellow officers and soldiers
because he was short and had an Italian accent
Well read in Enlightenment thought and military
history
Married Josephine, the wife of a guillotined
general
Rose quickly in the military ranks by defeating the
armies of France’s enemies
The Republic and the Empire
Republic of France proclaimed, 1799
First Consul – controlled the executive branch
First Consul for life, 1802
Crowned Emperor Napoleon I, 1804
Domestic Policies of Emperor Napoleon
Napoleon and the Catholic Church
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•
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•
Concordat of 1801 ended tension with the church
Stabilized Napoleon’s regime
Church land was not returned
Catholicism was not reinstated as the state religion
A New Code of Laws
• Code Napoleon (Civil Code)
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Equality of all citizens before the law
Right of individuals to choose their professions
Religious toleration
Abolition of serfdom and feudalism
Property rights protected
Outlawed trade unions
Restored fathers control over their families
 Divorce was more difficult to obtain
 Husbands controlled property rights
• Civil Code reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution
while creating a uniform legal system
Napoleon’s Empire and the
European Response
Peace of Amiens, 1802 (temporary peace)
Renewal of war, 1803
Military victories, 1805-1807
Napoleon’s Grand Empire
Composed of 3 different parts and united under
Napoleon (French Empire, dependent states, allied
states)
Failure of the Grand Empire
• Problems: Great Britain and Nationalism
 Survival of Britain
 Seapower
 Continental System, 1806-1807 – block British good from
Europe
 Nationalism – spread nationalism to conquered territory,
resulting in uprisings
The Fall of Napoleon
Invasion of Russia, 1812
Invaded over their refusal to follow the Continental System
600,000 soldiers attacked, 40,000 made it out alive
Defeat of Napoleon, April 1814
Exiled to island of Elba
Island off the coast of Italy
Escape from Elba, 1815
Raised an army
Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815
Exiled to St. Helena
Small island in the South Atlantic (between South America and
Africa)
Napoleon died 6 years later