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The Conservative order and Challenges of Reform
Conservatives
Maintain order with monarchs, aristocracy
Nationalists
Redraw the map of Europe
according to ethnic or national
boundaries.
Political Liberals
Political reform (liberties) and a free market.
Threatened monarchies and aristocracy with
equality for all
Enlightenment Ideas and Political equality of the French Revolution and
Napoleonic Codes demanded REFORM but met suppression
Congress of Vienna
Goals:
`
Participants
Achievements
Legitimacy
Restore Bourbons:
France
Spain
Naples
Two Sicilies
Restore Habsburgs:
Tuscany
Modena
Sardinia
Holland
1. Create a lasting peace
2. Prevent another French nightmare
3. Establish a balance of power among European Nations
Big Four
Prussia Von Hardenberg
Russia
England
Castlereagh
Czar Alexander I
Austria
Metternich
Leniency
Encirclement
Compensation
Restored French borders to
1792
United Belgium and Holland
= Netherlands
England – Malta, Ceylon, Cape of
Good Hope
[only lost territories in Italy,
Germany and Low Countries]
Confederation of Germany
[39 states controlled by
Austria]
Austria – Lombardy, Venetia,
Galicia and Illyrian Peninsula
France was not forced to pay
reparations until the 100 Days
Kept art from European
museums
Restore Pope:
Papal States
Switzerland gained
independence
Sardinia united with
Piedmont and Genoa
Prussia – Rhine Valley, 2/5
Saxony, parts of Poland
Russia – Poland,
Finland, Bessarabia
Results:
France Gladly accepted Terms
Rule by Conservatives
Peaceful and reasonable settlements between states and not monarchy [peace
would survive a ruler]
Balance of Power – considered political, economic, resources, technology,
education, industry
Peace for 50 Years
NATIONALISM
MOST POWERFUL POLITICAL IDEOLOGY IN 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES
•
People joined by common language, customs, cultures, history should share
common borders and be governed by their own
•
Same ethnic groups should live within their own political border and not
under the control of another country [Austria, Russia, Germany, Italy]
•
Believed in popular sovereignty - government is created by and subject to
the will of the people.
•
Used historians, teachers and writers to develop national language and
unity- Herder
•
But which ethnic group could do all this and establish and PROTECT their
independence? Smaller ethnic groups within larger nations created unrest.
Areas of unrest:
1.
Ireland
5. Easter Europe (Hungarians, Czechs, Slovenes
2.
Germany
6. Balkans (Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, Romanians)
3.
Italy
4.
Poland
Map of Europe 1815 - 1848
LIBERALISM
•
Challenged political, social or religious values with Enlightenment liberties and French
Revolutionaries ideals.
•
Wanted equality before the law, religious tolerance and freedom of the press
•
Limit the power of the government against its citizens and their property
•
Instead government power came from the people who elected representatives or parliaments
to protect and advocate their demands
•
Required state or royal ministers to be responsible to the people and not the crown
•
These rights would be written in a Constitution
•
Wanted promotion by merit
•
Mostly wealthy, educated people who had been excluded for the political process (bourgeoisie)
who wanted representation extended to a propertied class, not the lower, rural and urban
classes. Privileges would be based on wealth and property, not birth
•
Landed, manufacturing middle classes wanted free trade - removal of tariffs and internal
taxes. Adam’s Smith’s laws of free trade: 1. Self-interest, 2. Competition, 3. Supply and
Demand = more goods and services at lower prices for material progress.
•
Animosity toward aristocrats and lower classes but would use both to their
advantage
How this was achieved depended on different countries and
further separated Western from Eastern Europe
CONSERVATISM
MONARCHIES
ARISTROCRACY
CHURCH
Monarchs had learned to trust aristocracy or aristocrats in
alliance with wealthy middle class after Louis XVI’s death and the
institution of democratic governments.
The aristocracy realized their property and influence was only
safe with monarchs
Churches feared new ideas and realized that they could only
survive by educating the populace to accept social and political
conservatism
Faced new pressures:
Peace gave people time to protest
People faced unemployment
Young had nothing to do but PROTEST
=
REPRESSION
Austrian Suppression
Liberalism and nationalism were most dangerous and threatening to the Hapsburg
empire. (see map). To recognize all national groups within its borders would destroy
the Hapsburg empire. To allow liberals representation in government would allow
nationalists a stage for protest. Assumed authority over the Confederation of
German states 39 under Austrian control
Prussian Suppression
Frederick William II had promised a form of constitutional government but took back the
promise in 1817. He created a Council of State that was not constitutionally based.
When his ministers resigned, he replaced them with hardened conservatives and set up
8 provincial estates or diets dominated by Junkers and gave them limited advisory
functions. Monarchs, army and landholders bonded together. Conservatives were now
poised to suppress nationalists and liberals
Suppression in Confederation of the Rhine
Although Baden, Bavaria and Wurttenberg had constitutions, they did not recognize
popular sovereignty and claimed political rights were “gifts from the monarch.”
University students who remembered Stein and von Hardenburg’s reforms and the
writings of Herder and Fichte kept the dream alive. Student associations called
Burschenschaftens formed to foster loyalty to a united German state.
Jena - student club celebrated victory at Leipzig and 95 thesis with over 500 in
attendance. Made conservatives edgy
1819 Karl Sand assassinated a conservative playwright. He was tried, condemned
and publicly executed as a deterrent
As a result, Carlsbad Decrees dissolved the Burschenschaftens and called for
university inspectors and press censors
Final Act limited subjects that could
addressed in chambers of Baden, Bavaria
and Wurttenburg
England
Western Europe also moved to suppress radicals
TORIES were unprepared for post war problems of poor harvests and unemployment and
only sought to help the landowners and wealthy class
Corn Law - kept high prices on English grain with tariffs on foreign grain (Foreign grain
prices were high so English could raise their grain prices just under import prices)
Abolished Income taxes for wealthy and replaced it with an excise tax on consumer
goods (Double Whammy for lower classes)
Passed Combination Act outlawing unions and called for end to Poor Laws.
No wonder the lower classes called for Parliamentary reform.
The government answer was repression
Coercion Act suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against Sedition
Industrial Manchester called for reform with mass meetings at Saint Peter’s Field.
Royal troops and rioters clashed, 11 killed many injured “Peterloo Massacre.”
Six Acts - forbad large unauthorized public gatherings, raised fines for sedition, sped
up trials for political agitators, prohibited training of armed groups, allowed local official
s to search homes
Cato Conspiracy - half-baked idea to blow up cabinet
Bourbon Kings back in France
Louis XVIII was smart enough to become a constitutional monarch
Charter
Hereditary monarch and 2 house legislature: king appointed upper house, the
lower house, Chamber of Deputies, elected by limited franchise and high property
qualifications. Guaranteed most rights of the revolution, protected property of
current owners and offered religious tolerance.
Decided NOT to challenge property rights of current
landowners.
BUT
Ultraroyalism
Conservatives
Liberals and Nationalists
“White terror” against former revolutionaries and supporters of Napoleon.
Ultraroyalists (aristocrats who lost land) were a majority in Chamber of Deputies
and were so dangerous that assembly was disbanded. New elections brought in
more moderates.
Assassination of Duke of Berri, King Louis was persuaded it was the work of
liberals and changed electoral laws to give wealthy 2 votes, censored press and
arrested political agitators. Education went back under the church. Liberalism
was suppressed.
INTERNATIONAL ORDER PRESERVED
Concert of Europe - Maintain PEACE
PEAR consulted about foreign policy before taking a major
international action to maintain a balance of power between new
French aggression (100 days) and Russian might.
CONGRESS SYSTEM - PEAR removed troops from France
Spanish Revolt of 1820
Bourbon King promised a constitution then revoked promise - disbanded Cortes
(parliament). When army rebelled, Fred VII again promised constitution.
Kingdoms of Naples and 2 Sicilies accepted constitution but revolts made Metternich
nervous
Congress of Troppeau - RAP +EF met and issued Protocol: allowed stable governments
to interfere and restore order in other countries
Congress of Laibach: Austrian troops went into Naples and 2 Sicilies restoring nonconstitutional government
Verona: England left alliance, RAP supported French troops in Spain to stop revolt
Powers did not seek territorial conquests rather international order
England exploited LA revolts to increase trade w/ Monroe Doctrine
Greek Revolution
1830
Controlled by the Ottoman empire, the Greeks took advantage of the “Eastern
Question,” what should European nations do about the inability of the Turks to
maintain political order in its holdings as it weakened. Liberals romanticized about
ancient democracy and supported the revolt. (Byron) Russia and Austria would battle
for control of the Balkans, France and England were interested in its commercial
posts in the eastern Mediterranean and then there was the Holy Land. Of course,
these interests opposed national groups within the Empire who wanted their
independence. Finally FER decided an independent Greece would benefit their
interests and signed the Treaty of London demanding Turks recognize Greek
Independence. Russia sent troops into and gained control of Romania. The Turkish
fleet was defeated at the Battle of Navarino. The second Treaty of London gave
Greeks independence.
Serbia
Also wanted freedom from Ottomans. Karageorge led first revolt that resulted in
national identity. Milo won greater autonomy and continued to push for more territory
from the Turks leading to troubles with Austria, its neighbor.
Status of minority groups like the Muslims also caused tensions. Russia eventually
became Serbia’s protector despite Austrian interests. This alliance is key for WW I.
JUNTAS - political
committees
ARGENTINA
Juntas get independence
for Paraguay and
Uraguay (taken by Brazil)
San Marti led army into
Chile
CHILE
Dictator Brendan
O’Higgins replaced by
San Marti
VENEZUELA
Simon Bolivar, exiled for
his involvement with the
junta, invaded Bogota as
a base for attack on
Venezuela which he
conquered. He (republic)
and Marti
(monarchy)clashed over
Wars for Independence in Latin America
Peninsulars
Creoles
Mestizos
Creoles wanted more trade within LA and NA, resented SP
taxation and peninsulares who received top jobs in government,
the church and army.
Familiar with Enlightenment ideals and Am Rev but the direct
cause for revolt was Napoleon driving Portuguese royal family to
Brazil while Spanish crown in LA was empty.Creoles seized the
opportunity to avoid a liberal Fr. ruler in Spain who would injure
their economic and social demands or drain their economy for
Napoleonic wars. So Juntas, (Creole political groups) claimed
right to govern. Juntas ended Spanish political control and
privileges of peninsulars
Haiti
Slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture and Jean Jacques Dessalines. Unique because independence
came from mestizos. Creoles did not want their socio-economic order shaken.
ARGENTINA (Southern LA)
Junta in Buenos Aires ended Spanish control and sent forces into Paraquay and Uruguay who
eventually achieved independence.
Jose de San Marti led his army over the Andes and into Chile where Chilean independence leader,
Bernardo O’Higgins was dictator. Also led navy to assault Peru and drove out royalists
VENEZUELA (Northern LA)
Simon Bolivar organized junta in Venezuela where civil war between royalists and llaneros fought
against republicans. Exiled for a period of time, Bolivar captured Bogota to use as a base against
Venezuela. The tactic worked and Venezuela was liberated.
Bolivar and Marti’s armies joined forces but a disagreement about rule forces San Marti out.
Bolivar’s defeat of Spanish at Ayacucho marked the end of Spanish rule in LA.
NEW SPAIN (Mexico, Texas, California)
Juntas were organized but were challenged by rebellion from lower classes. Leaders of this
movement, Hidalgo and Pavon were executed proving the Creoles were conservative and did not
want their privileges extended to lower classes. So, creoles supported royalist Iturbide for Mexican
independence.
BRAZIL
Independence can simply and peacefully when Portuguese royal family fled here. Joao
addressed local complaints by expanding trade and made Brazil a kingdom, no longer a colony.
Dom Pedro (Joao’s son) stayed in Brazil and embraced Brazilian independence.
Independence was aided by political leaders who observed destruction of LA wars of
independence and elite had every intention of preserving slavery that had been abolished in
other wars. Any attempt to gain independence with warfare would have caused social and
political unrest opening the slavery question up for debate.
RESULTS:
Wars left LA economically devastated and politically unstable
Wars had been civil wars and left a dissatisfied population
Creoles returned to Spain and LA turned to England for help
Now the Conservative Nations, who suppressed revolt for so long, will
experience direct challenges from Liberals and Nationalists. The
response was suppression in Russia and France but accommodation
in England.
1830 Revolts
Russia
Alex I
Military Officers who drove out Napoleon were exposed to Enlightenment and
Revolutionary ideas. Unable to speak openly because of Alex, they formed secret
societies. The Southern Society, led by Pestel, wanted representative government
and abolition of serfdom. (also thought about independency for Poland and
democracy) The Northern Society favored constitutional monarchy and abolition of
serfdom but wanted protection for aristocratic privileges. They got a chance for a
coup when Alex I died - Dynastic Crisis between Constantine and Nicholas
Decembrist Revolt
When army reported a conspiracy among some officers, Nicholas declared himself
Tsar. December 26th, army was to take an oath of loyalty to Nicholas. All took the
oath except the Moscow regiment who marched into St. Petersburg, called for a
constitution and Constantine as Tsar. Nicholas ordered the cavalry and artillery to
attack. More then 60 were killed. Five plotters were executed and 100 sent to
Siberia
Absolute Rule of Nicholas I
“There is no doubt that serfdom, in its present form, is a flagrant evil which everyone
realizes, yet to attempt to remedy it now would be, of course, an evil more
disastrous.”
Nicholas would lose nobles support so he turned his back on reform and suppressed
with censorship and secret police. BUT he did codify laws.
Instead Nicholas issued Official Nationality - “Orthodoxy, Autocracy and
Revolt
in Poland
Nationalism”
Poland was granted a constitutional government under
the Russian Tsars, but news of revolts in other countries
fostered insurrection among Polish soldiers and students.
The Polish diet declared these a nationalist movement and
deposed the Tsar who sent in troops and issued the
Organic Statute making Poland a part of Russia.
1830 Revolts in France - Ultraconservative - Charles X
Accommodations in France
Angered Liberals by
1.
Paying back emigres with lowered interest rates for government bonds
2.
Reinstituted primogeniture
3. Punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death (helped the Church)
Liberals did receive enough votes in the Chamber of Deputies to get Charles to appoint
conservative ministers and relax censorship. When liberals demand constitutional
monarchy, Charles replaces ministers with ultra-royalists
JULY REVOLTS
When the 1830 election returned liberals to Chamber, Charles tried to seize power.
Taking advantage of French victory against Algiers, Charles issued the Four Ordinances
that restricted freedom of press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, restricted franchise
to wealthiest and called for new elections under this royalist franchise
Now the laborers (lower urban classes) of Paris revolted and took
to the streets, erecting barricades. The king’s troops killed 1,800
during these battles. King was forced to abdicate, Chamber
elected new ministry of Constitutional monarchists and ended
Bourbon Dynasty proclaiming duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe as
Victory King
- Middle Class who averted a monarchy and a republic
July Monarchy of Louis Philippe
Politically - constitutional monarchy, anti-clerical abolished censorship and
franchise expanded a little
Socially - Conservative - economic interests favored the landowners and there
was a great deal of corruption. Also, Louis had little sympathy for lower and
working classes.
When lower class of Paris called for job security, better wages, and preservation
of crafts they were ignored. Workers revolted in 1831, 1832 and 1834 but all
were crushed by government troops.
Belgium
The former Austrian Netherlands was merged with Holland at the
Congress of Vienna. Wanting independence for Nationalist reasons,
the Belgians revolted and defeated the Dutch in 1830 and their
national congress wrote a Liberal Constitution. Lord Palmerston of
England worked had to persuade Europe to accept Belgian
independence and neutrality. Just like Serbia, this would play a large
role in WW I
Reform in England
Great Reform Bill of 1832 conservatives and liberals accommodated each
other
REASONS
Because they were such a large social class, Middle class industrialists’ economic
interests required attention in Parliament
Whigs were in power now and they favored reform
British Cabinet also favored reform to accommodate changing economic and social
shifts BILLS
REFORM
1.
Abolish “rotten boroughs, districts with few voters and replace them with
representatives from large manufacturing districts that never had
representation
2. Number
voters the
fromBill
England
and Wales
would increase
by 50%
House
of Lords of
rejected
until William
IV threatened
to increase
the (200,000)
House of
Lords with new peers who would outvote the old conservatives
Not exactly democratic. For every new urban borough, a rural borough was added
where aristocrats dominated. AND WOMEN STILL DID NOT VOTE.
CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION
Act of Union sent 100 Irish PROTESTANT members to the House of Commons.
Irish Nationalists under O’Connell organized the Catholic Association and won election to
Parliament but was not allowed to be seated
Catholic Emancipation Act allowed Roman Catholics - ended Anglican monopoly and returned
reformers to the House of Commons for the Reform Bill