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General
Psychology
Scripture
• Matthew 5:5
"Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the
earth.
Happy are the meek - They that hold all their
passions and affections evenly balanced. They
shall inherit the earth - They shall have all things
really necessary for life and godliness.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system
refers to a set of glands that
produce chemical
messengers called
hormones.
The Body’s “Slow but Sure”
Endocrine Message System
 The endocrine
system sends
molecules as
messages, just like
the nervous system,
but it sends them
through the
bloodstream instead
of across synapses.
 These molecules,
called hormones,
are produced in
various glands
around the body.
 The messages go to
the brain and other
tissues.
Adrenal Glands
produce hormones such as
adrenaline/epinephrine,
noradrenaline/norepinephrine, and
cortisol.
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
1. The sympathetic
“fight or flight”
nervous system
responds to stress
by sending a
message to
adrenal glands to
release the
hormones listed
above.
2. Effect: increased
heart rate, blood
pressure, and
blood sugar. These
provide ENERGY
for the fight or
flight!
The Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland is the
“master gland” of the
endocrine system.
 It is controlled through
the nervous system by the
nearby brain area--the
hypothalamus.
 The pituitary gland
produces hormones that
regulate other glands
such as the thyroid.
 It also produces growth
hormone (especially
during sleep) and
oxytocin, the “bonding”
hormone.
Pituitary gland
Investigating the
Brain and Mind:
How did we move beyond
phrenology?
How did we get inside the
skull and under the
“bumps”?
by finding what happens
when part of the brain is
damaged or otherwise
unable to work properly
by looking at the structure
and activity of the brain:
CAT, MRI, fMRI, and PET
scans
Strategies for finding out
what is different about the
mind when part of the
brain isn’t working
normally:
case studies of accidents
(e.g. Phineas Gage)
case studies of split-brain
patients (corpus callosum
cut to stop seizures)
lesioning brain parts in
animals to find out what
happens
chemically numbing,
magnetically deactivating,
or electrically stimulating
parts of the brain
Studying cases of brain damage
When a stroke or injury damages part of the brain, we
have a chance to see the impact on the mind.
“He was no longer Gage…”
Before
• – efficient foreman
• – well-balanced mind
• – shrewd smart business man
After
• – Fitful
• – Irreverent, and grossly profane
• – Little deference for his fellows
• – Impatient and obstinate, yet
capricious and
• vacillating
• – Poor planning
There is a Phineas Gage display in the
Warren Medical Museum at Harvard
University
• This is what went through his brain…
Intentional brain damage:
Lesions (surgical
destruction of brain
tissue)
 performed on animals
 has yielded some
insights, especially
about less complex
brain structures
 no longer necessary, as
we now can chemically
or magnetically
deactivate brain areas
to get similar
information
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Clinical Observation
Clinical observations have shed light on a
number of brain disorders. Alterations in brain
morphology due to neurological and
psychiatric diseases are now being catalogued.
Tom Landers/ Boston Globe
Split-Brain Patients
 “Split” = surgery in
which the
connection between
the brain
hemispheres is cut
in order to end
severe full-brain
seizures
 Study of split-brain
patients has yielded
insights discussed at
the end of the
chapter
Images of Brain Activity
Normal Child
Institutionalized Romanian
Orphan
Dark tones show brain areas such as the temporal lobes, which oversee emotion
among other functions, are practically inactive in the Romanian child compared to the
healthy child.
We can stimulate parts of the brain
to see what happens
 Parts of the brain, and even neurons, can
be stimulated electrically, chemically, or
magnetically.
 This can result in behaviors such as
giggling, head turning, or simulated vivid
recall.
 Researchers can see which neurons or
neural networks fire in conjunction with
certain mental experiences, and even
specific concepts.
Monitoring activity in the brain
Tools to read electrical, metabolic, and magnetic
activity in the brain:
EEG:
electroencephalogram
PET: positron emission
tomography
MRI: magnetic
resonance imaging
fMRI: functional MRI
EEG:
electroencephalogram
An EEG (electroencephalogram)
is a recording of the electrical
waves sweeping across the
brain’s surface.
An EEG is useful in studying
seizures and sleep.
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PET: positron emission
tomography
The PET scan allows us to see what
part of the brain is active by
tracing where a radioactive form
of glucose goes while the brain
performs a given task.
MRI: magnetic
resonance imaging
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
makes images from signals produced by
brain tissue after magnets align the spin
of atoms.
The arrows below show ventricular
enlargement in a schizophrenic patient
(right).
fMRI: functional MRI
Functional MRI reveals
brain activity and
function rather than
structures.
Functional MRI
compares successive
MRI images taken a
split second apart, and
shows changes in the
level of oxygen in
bloodflow in the brain.
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Areas of the brain and their functions
The brainstem
and cerebellum:
The limbic
(border) system:
The cortex (the
outer covering):
• coordinates
the body
• manages
emotions, and
connects
thought to
body
• integrates
information
The Brainstem:
Pons and Medulla
The Base of the
Brainstem:
The Medulla
 The medulla controls the most basic functions
such as heartbeat and breathing.
 Someone with total brain damage above the
medulla could still breathe independently, but
someone with damage in this area could not.
The
Brainstem:
The Pons
The pons helps
coordinate automatic
and unconscious
movements.
The Thalamus (“Inner Chamber”)
 The thalamus is the
“sensory switchboard” or
“router.”
 All sensory messages,
except smell, are routed
through the thalamus on
the way to the cortex
(higher, outer brain).
 The thalamus also sends
messages from the cortex
to the medulla and
cerebellum.
Reticular (“Netlike”) Formation
 The reticular formation is a
nerve network in the
brainstem.
 It enables alertness,
(arousal) from coma to
wide awake (as
demonstrated in the cat
experiments).
 It also filters incoming
sensory information.
Cerebellum (“little brain”)
The cerebellum
helps coordinate
voluntary
movement such as
playing a sport.
The cerebellum has many other
functions, including enabling
nonverbal learning and memory.
The Limbic (“Border”) System
The limbic system coordinates:
 emotions such as fear and
aggression.
 basic drives such as hunger
and sex.
 the formation of episodic
memories.
The hippocampus
(“seahorse”)
 processes conscious,
episodic memories.
 works with the amygdala
to form emotionally
charged memories.
The Amygdala (“almond”)
 consists of two lima beansized neural clusters.
 helps process emotions,
especially fear and
aggression.
The Amygdala
 Electrical
stimulation of a
cat’s amygdala
provokes aggressive
reactions.
 If you move the
electrode very
slightly and cage
the cat with a
mouse, the cat will
cower in terror.
The Hypothalamus:
 lies below (“hypo”) the thalamus.
 regulates body temperature and
ensures adequate food and
water intake (homeostasis), and
is involved in sex drive.
 directs the endocrine system via
messages to the pituitary gland.
Thalamus
The Hypothalamus as a Reward Center Riddle: Why did the rat
cross the grid?
Why did the rat want to
get to the other side?
Pushing the pedal that
stimulated the electrode
placed in the
hypothalamus was much
more rewarding than food
pellets.
Review of Brain Structures
Caution
• One should be wary of using pictures of
brain “hot spots” to create a new
phrenology that locates complex functions
in precise brain areas (Uttal, 2001).
• Mental functions don’t reside in any one
place. Memory, language, and attention
result from the synchronized activity
among distinct brain areas (Knight, 2007).
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What Do You See ?
THE END……DNE EHT